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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2026 Apr 21.
Published before final editing as: J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2026 Mar 24:10.15288/jsad.25-00342. doi: 10.15288/jsad.25-00342

Behaviors and Norms Regarding Sexual Violence and Alcohol Use: How Do Service Members and College Students Compare

Kristen H Walter 1,2,*, Laura D Crocker 1,3, Travis N Ray 1,3,4, Nicole K Mullican 5, Ruschelle M Leone 6, Jessica R Prince 5, Erin L Miggantz 1,3, Zoe Y Zong 5, Elizabeth D Mayer 7, Ananya Sharma 7, Debra L Kaysen 8, Kelly Cue Davis 9, Lindsay M Orchowski 7, Amanda K Gilmore 5
PMCID: PMC13094813  NIHMSID: NIHMS2164744  PMID: 41874187

Abstract

Objective:

Sexual violence is a significant public health concern in the U.S. and commonly involves alcohol consumption. Risks for both sexual violence and alcohol misuse are elevated among young adults, and integrated prevention interventions are needed to address the intersection of these behaviors. Existing sexual violence and alcohol misuse prevention research often relies on college student samples, but the extent to which results generalize to other at-risk young adult populations remains to be determined. The current study compares sample characteristics, behaviors (sexual violence perpetration, sexual violence victimization, drinks of alcohol per week), norms (perceived drinking norms, sexual norms), and personal sexual beliefs between samples of U.S. active duty Navy service members and college students to inform tailored, integrated prevention intervention.

Method:

Data were derived from separate studies that included common data elements. The two samples consisted of 592 active duty Navy service members ages 18–24 and 2,160 college students ages 18–25, respectively.

Results:

Findings showed that Sailors and college students significantly differed on all sample characteristics (ps < .005), behaviors (ps < .04), and norms related to sexual violence and alcohol use (ps ≤ .002), with Sailors endorsing more severe behaviors and problematic norms pertaining to sexual violence and alcohol use.

Conclusions:

Although both young adult subpopulations are at risk for sexual violence and alcohol misuse, related behaviors and norms differed between Sailors and college students, suggesting that integrated prevention approaches may require adaptations for each subpopulation, particularly for elevated risks in the military.

Keywords: sexual aggression, sexual assault, heavy episodic drinking, risky behaviors, young adults, military

Introduction

Sexual violence refers to nonconsensual sexual contact, ranging from nonconsensual touching to penetration. Despite efforts to reduce the prevalence of such violence, it remains a significant public health concern. In the U.S., an estimated 43.6% of women and 24.8% of men experience sexual violence during their lifetime (Smith et al., 2018), often resulting in far-reaching negative physical and mental health consequences (Dworkin et al., 2017; Ullman & Brecklin, 2003). There are also economic costs associated with personal and organizational loss of productivity secondary to sexual violence (Millegan et al., 2015; Peterson et al., 2017; Potter et al., 2018). Given the significant personal, societal, and economic costs, developing strategies to prevent sexual violence, including both perpetration and victimization, is imperative (Peterson et al., 2017).

Young adulthood (18–24 years) is a critical time to intervene, as it represents a period of elevated risk for both sexual violence victimization (Basile et al., 2011; Sinozich & Langton, 2014) and sexual violence perpetration (e.g., Ybarra & Mitchell, 2013). Nationally representative data indicate that the sexual violence victimization rate is approximately 25% during early adulthood (18–29 years), and individuals in this age range are 65% more likely to report sexual violence victimization than those aged 30 or older (Mumford et al., 2020). The increased risk for sexual violence victimization during young adulthood appears evident across populations, including college students and those who never attended college (Mumford et al., 2020), and military service members (Meadows et al., 2018). Nationally representative data for sexual violence perpetration estimates across populations and age cohorts are more limited (e.g., Tharp et al., 2013; Ybarra & Mitchell, 2013). Available research shows that approximately 10% of both youths aged 14–21 (Ybarra & Mitchell, 2013) and U.S. Sailors aged 18–24 (Ray et al., 2025) self-reported a history of sexual violence perpetration, and 6% of college students aged 18–26 (Sutherland et al., 2014). Due to the risks for sexual violence victimization and perpetration in young adulthood, prevention interventions for this population are needed. Importantly, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend tailoring sexual violence prevention interventions based on specific characteristics or risks (Perkinson et al., 2017). With alcohol interventions, for example, individuals respond better to more specific, tailored interventions based on their personal characteristics (Cronce & Larimer, 2011). However, the current ability to tailor these prevention interventions for young adults is restricted due to the lack of studies directly comparing subpopulations to know whether results generalize across them or key differences exist.

Another recommendation for preventing sexual violence is developing integrated interventions designed to prevent multiple harmful behaviors across individual, interpersonal, and organizational levels (Department of Defense, 2019; Orchowski, 2023). One such integrated approach addresses the co-occurrence of sexual violence and alcohol use, which is common (Ullman & Brecklin, 2000) and prevalent in both college (Abbey et al., 2004; Testa & Livingston, 2009) and military populations (Miggantz et al., 2023). The role of alcohol in sexual violence perpetration has been demonstrated among both men (Davis et al., 2021) and women (Crane, 2017) and may result from misinterpretation of sexual interest (Parkhill & Abbey, 2008) or disregard for refusal of sexual activity (Abbey et al., 2004). Regarding sexual violence victimization, alcohol consumption can impair behaviors, cognitions, and sexual assault risk cues (Davis et al., 2009; Melkonian & Ham, 2018; Monks et al., 2010). Alcohol consumption can also increase sexual risk-taking behaviors (George et al., 2009) and reduce effective resistance efforts (McCauley & Calhoun, 2008; Norris et al., 2006; Stoner et al., 2007; Testa et al., 2000). The relationship between alcohol use and sexual violence victimization can also be bidirectional, as individuals who experience sexual violence may use alcohol to reduce related distress (Stappenbeck et al., 2015; Ullman & Najdowski, 2009), which could then increase risk of revictimization (Cusack et al., 2021; Messman-Moore et al., 2009; Testa et al., 2010). Given that alcohol use is elevated among young adults, including college student (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2023) and military populations (Bray et al., 2013; Mattiko et al., 2011; Schumm & Chard, 2012) and can affect sexual violence perpetration and victimization risk through multiple mechanisms, further understanding such cross-cutting behaviors and whether they differ across at-risk subpopulations is essential.

The comparison of these two young adult subpopulations, service members and college students, is critical for several key reasons. The first is that most existing sexual violence research involves college student samples (Ray & Parkhill, 2023; Tharp et al., 2013), and this body of research is often used to inform prevention efforts in other populations, including the military. Because college student samples are typically comprised of affluent individuals recruited through convenience methods, the extent to which findings from this work generalize to other populations is unknown (Ray & Parkhill, 2023; Tharp et al., 2013). Concerns regarding generalizability may be especially applicable to the military context, given the blurred division between the workplace and personal life, deployment cycles, and rank structure (i.e., power and authority) can create environments that may differ from civilian life (Gidycz et al., 2018; Stander & Thomsen, 2016; Turchik & Wilson, 2010). In addition to understanding the generalizability of results with college students to other populations, there is also a need to conduct similar research with service members given the paucity of such studies with the military population (Orchowski et al., 2018; Ray & Parkhill, 2023; Tharp et al., 2013). Research examining the intersection of sexual violence and alcohol use, the behaviors and norms associated with them, and whether these factors differ between college students and service members can help identify common and unique factors associated with these at-risk subpopulations.

To develop and disseminate tailored integrated prevention approaches for the military, it is essential to determine whether existing evidence regarding sexual violence and alcohol use among college students generalizes to service members, and if not, what factors may be unique to the military population. Thus, the present study compared sample characteristics, behaviors (sexual violence perpetration, sexual violence victimization, drinks of alcohol per week), norms (perceived drinking norms, sexual norms), and personal sexual beliefs between samples of U.S. Navy service members aged 18–24 years (referenced as the “Sailor study”) and college students aged 18–25 years (“college student study”). Related norms and personal sexual beliefs were compared as healthier social norms and attitudes could help decrease sexual violence (Gidycz et al., 2018; Orchowski et al., 2018). Given that both samples were in an age group at elevated risk for sexual violence and alcohol consumption, there were no specific hypotheses and analyses were exploratory. Should differences emerge, adaptations may be required to effectively develop and deliver integrated sexual violence and alcohol misuse prevention interventions for the military.

Method

Participants

Participants in the Sailor study consisted of 592 enlisted, active duty Navy service members ages 18–24 who completed at least one study measure. Recruitment for the Sailor study took place between June 30, 2022, and August 10, 2022. Participants in the college student study included 2,160 full-time students, ages 18–25, attending the main campus of two large, public universities. Recruitment for the college study occurred between November 30, 2021, and April 25, 2022. All participants provided informed consent. Descriptive data are presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Characteristics for Sailor and college student samples

Sailors College students
n % n % χ2 or t p Cramer’s V or d
Race (%) 592 2,075 121.18 <.001 .21
 Pacific Islander/Native Hawaiian 17 2.9 10 0.5
 Asian 40 6.8 472 22.7
 Black/African American 97 16.4 409 19.7
 American Indian/Alaska Native 10 1.7 18 0.9
 White 382 64.5 978 47.1
 Multiracial 46 7.8 188 9.1
Ethnicity (%) 592 2,122 8.51 .004 .06
 Hispanic/Latine 152 25.7 427 20.1
 Non-Hispanic/Latine 440 74.3 1,695 79.9
Sex (%) 591 2,156 9.71 .002 .06
 Male 224 37.9 671 31.1
 Female 367 62.1 1,485 68.9
Sexual orientation (%) 582 2,160 8.34 .004 .06
 Straight/heterosexual 432 74.2 1,469 68.0
 Lesbian, gay, or bisexual 150 25.8 691 32.0
Age (M, SD) 21.50 1.42 20.09 1.58 19.56 <.001 .91
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Procedures

For the Sailor study, participants were recruited using email addresses provided by the Defense Manpower Data Center. The research team sent a study invitation email containing a Qualtrics survey link. Interested participants were directed to an eligibility screener, then to an electronic consent form, followed by 19 survey measures. Participants received a $30 Amazon gift card for completing the survey while off duty. The Naval Health Research Center Institutional Review Board (IRB) approved the Sailor study, and survey approval was granted by the Office of Management and Budget.

For the college student study, students were recruited via email from registrar lists. Participants completed an online eligibility screening in Qualtrics, an electronic consent form, and 25 study measures. Participants received a $15 gift card. The Georgia State University IRB approved the college student study.

Measures

Common data elements consisted of six overlapping measures and sample characteristics from the Sailor and college student studies and were examined in the present study. Participants in both studies could select “prefer not to answer” for any survey item.

Sexual Violence Perpetration

The 23-item Sexual Strategies Scale (Peterson et al., 2010; Strang et al., 2013) measured past use of sexually aggressive strategies to obtain sex, including enticement, verbal coercion, older age or authority, intoxication, and threats or force. Participants responded yes/no to items regarding use of various strategies to convince someone to have sex (oral, anal, or vaginal intercourse) after they initially said no. Responses were used to categorize individuals into two groups: those without a history of sexual violence perpetration (denied using any strategy) and those with a history of sexual violence perpetration (endorsed using at least one strategy). Rates for each type of strategy are reported in Table 2.

Table 2.

Descriptives and sample differences on study measures

Sailors College students
Measures n % or M (SD) n % or M (SD) t or χ2 p Adjusted p Cohen’s d or Cramer’s V
Sexual violence perpetration 582 2,040
 History of using any strategy (%) 57 9.8 138 6.8 6.04 .014 .05
 History of using enticement (%) 33 5.6 89 4.4 1.52 .218 .621 .02
 History of using verbal coercion (%) 35 6.0 69 3.4 8.07 .004 .020 .06
 History of using intoxication (%) 6 1.0 11 0.5 1.59 .207 .621 .03
 History of using older age or authority (%) 4 0.7 5 0.2 - .123 .492 .03
 History of using threat or force (%) 4 0.7 7 0.3 - .282 .621 .02
Sexual violence victimization
 Total severity score 498 15.61 (20.15) 2,070 10.41 (17.03) 5.32 <.001 .29
  Total severity score for timepoint 1a 495 9.40 (16.85) 2,063 9.14 (16.23) 0.32 .753 .753 .02
  Total severity score for timepoint 2b 496 10.53 (16.74) 2,070 4.17 (11.18) 8.05 <.001 .002 .51
 History of sexual assault (%) 287 57.6 1,001 48.4 13.81 <.001 .07
Alcohol use
 Total drinks per week 528 4.95 (7.93) 2,160 3.65 (6.34) 3.50 <.001 .19
 Met criteria for heavy episodic drinking (%)c 132 25.0 451 20.9 4.24 .039 .04
Perceived drinking behavior norms
 Overall 478 5.51 (1.04) 2,111 4.90 (1.11) 11.45 <.001 .56
 Low severity behaviors 478 6.26 (1.04) 2,109 5.83 (1.30) 7.76 <.001 .002 .34
 High severity behaviors 478 3.99 (1.49) 2,106 3.03 (1.27) 13.09 <.001 .002 .73
Personal sexual beliefs 471 4.47 (0.58) 2,143 4.49 (0.47) −0.73 .468 .04
Perceived sexual norms 471 3.61 (0.86) 2,124 3.97 (0.69) −8.45 <.001 .49
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Notes: Welch’s t tests were reported due to heterogeneity of variances; equal variances were not assumed. Primary analyses are based on total scale scores and are reported with unadjusted p values. Subscale comparisons are secondary, and p values are also reported Holm-Bonferroni-adjusted within construct. Dichotomized variables are presented for descriptive purposes.

a

Timepoint 1 for the Sailor study was between age 14 until joining the military, and for the college student study it was from age 14 until the past year.

b

Timepoint 2 for the Sailor study was since starting military service, and for the college student study it was during the past year.

c

Heavy episodic drinking criteria: for men, five or more drinks on any day or 15 or more per week; for women, four or more drinks on any day or eight or more per week.

Sexual Violence Victimization

The Sexual Experiences Survey–Short Form Victimization (SES-SFV; Koss et al., 2007) assessed sexual violence victimization that occurred since age 14. The SES-SFV measured unwanted sexual experiences that occurred at two timepoints that differed by study. Sailor study timepoints were age 14 until military enlistment, and since military enlistment. College student study timepoints were between age 14 and the past year, and during the past year. Timepoints were combined to assess sexual violence victimization since age 14. Items assessed nonconsensual sexual contact (e.g., fondling) and attempted or completed rape (i.e., oral, vaginal, or anal penetration), as well as perpetrator tactics, including verbal coercion, intoxication, and physical force. Participants reported the frequency of each sexual experience by tactic, with responses ranging from 0 (never) to 3 (three or more times). Based on prior work (Davis et al., 2014), a total sexual violence severity score was created, accounting for both severity and frequency by multiplying victimization severity (1 = sexual contact by verbal coercion to 6 = attempted or completed rape by physical force) and frequency of experiences (0–3). Possible scores ranged from 0 to 63, with higher scores indicating greater sexual violence victimization severity. Total severity score was the primary sexual violence victimization outcome, given it is a continuous measure that accounts for both severity and frequency and is recommended over categorical approaches that collapse across types of sexual assault (e.g., Davis et al., 2014). For descriptive purposes, the total score was also dichotomized into those with and without a history of sexual violence victimization.

Alcohol Use

The Daily Drinking Questionnaire (Collins et al., 1985) measured typical weekly alcohol consumption. Participants reported the number of standard drinks they typically consume each day of the week, which was summed to calculate the number of drinks per week. We also calculated the percentage of participants who met the criteria for heavy episodic drinking per the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism’s (2024) definition: for men, five or more drinks on any day or 15 or more per week; for women, four or more drinks on any day or eight or more per week.

Perceived Drinking Behavior Norms

The Injunctive Drinking Behaviors Scale (Lewis et al., 2010) assessed perceptions of others’ beliefs about drinking behaviors (norms). Sailors rated how acceptable/unacceptable they believed other Sailors would rate 15 drinking behaviors, ranging from 1 (unacceptable) to 7 (acceptable). Using the same items and rating scale, college students rated how acceptable/unacceptable they believed a typical heterosexual male/heterosexual female/lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) student would rate drinking behaviors, based on their reference category. Items assessed low severity (e.g., drinking to meet people, drinking to blow off steam) and high severity (e.g., driving a car after drinking, drinking enough alcohol to pass out) drinking behaviors. Higher mean scores reflect greater perceived acceptance of drinking behaviors.

Personal Sexual Beliefs and Perceived Sexual Norms

The study team developed a measure of eight items evaluating personal sexual beliefs and eight items assessing perceptions of others’ sexual beliefs (norms). Participants rated the extent to which they agreed/disagreed with various statements from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). An example statement pertaining to personal sexual beliefs was “I believe it is important to stop sexual activity when a partner says no to a sexual act.” For statements about perceptions of others’ sexual beliefs, “most Sailors” was the reference group for the Sailor study, and “most male/female/LGB students” was used for the college student study. The specific reference group used for items in the college student study corresponded to that of each participant. An example statement was “MOST [Sailors OR male/female/LGB students] would want another [Sailor OR student] to intervene if they were trying to hook up with someone who had had too much to drink.” Higher mean scores reflected greater agreement with healthier personal sexual beliefs and perceptions of sexual norms.

Data Analyses

All available data were used for each analysis; thus, the number of participants varied across measures. Chi-square and t tests were used to compare Sailors and college students on sample characteristics and study variables. Welch’s t tests were conducted due to heterogeneity of variances; equal variances were not assumed. For each construct, a priori primary analyses focused on total scale scores and were not adjusted for multiple comparisons. Secondary analyses of subscales were conducted to provide additional descriptive detail and p values were adjusted within construct using the Holm-Bonferroni method. Dichotomized versions of continuous measures were included for descriptive purposes. Analyses were completed using IBM SPSS Statistics v29.

Results

The Sailor and college student samples significantly differed on all sample characteristics (ps < .005; see Table 1). The samples also significantly differed on measures of sexual violence perpetration, sexual violence victimization, alcohol use, perceived drinking behavior norms, and perceived sexual norms (ps < .04; see Table 2), with more severe behaviors and problematic norms for Sailors compared with college students. On measures of behavior, (see Figure 1) the Sailor sample endorsed a significantly greater proportion with a history of sexual violence perpetration (i.e., endorsed at least one sexually aggressive strategy), and greater use of verbal coercion specifically, relative to college students. Sailors also reported more severe sexual violence victimization and a greater proportion who were sexually assaulted compared with college students. Regarding alcohol use, Sailors reported consuming significantly more drinks per week, with a higher percentage meeting criteria for heavy episodic drinking than college students. On measures of norms (see Figure 2), Sailors endorsed greater perceived acceptance of drinking behaviors, including both low and high severity behaviors, compared with college students. Conversely, college students endorsed greater agreement with healthier perceptions of sexual norms than Sailors.

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

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Bar graphs depicting sample differences on measures of behavior. Note: The left top panel is the percentage of participants who reported a history of using any sexual violence perpetration strategy. The middle top panel is the percentage of participants who reported a history of sexual violence victimization. The right top panel is the percentage of participants who met criteria for heavy episodic drinking.

Figure 2.

Figure 2.

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Bar graphs depicting sample differences on measures of norms.

Discussion

Existing research used to inform integrated interventions to prevent alcohol-related sexual violence has mainly focused on college students, leaving limited knowledge about whether this work generalizes to other at-risk young adult populations. The current study compared sample characteristics, sexual violence perpetration, sexual violence victimization, and alcohol consumption behaviors, as well as related norms between two at-risk, young adult subpopulations, service members and college students. Results demonstrated that Sailors and college students significantly differed across sample characteristics and study variables. Despite Sailors and college students being young adult populations at risk for sexual violence and heavy alcohol consumption, they appear to have differing levels of risk.

The main finding is that Sailors and college students significantly differed across common data elements, with Sailors globally endorsing more severe behaviors and problematic norms pertaining to sexual violence and alcohol use. A greater proportion of Sailors endorsed a history of sexual violence perpetration (9.8%) compared with college students (6.8%). Both samples endorsed high rates of sexual violence victimization, but victimization was more prevalent (57.6%) and severe among Sailors relative to college students (48.4%). Furthermore, Sailors reported significantly more alcoholic drinks per week, including higher rates of heavy episodic drinking (25.0%), than college students (20.9%). Sailors also demonstrated greater perceived acceptance of low and high severity drinking behaviors and less healthy perceptions of sexual norms compared with college students. These beliefs and norms may be a focus for integrated prevention interventions in the military given that promoting positive social norms and healthier attitudes could serve to reduce sexual violence (Gidycz et al., 2018; Orchowski et al., 2018). Results provided insight into how Sailors and college students differed on behaviors and beliefs related to sexual violence and alcohol use but did not indicate why. There are likely institutional, environmental, cultural, and other contextual factors associated with the military that may account for differences observed in this study. Such unique factors may include the hierarchical and male-dominated structure of the military and attitudes that foster violence, as well as higher rates of premilitary sexual trauma and sexual perpetration compared with civilian cohorts (Castro et al., 2015; Stander & Thomsen, 2016; Turchik & Wilson, 2010). The group differences may also reflect an inherent selection bias that may result from individuals who enlist in military service and those who enroll in higher education. The factors underlying these differences are vitally important to evaluate in future research.

The present study offers several strengths and contributions to the understanding of sexual violence and alcohol use in young adult populations. To date, this is the only study directly comparing measures of sexual assault perpetration, sexual violence victimization, and alcohol consumption behaviors, along with related norms between two at-risk subpopulations—service members and college students. The comparison between these subpopulations addresses important knowledge gaps regarding integrated prevention efforts—most studies used college student samples for which the generalizability is unknown, and limited data exist using military samples to identify specific risks (Orchowski et al., 2018; Ray & Parkhill, 2023; Tharp et al., 2013). Furthermore, since research from college populations often informs prevention efforts in the military, understanding the comparability of these populations is necessary to appropriately tailor these prevention efforts. To undertake this comparison, analogous research designs, large samples from comparable at-risk age groups, and common data elements based on valid and widely used measures were required. Using common data elements across studies is a notable strength in that it allows for meaningful group comparisons and improves upon a significant limitation of the alcohol-related sexual violence literature (Miggantz et al., 2023). This comparison study also required regulatory approvals and collaborative relationships across academic and military institutions, for which our research team was uniquely suited. The survey data for both studies were collected anonymously to facilitate openness in responding and valid responses.

Although the two studies from which data were derived relied on similar methodologies and measures, they were not collected in the same study or at the same time, so cohort or other factors may have influenced findings in ways that could not be measured. While efforts were made to obtain representative samples, there were differences in recruitment strategies and results may not fully generalize to the respective subpopulations. The Sailor sample was derived from the population of U.S. enlisted active duty Navy personnel stationed worldwide whereas the college sample was comprised from two large, public universities in the U.S. Additionally, participant selection may create bias based on those who chose to enroll in a study examining sexual assault and alcohol-related behaviors (see Miggantz et al., 2024).

The current study compared behaviors and norms relating to sexual violence perpetration, sexual violence victimization, and alcohol consumption among two samples of at-risk young adult populations—active duty service members and college students—from two separate studies that used common data elements. Sailors reported more severe behaviors and problematic norms across study variables. Collectively, findings imply that while both subpopulations are at risk for sexual assault and heavy alcohol consumption, prevention research based on college student samples may not fully generalize to the military population. Further research is specifically needed with service members to inform integrated and tailored prevention approaches for the military, and to identify and address unique risks (e.g., social norms, living and working settings, deployment cycles, rank structure) in the military context.

Public Health Significance Statement.

Young adulthood can be a time when people face higher risks of sexual violence and heavy drinking. Among young adults, service members and college students showed key differences. Overall, service members reported more harmful behaviors and concerning attitudes about sexual violence and alcohol use. Findings suggest that while both groups are at risk, integrated prevention programs should be adapted to each group’s needs, with special attention to the unique challenges faced in the military.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge our study participants and the knowledge they provided, which informs integrated prevention efforts to reduce sexual violence within the U.S. college student and military populations. We are also appreciative of the reference assistance of Hayley Myers and the editorial assistance of Michelle Stoia.

Disclaimer:

KHW is an employee of the U.S. Government. This work was prepared as part of her official duties. Title 17, U.S.C. §105 provides that copyright protection under this title is not available for any work of the U.S. Government. Title 17, U.S.C. §101 defines a U.S. Government work as work prepared by a military service member or employee of the U.S. Government as part of that person’s official duties. Report No. 24–81 was supported by the Department of the Navy Office of Force Resiliency under study ID 62505. Manuscript preparation was also supported by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (grant numbers T32AA031818 and K01AA028844). The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Department of the Navy, Department of Defense, or the U.S. Government. The study protocols for the service member and college student samples were approved by the Naval Health Research Center and Georgia State University Institutional Review Boards, respectively, and were in compliance with all applicable federal regulations governing the protection of human subjects. Research data from service members were derived from approved Naval Health Research Center Institutional Review Board protocol number NHRC.2021.0014 and those from college students were derived from approved Georgia State University Institutional Review Board protocol number H20066. Data collection from service members was supported by the Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs (grant number PT190176) under work unit no. N2019. Data collection from college students was supported by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (grant number R01AA028813). Data collection from service members using survey instruments was approved by the Office of Management and Budget under Control Number 0703-0080.

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