Masculine behaviors in cyber dating abuse among athletes: the mediating role of dark personality traits and the moderating effect of digital habits

Abstract

This study examines the effect of masculine behaviors on cyber dating abuse through dark personality traits (Machiavellianism, Psychopathy, and Narcissism) and the moderating role of digital gaming habits. The sample of the study consisted of 1,020 active athletes playing digital games (58.4% male; Age Mean = 21.82, SD = 3.88) who were reached through an online survey. Participants' demographic information, frequency of digital gaming, and preferred game types are presented in detail. Individuals' personality traits and behavioral tendencies were assessed using the Masculinity Scale, the Short Dark Triad Scale, and the Cyber Dating Abuse Scale. Hypotheses were tested using regression-based conditional process analysis with SPSS PROCESS Macro v4.2. Indirect effects were assessed using 95% bias-adjusted confidence intervals obtained from a 5,000-bootstrap sample. An indirect effect was considered significant if the 95% CI did not include zero (α = .05). The research findings indicate that masculine behaviors do not have a significant direct effect on cyber dating abuse. However, indirect and statistically significant effects were found through dark personality traits such as Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism. In particular, the indirect effect through Machiavellianism and Psychopathy was found to be stronger, while narcissism played a weaker but significant mediating role. The frequency of digital gaming and the type of game emerged as an important moderating variable in this relationship. Among participants who played digital games every day, the effect of masculine behavior on cyber dating abuse was found to be significant and positive; among those who played a few days a week or a month, this relationship lost its significance. Furthermore, the effects were positive and significant among those who preferred action-adventure and simulation games, while a negative relationship was observed among those who played sports games. In conclusion, it has been revealed that masculine behaviors affect cyber dating abuse behaviors indirectly through dark personality traits and in the context of digital gaming habits, rather than directly. These findings indicate that digital gaming habits are an important determinant of online interaction patterns.

Introduction

Gender is a structure formed by the learning and repeated reproduction of meanings, expectations, and behavioral patterns related to womanhood and manhood within a culture [34, 37, 49]. Society produces invisible rules that answer questions such as “how should women be, how should men behave” through tools such as family, school, workplace, media, and language, and these rules can be perceived as “natural” over time [26, 42, 63]. Historically, the public sphere (earning a living, decision-making) has been associated more with men, while caregiving, emotional labor, and domestic responsibilities have been associated with women. This division of labor has supported power and opportunity inequalities [11, 16, 54].

In ancient times, femininity and masculinity were seen as two opposing poles that seemed to exclude each other, but more recent approaches show that this does not have to be the case. For example, the psychological androgyny perspective argues that a person can possess both “masculine” and “feminine” traits [3, 10]. Masculinity is also no longer considered a single “essence”; it is now viewed as “multiple masculinities” that vary according to different social conditions (hegemonic, marginal, subjugated, etc.) [11, 13].

Common behavioral patterns associated with masculinity include emotional restraint, the desire to appear strong and independent, competitiveness, risk-taking, and the pursuit of status and control [47, 80]. While these behaviors may be rewarded in some situations (e.g., competitive work environments), they can also lead to negative consequences such as emotional detachment, increased stress, or avoidance of seeking help in other situations [45].

Normative “masculine” behaviors are not always problematic; however, when tendencies toward control, dominance, and emotional distance become rigid, interpersonal relationships can be perceived as more instrumental. Hierarchical structures within hegemonic masculinity push individuals into constant power struggles, which can prevent the formation of genuine emotional bonds [12, 64]. This situation manifests itself, particularly in relationships between men, as avoidance of homosocial closeness and suppression of emotional expression. Over time, these behavioral patterns lead to alienation and instrumentalization in the relationships individuals establish both with themselves and with others [56]. Thus, individuals begin to exist within a relationship network focused solely on power and status, disconnected from their real needs and emotions [12]. This emotional disconnect and pattern of instrumental relationships can pave the way for the development of the dark triad personality traits (Machiavellianism, Psychopathy, Narcissism), characterized by a lack of empathy and a tendency toward manipulation.

The Dark Triad Personality is a lifelong process shaped by an individual's biological characteristics and the meaning they assign to their interactions with the environment [46]. How an individual's personality traits are reflected in their behavior reveals the difference between the positive and dark aspects of personality [40]. Generally, the positive side of personality involves a loving and helpful orientation towards others, while the dark side is negatively related to life satisfaction and strongly linked to socially disruptive outcomes. In current personality research, there is a paradigm shift away from traditional categorical approaches towards a more sophisticated understanding of individual nuances. At the heart of this paradigm shift is the evaluation of individual differences as a continuum rather than rigidly defined categories. In this context, the dark triad proposed by Paulhus and Williams [92] has emerged as a non-clinical, maladaptive personality structure that shows a continuum between pathology and normality. The dark triad (Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and Psychopathy) is a three-factor personality trait that represents the dark side of personality and exhibits similar characteristics in terms of irresponsibility, maladjustment, and insensitivity, encouraging interpersonal manipulation [50, 78].

Machiavellianism is defined by a distrustful and cynical view of human nature, instrumental relationships, strategic manipulation, and the bending of moral norms when necessary [52, 57]. Calculated and self-interested behaviors in interpersonal relationships aimed at power and status can result in eroding trust, instrumentalizing relationships, and unethical tendencies [15, 60, 86]. These traits can have negative effects on group cohesion [23, 66]. Psychopathy is characterized by superficial affect, lack of empathy and guilt, impulsivity, and antisocial tendencies [5, 17]. Deceptive, cold-hearted, and instrumental behaviors in interpersonal relationships are associated with low group commitment and poor team performance [38, 55, 73]. It has also been shown to increase bullying, rudeness, and destructive behaviors,and to weaken solidarity and cooperation [1, 76, 79]. Narcissism, on the other hand, involves a sense of self-worth, a search for approval, a lack of empathy, and intolerance of criticism [21, 69]. While narcissistic individuals may sometimes display high visible success [62], they can suppress learning, teamwork, and healthy feedback through unrealistic goals and ego-centered decisions [29, 31, 59]. Narcissistic leaders create a closed environment by ensuring constant approval from those around them, which makes change and adaptation difficult [28].

Manipulation, entitlement, insensitivity, and lack of empathy can reinforce the desire to control in a relationship. The ease of monitoring and intervention afforded by digital tools can also facilitate forms of cyber dating abuse such as password demands, account control, and threatening messages [6, 84].

Cyber dating abuse is a type of dating violence defined as harassment through messaging or online emails for the purpose of controlling, threatening, or stalking someone in a romantic relationship. Perpetrators of cyber dating abuse engage in behaviors such as demanding passwords, monitoring messages and calls, or threatening to leak their partner's inappropriate photos [36, 70, 84]. More than a quarter of women (11–31.5%) experience cyber dating abuse. Young women aged 18 to 29 are more likely to experience cyber dating abuse [18]. Young couples may view sharing electronic passwords and monitoring each other's social media platforms as normal, suggesting that cyber dating abuse is more acceptable than physical and sexual dating violence [81, 87]. Cyber dating abuse is associated with mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, aggression, and suicidal tendencies [35, 87]. Young people have been using the internet much more extensively for work, school, and social purposes since the pandemic, putting them at risk of cyber violence [82, 83]. Therefore, it is crucial to determine whether young people are exposed to cyber dating abuse.

In recent years, studies have been conducted on young people's attitudes toward dating violence variables [14, 19, 20, 58]. Dating violence is defined as a type of peer bullying in which a current or former romantic partner engages in mental, physical, or emotional abuse or attempts to control another person [9]. According to the results of a national study conducted with 1,279 university students, including a sample from Turkey, more than 90% of both male and female students are exposed to dating violence [68]. Therefore, dating violence is a human rights violation and a public health issue for all countries [41].

Although masculine behaviors do not necessarily lead to maladaptive outcomes in every individual, when combined with a lack of empathy and a tendency to form instrumental relationships, they can shape an interaction style similar to the dark triad traits. In this style, the partner is perceived more as a target to be controlled than as a mutual subject. The structure of the digital space, which facilitates surveillance and threats, also has the potential to transform these tendencies into forms of cyber dating abuse.

In the current literature, cyber dating abuse and dark triad personality traits are generally studied among young people, university students, or the general population. However, considering that active athletes may internalize gender norms and masculine behaviors more intensely, and experience characteristics such as competition, power, and control in both sports and digital gaming, this group may be at particular risk for cyber dating abuse. Furthermore, digital gaming behavior stands out as an important factor in both reinforcing masculinity norms and shaping forms of online interaction. In the literature, studies that evaluate athletic identity and digital gaming habits together and reveal their relationship with cyber dating abuse are quite limited. Therefore, this research aims to fill an important gap in the literature by examining the effect of masculine behaviors and dark triad personality traits on cyber dating abuse in individuals who are active athletes and play digital games. Thus, it will be possible to understand more holistically how both athlete identity and digital gaming habits intersect with gender norms and digital violence behaviors.

Mediating hypotheses

H¹: Machiavellianism mediates the effect of masculine behaviors on cyber dating abuse.

H²: Psychopathy mediates the effect of masculine behaviors on cyber dating abuse.

H³: Narcissism mediates the effect of masculine behaviors on cyber dating abuse.

Moderator hypotheses

H⁴: Frequency of digital gaming significantly moderates the effect of masculine behaviors on cyber dating abuse.

H⁵: Type of digital gaming significantly moderates the effect of masculine behaviors on cyber dating abuse.

Method

Research group

The sample of the study consists of volunteer athletes selected through purposive sampling, one of the non-probability sampling methods. To determine the sample size for the study, a power analysis based on multiple linear regression analysis was performed using the G*Power 3.1 program. The analysis considered masculine behaviors (independent variables), cyber dating abuse (dependent variable), Machiavellianism, Psychopathy and Narcissism (mediating variables), frequency of digital gaming and type of digital gaming (moderating variables), and interaction terms of these variables in the model. In the power analysis, the effect size (f²) was set at 0.02 (small effect), the significance level (α) at 0.05, and the test power (1-β) at 0.95. Based on these parameters, the calculation aimed to achieve a sufficient sample size to accommodate the predicted complexity of the model and possible interactions.

A total of 1,020 active athletes participated in the study. Of the participants, 596 were male (58.4%) and 424 were female (41.6%). The athletes' ages ranged from 18 to 38, with a mean age of X̄ = 21.82 ± 3.88.

Data collection process and data collection tools

The data collection process for this study was conducted entirely online. Participants completed the form prepared via Google Forms using their computers or smartphones. The purpose of the study was explained at the beginning of the form, followed by an informed consent form and the relevant scales. Participants completed the scales in an average of 5–10 min. The online data collection method was preferred due to its advantages, such as quick access, ability to reach a wide range of participants, ease of data processing, and encouragement of voluntary participation [93]. This study was approved by the Social and Humanities Ethics Committee of Yozgat Bozok University (Approval No: 29–37). Data were collected via online forms, and informed consent was obtained from all participants. All procedures were conducted in accordance with the principles of the Helsinki Declaration.

Personal information form

In the study, information about participants' demographics and digital gaming habits was collected through a personal information form. Participants were asked to provide information about their gender, age, frequency of digital gaming, and type of digital gaming.

Masculinity Behavior Scale (MBS)

The Masculinity Behavior Scale, developed by Snell [72], was used to measure the extent to which adults possess emotions, behaviors, and characteristics attributed to masculinity. The scale consists of a total of 20 items and four subscales. An example of the first subscale, “Commitment to Achievement,” is the item “I do whatever it takes to succeed at work.” For the second subscale, “Restricted Emotionality,” the example item is “I don't usually discuss my feelings and emotions with others.” The item “I generally do not talk about my feelings of love and affection towards others” is used to measure the third sub-dimension, “Restrained Affection.” Finally, the item “I do not take orders (or advice) from anyone” is included in the fourth sub-dimension, “Exaggerated Self-Confidence and Control.” The Masculine Behavior Scale was adapted into Turkish by Sarıçam and Sığın [65] and was administered in this study using a 5-point Likert-type rating scale: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Agree, and 5 = Strongly agree. The total scores that can be obtained from the scale range from 20 to 100. High scores indicate that the individual possesses more masculine behaviors. In this study, the Cronbach's Alpha internal consistency coefficient calculated for the entire scale was found to be 0.89. This value indicates that the scale is highly reliable.

Short dark triad scale

Developed by Jonason and Webster [39], it is used to measure individuals' tendencies toward narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. The scale consists of a total of 12 items and three subscales. An example of the first subscale, “Narcissism,” is the item “I tend to seek prestige or status.” For the second sub-dimension, “Psychopathy,” the item “I tend not to care about the moral implications of my actions” is presented as an example. To measure the third sub-dimension, “Machiavellianism,” the item “I tend to manipulate others to get what I want” is used. Short Dark Triad Scale was adapted into Turkish by Özsoy and colleagues [57] and was administered in this study using a 5-point Likert-type scale: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Undecided, 4 = Agree, and 5 = Strongly agree. The total scores that can be obtained from the scale range from 12 to 60. High scores indicate that the individual possesses more dark personality traits. In this study, the Cronbach's Alpha internal consistency coefficients calculated for the subscales of the scale were found to be 0.88 for Machiavellianism, 0.87 for narcissism, and 0.83 for psychopathy. These values indicate that the subscales are highly reliable.

Cyber dating abuse scale

Developed by Borrajo, Gamez-Guadix, Pereda, and Calvete [6] to examine individuals' experiences of cyber dating abuse. The Turkish adaptation of the scale was conducted by Bakır and Kalkan [94]. The scale consists of two parts. The first part of the scale, which can be used as an independent assessment tool, measures exposure to cyber dating abuse, while the second part measures the dimension of perpetrating cyber dating abuse. The perpetration of violence part of the scale was used in this study. The perpetration of violence part consists of a total of 20 items and two subdimensions (direct aggression and monitoring/control). The direct aggression sub-dimension includes behaviors such as “I spread the secrets or sensitive information of the person I was with using new technologies”; the monitoring/control sub-dimension includes behaviors such as “I checked the last connection time of the person I was with on mobile applications.” The scale is scored using a 6-point Likert type (1 = Never, 6 = Usually) and measures the level of cyber dating abuse perpetrated within the last year. A high score on the scale indicates that the person has engaged in cyber dating abuse more frequently in the past year. Evaluation is based on the subscale scores and the total score. The Cronbach Alpha internal consistency coefficient for the severity of application section of the scale was 0.83 in the original study and 0.84 in the current study.

Data analysis

Before proceeding with data analysis, the normality assumption of the data set was evaluated, and outliers were examined using Mahalanobis distance values. The analysis did not detect any outliers in the data set.

Because data were collected from the same respondents during the same time period using three scales and one questionnaire, the potential risk of common method bias (CMB) was considered. This concern arises because correlations between constructs are obtained from a single source. However, the measures differ in their purposes and item content. In addition, the presence of reverse-coded (negatively worded) items may also increase the likelihood of method-related bias. CMB is widely regarded as a major source of measurement error (Podsakoff et al., 2012). Accordingly, Harman’s single-factor test [96] was conducted to assess potential CMB that may result from including multiple measures in the same survey and analyzing them simultaneously [95]. When the first factor accounts for less than 50% of the total variance, CMB is typically considered unlikely to be a serious concern [95, 97]. In the present study, the first factor explained 30.070% of the total variance; therefore, the results indicate that CMB is unlikely to have had a substantial effect on the findings.

In this study, masculine behavior was considered the independent variable, and cyber dating abuse was considered the dependent variable. Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and Psychopathy were used as mediating variables. The structure of the study's mediation model is presented in Fig. 1. Figure 1 shows the mediating role of Machiavellianism, Narcissism, and Psychopathy in the effect of masculine behavior on the cyber dating abuse.

Fig. 1.

The separate mediating role of machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism in the effect of masculine behaviors on cyber dating abuse

The frequency and type of digital gaming were determined as moderator variables. The model of the study, including the moderator effect, is shown in Fig. 2. Figure 2 visualizes how the frequency and type of digital gaming affect the relationship between the independent and dependent variables through the mediating variables.

Fig. 2.

The separate moderating role of gaming frequency and game type in the effect of masculine behavior on cyber dating abuse

The statistical significance of the effects in the model was assessed using 5000 Bootstrap samples. Analyses were conducted using the PROCESS Macro (version 4.2) in IBM SPSS Statistics 24. To avoid complexity in the analytical procedure and to present the effects more clearly, mediation and moderation tests were carried out using separate models. Accordingly, the Multiple Mediation Model (Model 4) was used to test the mediating roles of machiavellianism, psychopathy and narcissism, whereas a separate analysis was performed based on the Moderation Model (Model 1) to determine the effects of the frequency and type of digital game playing. The significance level was set at 0.05 in the study.

In line with contemporary approaches, even if paths a, b, c, and c' are not statistically significant, a Bootstrap test result indicating a significant indirect effect is considered sufficient to confirm the mediating effect [30, 32]. For the indirect effect, the lower and upper values in the 95% confidence interval not including zero (0) indicate that the mediating effect is significant. In the traditional approach, paths c, a, and b must be significant for the mediating effect to be discussed [2, 30]. The contemporary method was preferred in this study.

Process Macro allows complex models involving mediating and moderating variables to be included in the analysis at once and reduces the amount of error [33]. Additionally, interaction effects for the moderating variable can be calculated automatically. Therefore, Process Macro was used in this study to test models involving both mediating and moderating effects.

Findings

The descriptive statistics for the participants' scores on the variables “Masculine Behavior,” “Machiavellianism,” “Psychopathy,” “Narcissism,” and “Cyber Dating Abuse” are presented in Table 1. When the participants' responses to these variables are examined, it is seen that the mean score for the “Masculine Behavior” variable (X̄ = 3.45; SS = 0.66) is higher than the other variables. This finding shows that the participants generally exhibit a higher level of masculine behavior.

Table 1.

Descriptive statistics of variables included in the study

	Lowest	Highest	X	SS	Skewness	Kurtosis
Masculine Behavior	1,10	5,00	3,45	,656	,159	,754
Machiavellianism	1,00	5,00	2,45	1,067	,318	-,801
Psychopathy	1,00	5,00	2,56	1,088	,253	-,794
Narcissism	1,00	5,00	2,98	,993	-,093	-,391
Cyber Dating Abuse	1,00	5,30	1,90	1,076	1,215	,401

N: 1020

The mean scores for the variables “Machiavellianism” (X̄ = 2.45; SS = 1.07), “Psychopathy” (X̄ = 2.56; SS = 1.09), and “Narcissism” (X̄ = 2.98; SS = 0.99) were at a moderate level, and their distributions were observed to be close to each other. The mean score for the “Cyber Dating Abuse” variable (X̄ = 1.90; SS = 1.08) was found to be the lowest compared to the other variables.

When examining the skewness and kurtosis values of the variables, it was observed that all values fell within the range of −1.5 to + 1.5, as indicated by Tabachnick and Fidell [77]. Skewness and kurtosis values within this range indicate that the relevant variables are normally distributed [77].

Table 2 presents the direct relationships between masculine behavior, Machiavellianism, Psychopathy, Narcissism, and cyber dating abuse variables, examined through regression analysis. The analysis results are presented along with the corresponding path coefficients (B), standard errors (SE), t-values, and significance levels (p).

Table 2.

Direct relationships between variables

	B	SH	t	p
Masculine Behavior > Machiavellianism	,105	,019	5,551	,000
Machiavellianism > Cyber Dating Abuse	,455	,028	16,477	,000
Masculine Behavior > Psychopathy	,106	,022	5,663	,000
Psychopathy > Cyber Dating Abuse	,459	,024	16,237	,000
Masculine Behavior > Narcissism	,088	,028	4,276	,002
Narcissism > Cyber Dating Abuse	,270	,023	9,747	,000
Masculine Behavior > Cyber Dating Abuse	,019	,019	1,014	,311

Upon examining the results, it is seen that masculine behavior has a significant and positive effect on Machiavellianism (B = 0.105; SE = 0.019; t = 5.551; p < 0.001). Similarly, Machiavellianism's effect on cyber dating abuse is also highly significant and positive (B = 0.455; SE = 0.028; t = 16.477; p < 0.001). Masculine behavior's effect on psychopathy is also significant (B = 0.106; SH = 0.022; t = 5.663; p < 0.001), and the effect of the psychopathy variable on cyber dating abuse is quite strong and significant (B = 0.459; SH = 0.024; t = 16.237; p < 0.001). In the narcissism dimension, a significant effect of masculine behavior on narcissism was found (B = 0.088; SH = 0.028; t = 4.276; p = 0.002) and that narcissism has a significant effect on cyber dating abuse (B = 0.270; SH = 0.023; t = 9.747; p < 0.001).

On the other hand, the direct effect of masculine behavior on cyber dating abuse was not statistically significant (B = 0.019; SH = 0.019; t = 1.014; p = 0.311). This finding indicates that the effect of masculine behavior on cyber dating abuse is not direct; rather, it occurs indirectly through dark personality traits such as Machiavellianism, Psychopathy, and Narcissism.

Table 3 examines the indirect effects of masculine behaviors on cyber dating abuse through the personality traits of Machiavellianism, Psychopathy, and Narcissism. Indirect effect coefficients are reported along with standard error (SE) values and 95% confidence intervals (Bootstrapping 95% CI).

Table 3.

Indirect effects of masculine behavior on cyber dating abuse via machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism

	Coefficients		Bootstrapping %95 BCa CI
	Point Estimate	Std. Error	Lower Bound	Upper Bound
Masculine Behavior > Machiavellianism > Cyber Dating Abuse	,131	,031	,072	,193
Masculine Behavior > Psychopathy > Cyber Dating Abuse	,132	,031	,074	,194
Masculine Behavior > Narcissism > Cyber Dating Abuse	,064	,021	,023	,104

According to the analysis results, the indirect effect of masculine behavior on cyber dating abuse through Machiavellianism was found to be significant and positive (β = 0.131; SE = 0.031; 95% CI = [0.072, 0.193]). Similarly, a significant and positive indirect effect was observed through the personality trait of psychopathy (β = 0.132; S.H. = 0.031; 95% CI = [0.074, 0.194]). The indirect effect through narcissism was lower but still significant (β = 0.064; S.H. = 0.021; 95% CI = [0.023, 0.104]).

These findings show that masculine behaviors can influence cyber dating abuse behaviors not only directly but also indirectly through dark personality traits (Machiavellianism, Psychopathy, and Narcissism). In particular, the magnitude of indirect effects through Machiavellianism and Psychopathy is quite close and significant. Narcissism, on the other hand, shows weaker indirect effects but still yields statistically significant results.

Table 4 reports the regression coefficients, standard error values, and 95% confidence intervals (Bootstrapping 95% BCa CI) are reported.

Table 4.

The moderating effect of frequency and duration of digital gaming on the relationship between masculine behavior and cyber dating abuse

	Coefficients		Bootstrapping %95 BCa CI
	Point Estimate	Std. Error	Lower Bound	Upper Bound
Masculine Behavior > Cyber Dating Abuse1	,143	,065	,015	,271
Masculine Behavior > Cyber Dating Abuse2	-,011	,059	-,126	,105
Masculine Behavior > Cyber Dating Abuse3	-,164	,111	-,382	,054
Masculine Behavior > Cyber Dating Abuse4	,207	,087	,036	,378
Masculine Behavior > Cyber Dating Abuse5	,089	,278	-,456	,634
Masculine Behavior > Cyber Dating Abuse6	,084	,627	−1,146	1,314
Masculine Behavior > Cyber Dating Abuse7	,769	,277	,225	1,314
Masculine Behavior > Cyber Dating Abuse8	-,260	,092	-,441	-,079
Masculine Behavior > Cyber Dating Abuse9	,237	,152	-,061	,536
Masculine Behavior > Cyber Dating Abuse10	-,056	,130	-,311	,199

The rankings 1, 2, and 3 in the table represent people who play digital games every day, several days a week, and several days a month, respectively; 4 represents action-adventure games, 5 casual games, 6 role-playing games, 7 simulation games, 8 sports games, 9 strategy games, and 10 other game genres

When evaluating the analysis findings in terms of digital game playing frequency, it was observed that masculine behavior significantly and positively affected cyber dating abuse behaviors among participants who played games every day (β = 0.143; S.E. = 0.065; 95% CI = [0.015, 0.271]). However, this relationship was not statistically significant in groups that played games a few days a week or a few days a month. This result suggests that the frequency of digital game playing may strengthen the effect of masculine behavior on cyber dating abuse.

When examined in terms of game types, it was determined that masculine behavior had a significant and positive effect on cyber dating abuse among participants who played action-adventure games (β = 0.207; S.H. = 0.087; 95% CI = [0.036, 0.378]). Similarly, a significant positive relationship is also observed among those who play simulation games (β = 0.769; S.H. = 0.277; 95% CI = [0.225, 1.314]). In contrast, among participants who played sports games, the effect of masculine behavior on cyber dating abuse was found to be negative and significant (β = −0.260; S.H. = 0.092; 95% CI = [−0.441, −0.079]). No significant relationship was observed in other game types.

These findings reveal that the frequency of digital gaming and game types can differentiate the direction and magnitude of the relationship between masculine behavior and cyber dating abuse. Specifically, it is understood that masculine behaviors play an enhancing role in cyber dating abuse behaviors among individuals who play action-adventure and simulation games, while this effect is reversed in sports games. In conclusion, digital gaming habits can be said to be an important determinant of individuals' online interaction patterns.

Discussion and conclusion

With the advent of the digital world, individuals' forms of online interaction have rapidly changed, and the proliferation of social media and digital gaming platforms has led to the emergence of new relationship dynamics, particularly among young adults. These digital environments present both opportunities and risks in individuals' social relationships. In recent years, cyber dating abuse in online relationships has become a phenomenon that has attracted attention both in academic literature and at the societal level. In this context, one of the important factors influencing individuals' behavior in digital environments is masculine behavior, which can highlight dynamics such as power, control, and dominance in online relationships. Furthermore, personality traits known as dark personality traits, such as Machiavellianism, Psychopathy, and Narcissism, are among the fundamental personality factors that shape behavior in the digital environment. Digital gaming habits also play a decisive role in individuals' online social relationships. The interaction of all these variables requires a multidimensional approach to the effects of digitalized social environments and individual personality traits on online relationships. In this regard, examining the role of masculine behaviors, dark personality traits, and digital gaming habits in cyber dating abuse contributes significantly to current research. The data for this study was collected from athletes who play digital games. One of the notable findings is that masculine behaviors are not directly associated with cyber dating abuse. The literature indicates that such gender roles may have a significant impact on cyber dating abuse and should be examined [22, 48, 98]. Research indicates that masculine behaviors are associated with cyber dating abuse; furthermore, this relationship can escalate to a physical dimension [6], and psychological and social effects can also occur [74]. However, despite these effects in the literature, no direct effect was detected in our sample group. With the mediation model specified, the relationship between masculine behaviors and cyber dating abuse exhibites a significant indirect relationship (mediation) pattern through negative personality traits (Machiavellianism, psychopathy, narcissism). These three negative personality traits, known as the dark triad, are considered undesirable behaviors in people. Each of the three negative personality traits emerged as a significant mediator, indicating that the relationship between masculine behaviors and cyber dating abuse was indirectly linked through these traits. There are studies in the literature that predict cyber dating abuse based on the dark triad personality traits. For example, Branson and March [7] examined the relationship between narcissism and psychopathy and cyber dating abuse and found that both narcissism and psychopathy predicted these online partner control behaviors. In a study conducted on a representative sample of adults, Pineda and colleagues [61] found that all three negative personality traits significantly predicted cyber dating abuse perpetration. In contrast, a recent study by Bhogal and Wallace [4] found no significant relationship between cyber dating abuse and any dark personality trait. Furthermore, previous research has reported various links between dark personality traits and harmful interpersonal behaviors in online settings. For example, research has shown that all three dark personality traits are associated with cyber dating abuse behaviors [71]. Furthermore, Stiff [75] examined the relationship between dark personality traits and surveillance on Facebook and found that Psychopathy and Machiavellianism significantly predicted the tendency to spy on others on social media. In the current study, Machiavellianism and Psychopathy have a stronger mediating relationship than Narcissism. Another study also found that Machiavellianism and Narcissism fully explained the relationship between cyber dating abuse, while Psychopathy partially explained it [67]. The generalizability of these findings is limited because the other study was conducted in a different geographical context and with a different sample group. Therefore, it is not possible to draw broad conclusions across contexts. However, within the athlete sample, a greater tendency toward group dynamics may have been associated with a weaker link involving narcissistic traits.

Another important and noteworthy finding of our study is the moderating effect analyses. In the first moderating effect analysis, the moderating role of digital game playing frequency on the effect of masculine behavior on cyber dating abuse was examined. In the second analysis, digital game type was added to the model as a moderating variable. Across both analyses, the relationship between masculine behaviors and cyber dating abuse was found to differ significantly depending on digital gaming habits and preferred game genres.

The impact of digital games on social behavior has been increasingly researched in recent years. It has been noted that online games, in particular, offer an important arena for how individuals experience their social identities and gender roles [25, 43]. In this context, the findings of the present study demonstrate that the frequency of digital game playing has a critical moderating role on the relationship between masculine behavior and cyber dating abuse. The most striking finding in the table is the positive and significant relationship between masculine behavior and cyber dating abuse for those who play digital games daily, but it is noteworthy that this relationship is not significant for those who play a few days a week or a few days a month. This suggests that the effect of digital game playing frequency on social behavior becomes apparent once it exceeds a certain threshold [89]. It is noted that intense gaming habits alter social interaction patterns [51] and that digital gaming platforms create a practice ground for romantic relationships, with behavioral patterns developed in these environments can be transferred to real life [8]. Research also shows that problematic gaming levels play a mediating role between emotional regulation difficulties and social relationships [44]. These findings indicate that the frequency of digital game playing can be considered not merely a habit, but a variable related to individuals' social identities and relationship-forming styles. Specifically, daily gaming points to a condition where the association between masculine behavioral patterns and cyber dating abuse is stronger. However, due to the cross-sectional design of the study, it is not possible to draw a causal inference from these patterns.

Individuals who play action games appear to have a stronger/more positive correlation between masculine behaviors and cyber dating abuse. Research shows that violent video games can increase hostile behavior by interacting with variables such as personality traits (especially aggression tendencies) and gender [90]. It is stated that almost every part of the game content reinforces masculine elements and that aggressive language use is common [85]. It is emphasized that masculine characters in online games do not show emotional diversity and that non-violent problem-solving methods are rarely used [27].

Our finding that simulation games strengthen the relationship between masculine behavior and cyber dating abuse is consistent with the current literature. Studies examining negative masculine behaviors in online gaming environments show that control and manipulation mechanisms may be reflected in players' real-life relationships [53]. The power dynamics and control elements in simulation games may lead players to normalize similar control behaviors in their relationships. The unlimited control offered by simulation games may reinforce tendencies in some men to control and manipulate their partners.

The negative moderating role of sports games indicates that these games weaken the relationship between masculine behavior and cyber dating abuse. This finding indicates that the association between masculine behaviors and cyber dating abuse is weaker among participants who play sports games compared to other game types. Recent research shows that regular in-game interactions in multiplayer online games not only develop teamwork, negotiation, and communication skills but also prepare players for interaction in broader social contexts [88]. In massively multiplayer online games, players' perceptions of mutual dependence and power have been found to be related to prosocial behaviors [91]. Comprehensive studies examining the effects of video games on developing prosocial behaviors reveal that cooperative games have positive effects on empathy, cooperation, and social skills. Studies using cooperative video games in teamwork assessments have shown that these games enhance prosocial behavior, communication, and group dynamics [24]. Accordingly, the relationship between masculine behaviors and cyber dating abuse appears to be weaker among participants who play sports games.

In conclusion, this research on athletes who play digital games shows that masculine behaviors were not directly associated with cyber dating abuse; rather, the association emerged indirectly through Dark Triad personality traits (Machiavellianism, psychopathy, and narcissism). Daily gaming habits and action/simulation games were found to strengthen the masculine behavior- cyber dating abuse relationship, while sports games weakened this relationship as a protective factor. These findings highlight that digital gaming environments can shape behavioral patterns even within athlete populations, and that game type and frequency of play should be considered in preventing cyber dating abuse.

Limitations

While the findings of this study contribute to the literature, some limitations should be considered. First, data were collected from active athletes via online surveys. This may limit the diversity of the sample and partially reduce the generalizability of the findings to different groups. Second, the reliance on self-report data may lead to measurement-related errors such as respondent bias, recall bias, and social desirability effect. In addition, due to the cross-sectional design of the study, the findings should be evaluated at a associational rather than a causal level; in this context, the direction of the relationship between the variables cannot be determined. Therefore, it is possible that just as gaming habits and masculine behaviors are related to cyber dating abuse, cyber dating abuse can also influence individuals' gaming habits/game type preferences or self-reports regarding masculine behaviors (reverse causality). The fact that the majority of the sample consisted of male participants should be considered another limitation in terms of gender balance. Furthermore, since the frequency of digital game playing and preferred game types were based on participants' personal statements, subjective differences in evaluation should be taken into account when interpreting these indicators. Finally, in addition to the personality traits and digital habits examined in this study, additional variables that may be associated with cyber dating abuse, such as family structure, social environment, and other psychosocial factors, were not evaluated.

Recommendations

Recommendations for further research

In light of the findings of this study, awareness campaigns can be conducted to reduce the impact of digital habits and dark personality traits on cyber dating abuse. It would be beneficial to organize educational programs that develop healthy communication and boundary-setting skills in the digital environment, especially among young adults. Furthermore, it is recommended to increase informative content on ethical behavior and digital privacy on online platforms.

Recommendations for the future

In future research, the generalizability of the findings can be increased by working with samples from different age groups and cultural backgrounds. It is important to examine additional factors such as social support and psychological resilience, beyond dark personality traits and digital habits. Furthermore, longitudinal studies can be conducted to evaluate the causes and consequences of cyber dating abuse more comprehensively.

Authors’ contributions

Concept—SS; Design – SS-EP; Supervision – EP-SGE; Resources – SS-SGE; Materials – SS-EP-SGE; Data Collection and/or Processing—SS-EP-SGE; Analysis and/or Interpretation—SS-EP-SGE; Literature Search—SS-SGE; Writing Manuscript—SS-EP-SGE; Critical Review—EP-SGE; Other – SS-EP-SGE.

Funding

This study did not receive any funding from any institution or organization.

Data availability

The raw data presented in the study are openly available in https://osf.io/5jpa4/overview?view_only=ac2ec86e0df94f0e93350076b5022811. (accessed on 14 November 2025).

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was approved by the Social and Humanities Ethics Committee of [Yozgat Bozok University] (Approval No: 29–37). Data were collected via online forms. At the beginning of the form, the purpose of the study was explained to each participant and the statement “I agree to participate in this study, I give my consent” was included. Completion of the form was considered as voluntary participation and informed consent. All procedures involving human participants were conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and the principles of the Helsinki Declaration.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.