The relationship between perceived stress, psychological resilience, and depressive symptoms in college students, and the moderating role of gender

Abstract

This study explored the mediating role of multiple dimensions of psychological resilience in the relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms, and further examined the moderating role of gender in this relationship. Survey responses from 1193 college students, assessing their perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and psychological resilience, were analyzed using Pearson correlation analysis and structural equation modeling. Perceived stress was significantly positively correlated with depressive symptoms, and negatively correlated with the three dimensions of resilience (tenacity, strength, and optimism). In addition, depressive symptoms were also significantly negatively correlated with these three resilience dimensions. The total and direct effects of perceived stress on depressive symptoms were both significant, with direct effect accounting for 81.28%. The mediating effect of tenacity was also significant, accounting for 18.72% of the total effect. Gender moderated the direct path from perceived stress to depressive symptoms and from tenacity to depressive symptoms. Women showed significantly higher risk of depression under high stress compared to men, with tenacity serving as a protective factor for them. Thus, college students’ perceived stress levels were closely related to depressive symptoms, which warrants universities to take note and implement personalized interventions to enhance psychological resilience while monitoring changes in students’ depressive symptoms.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1038/s41598-026-43237-w.

Introduction

Depression is a common mental disorder characterized by significant and persistent low mood as its primary clinical feature. In severe cases, it can lead to self-harm and suicidal tendencies, profoundly impacting the patient’s physical and mental health as well as their quality of life¹. Since 2020, events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, wars, and political upheavals may have worsened the situation for many. With the increasing global burden of mental disorders, the point prevalence of major depressive disorder is estimated at approximately 8%, the proportion of self-reported elevated depressive symptoms is approximately 34%, and of elevated depressive symptoms in adolescents is approximately 37%². Depressive symptoms are considered a precursor to depression, representing a psychological sub-healthy state that does not meet the diagnostic criteria for clinical depression^3,4. Studies have shown that the detection rate of depressive symptoms among Chinese college students has been increasing annually⁵, indicating an urgent need for intervention and prevention.

This study aimed to construct a moderated mediation model to systematically examine the mediating effects of the three subdimensions of psychological resilience (tenacity, strength, and optimism) in the relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms, and to explore the moderating effect of gender on this mediation pathway. This perspective is rare in the existing literature and is expected to provide new theoretical insights into the mechanisms underlying the onset of depressive symptoms in college students, as well as empirical evidence for the development of targeted intervention programs.

Perceived stress refers to how individuals assess the severity of stressful situations they encounter in their lives and evaluate their resources and abilities to cope with these situations⁶. Individual perceived stress is closely related to depressive symptoms and is an important precursor to the onset of depression^7–10. Cognitive appraisal is the internal psychological process through which individuals perceive stress and involves a series of cognitive activities in which individuals judge and evaluate the nature and significance of stressful events, as well as their own coping resources. Psychological responses can be seen as the outcomes of the cognitive appraisal process¹¹. College students often find themselves in a stressful environment with academic burdens, competitiveness, and complex interpersonal interactions¹². Prolonged exposure to such stress without the ability to alleviate it can easily have adverse effects on both physical and mental health. Cross-sectional studies have shown a positive correlation between depressive symptoms and perceived stress levels in college students^9,12, with perceived stress serving as a predictor of depressive symptoms⁸. Longitudinal studies have also found that differences in perceived stress levels among individuals with depressive symptoms significantly affect the intervention outcomes; those with lower perceived stress levels show better improvement in depressive symptoms after intervention¹³.

Psychological resilience refers to the ability of individuals to adapt effectively when facing major adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats, or other significant life stressors, enabling them to recover or even surpass their original functional levels. It includes three dimensions: tenacity, strength, and optimism¹⁴. Psychological resilience plays a crucial role as a protective psychological factor. Previous research has shown a close relationship among psychological resilience, perceived stress, and depressive symptoms, with individuals suffering from major depressive disorder exhibiting higher levels of perceived stress and lower levels of psychological resilience^15–18. Furthermore, high psychological resilience has shown to buffer the effects of perceived stress. Individuals with high resilience, even when exposed to high levels of stress, may not develop depressive symptoms due to effective coping strategies and emotional regulation abilities. In contrast, individuals with low psychological resilience are more likely to exhibit depressive tendencies under stressful conditions^{7,9,15,18–21}. There are two main theoretical perspectives explaining the mechanism through which psychological resilience operates between stress and depression. The buffering hypothesis emphasizes psychological resilience as a moderating factor^22,23, suggesting that high resilience can mitigate the negative impact of stress on mental health. Specifically, in high-stress environments, resilience buffers the harmful effects of stress by enhancing individuals’ coping abilities. In contrast, the mediation hypothesis views psychological resilience as a mediating factor, proposing that stress leads to depressive symptoms by depleting or eroding an individual’s resilience resources, following the pathway: stress → decrease in resilience → increase in depression^21,23. This study views psychological resilience as a mediating factor for the following reasons. First, this perspective is highly consistent with the diathesis-stress model^24,25, which emphasizes that the onset of psychological symptoms is not solely caused by external stressors, but is a result of the interaction between an individual’s existing internal psychological qualities and external stressors, with psychological resilience being one of the key psychological traits. Second, it is consistent with the “stress erosion model,” which posits that chronic stress preferentially depletes the consumable psychological resources within resilience^26,27. Finally, treating subdimensions of psychological resilience as mediating factors helps uncover the internal mechanisms through which perceived stress influences depression—addressing the question of how perceived stress leads to depression—thereby enabling a more precise elucidation of the psychological processes underlying the impact of perceived stress on depressive symptoms.

Previous research has shown that the prevalence of depressive symptoms in female adolescents is significantly higher than in male adolescents². Additionally, the severity and manifestation of depressive disorders in women differ from those in men. Women are more likely to experience comorbid symptoms such as binge eating, anxiety, and hypersomnia, while men are more likely to exhibit alcohol or substance addiction^28,29. Moreover, women generally report higher levels of perceived stress than men and are more likely to experience greater psychological burden due to stressors in domains such as academics and work^30–32. Another study found that the similarities between men and women in perceived stress outweigh the differences³³; however, further investigation into these differences was deemed necessary. In terms of psychological resilience, men generally have higher levels than women^34,35, particularly in the dimension of tenacity³⁶. Gender socialization fosters divergent coping strategies—often encouraging emotional suppression in men and emotional expression in women—which can lead to the development and manifestation of resilience in different ways³⁷. The gender role theory posits that men are socialized to be independent and self-reliant, while women are expected to be more warm, supportive, and emotionally sensitive³⁸. These differences may further influence the complex relationship between perceived stress, psychological resilience, and depressive symptoms.

Through a review of existing studies, we found that although previous research has established a close relationship between perceived stress, psychological resilience, and depressive symptoms, constructing a more refined theoretical framework that integrates these variables remains a key challenge. In terms of theoretical development, existing studies mostly treat psychological resilience as a holistic concept, failing to fully reveal the potential differentiated mediating pathways within its internal dimensions (tenacity, strength, optimism). Therefore, this study systematically explores the mediating pathways of these three sub-dimensions in the relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms. In terms of practical precision, although gender is considered an important variable, its specific moderating role in the complex pathway of perceived stress → psychological resilience → depressive symptoms remains unclear. By examining the moderating effect of gender, this study aims to provide empirical evidence for the development of targeted, individualized psychological intervention programs, thereby offering practical guidance for improving mental health among university students. Based on the above review, this study adopted an observational research design and proposed the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1

There will be significant correlations among perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and the three sub-dimensions of psychological resilience (tenacity, strength, optimism) among college students. Specifically, we anticipate a positive correlation between perceived stress and depressive symptoms, while both are expected to show negative correlations with each sub-dimension of psychological resilience.

Hypothesis 2

Tenacity, strength, and optimism will mediate the relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms, with varying effects.

Hypothesis 3

Gender will moderate the pathways from perceived stress to depressive symptoms, from perceived stress to the sub-dimensions of psychological resilience, and from the sub-dimensions of psychological resilience to depressive symptoms.

Methods

Participants and procedure

Participants were 1201 university students, recruited via convenience sampling from Songjiang University Town in Shanghai. A questionnaire survey was administered after the researcher read the instructions aloud, explained the items, clarified that the data would be used solely for scientific research, and emphasized the importance of truthful, independent, and voluntary responses.

The questionnaire survey included participants’ basic demographic information (age, gender), and responses to the Perceived Stress Scale, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Psychological Resilience Scale (detailed later). After completion, the survey staff checked for any missing items and ensured data completeness by allowing participants to fill in any missing information. Questionnaires with invalid responses (e.g., completed in less than 2 min or with patterned responses) were excluded. A total of 1193 valid questionnaires were collected (98.84%), including 750 from women (62.8%) and 443 from men (37.1%), with an average age of 20.15 ± 1.90 years. The recruitment process is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Study recruitment flowchart.

Research instruments

Basic information questionnaire

Basic information of the participants was collected, including age (in years) and gender.

Perceived stress scale-10 (PSS-10)

The Chinese version of the PSS-10, developed by Wang Zhen et al. was used as a self-report tool to assess participants’ perceived stress levels, with Cronbach’s α coefficient = 0.91³⁹. The scale comprises 10 items, rated on a 5-point scale from 0 (never) to 4 (very often). The total score is the sum of all items (0–40), with higher total scores indicating a higher perceived stress level.

Beck depression inventory-II (BDI-II)

The BDI-II is one of the most widely used self-report scales for depressive symptoms, with good reliability and validity⁴⁰, and a Cronbach’s α coefficient of 0.948⁴¹. It comprises 21 items, scored on a 4-point scale from 0 to 3, where “0” indicates the absence of the symptom, “1” indicates mild, “2” indicates moderate, and “3” indicates severe depressive symptoms. The total score is the sum of all item scores (0–63), with a higher total score indicating greater severity of depressive symptoms. A score between 0 and 13 indicates no depression; 14 and 19 indicates mild depressive symptoms; 20 and 28 indicates moderate depressive symptoms; and 29 and 63 indicates severe depressive symptoms.

Resilience scale (RISC)

The Chinese version of the Resilience Scale (RISC), adapted by Xiao Nan et al., was used to assess participants’ resilience. The scale comprises 25 items across three dimensions: tenacity, strength, and optimism (Cronbach’s α = 0.91)⁴². Tenacity refers to the ability of an individual to persist, endure, and remain determined when facing adversity, difficulty, and stress. Strength refers to the ability to recover quickly, bounce back, and learn and grow from trauma, setbacks, or adversity. Optimism refers to the tendency to have a positive outlook toward the future, believing that good outcomes are more likely, and perceiving that difficulties are temporary and surmountable. The scale uses a 5-point rating system from 0 (never) to 4 (always). The total score is the sum of all item scores (0–100), with a higher total score indicating a higher level of psychological.

resilience.

Statistical analysis

Data analysis was conducted using SPSS 26.0 and Amos 24.0. The data distribution was observed using frequency histograms. For continuous data that followed or approximately followed a normal distribution, means ± standard deviations (M ± SD) were used for description, and group comparisons were performed using independent samples t-tests. Categorical data were described as n (%), and group comparisons were conducted using χ2 tests. Pearson correlation analysis was used to explore the relationships between perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and the dimensions of psychological resilience. A structural equation model was established to examine the mediating role of psychological resilience in the relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms among college students (all variables were standardized before modeling). Model evaluation indices included root mean square residual (RMR), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), goodness-of-fit index (GFI), normed fit index (NFI), and comparative fit index (CFI). Path analysis parameter estimation was performed using a non-parametric percentile bootstrap method (with no strict assumptions about variable distributions), with 5000 bootstrap samples. A bias-corrected 95% confidence interval (95% CI) for the product of the mediation paths was calculated, and a non-zero CI was considered statistically significant for mediation effects. Model 59 in the Process program was used to analyze the mediating role of psychological resilience and the moderating effect of gender. All statistical inferences were conducted using two-tailed tests, with a significance level set at α = 0.05. A p-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results

Differences in demographics, perceived stress, and psychological resilience between college students with and without depressive symptoms

As shown in Table 1, among the 1193 participants, the depression symptom detection rate was 19.11%. Among them, 116 (50.88%) had mild depressive symptoms, 70 (30.70%) had moderate depressive symptoms, and 42 (18.42%) had severe depressive symptoms. Compared to those without any depressive symptoms, those with depressive symptoms had significantly higher PSS scores and significantly lower scores on tenacity, strength, and optimism.

Table 1.

Differences in demographics, perceived stress, and psychological resilience between college students with and without depressive symptoms.

Variable	Total (n = 1193)	College students with depressive symptoms (n = 228)	College students without depressive symptoms (n = 965)	Difference Test
Gender (Men%)	37.16	37.28	37.10	X2=0.002, P = 0.968
Age (Years)	20.15 ± 1.80	20.28 ± 1.951	20.12 ± 1.762	t=−1.108, p = 0.269
Perceived Stress	17.90 ± 5.03	22.00 ± 5.001	16.93 ± 4.528	t=−14.889, p<0.001
Tenacity	30.65 ± 10.40	24.84 ± 9.317	32.02 ± 10.172	t = 10.717, p<0.001
Strength	20.07 ± 6.268	16.45 ± 5.563	20.93 ± 6.120	t = 9.778, p<0.001
Optimism	9.37 ± 3.231	7.84 ± 3.065	9.73 ± 3.164	t = 8.346, p<0.001

The relationship between perceived stress, psychological resilience, and depressive symptoms in college students

Pearson correlation coefficient was used to examine the relationship between perceived stress, psychological resilience, and depressive symptoms (Fig. 2). PSS scores were significantly and positively correlated with BDI scores, and significantly and negatively correlated with tenacity, strength, and optimism. BDI scores were significantly and negatively correlated with tenacity, strength, and optimism.

Fig. 2.

The structural relationship model between perceived stress, psychological resilience, and depressive symptoms in college students. Path coefficients are standardized, and all path coefficients have p-values < 0.001.

Construction and validation of the structural relationship model between perceived stress, psychological resilience, and depressive symptoms in college students

A model was established with PSS as the independent variable, BDI scores as the dependent variable, and tenacity, strength, and optimism as mediator variables. Non-significant mediator paths were sequentially removed, and the model was recalculated until all remaining mediator path coefficients passed the bootstrap significance test, ensuring the baseline model demonstrated acceptable fit. The path coefficients of strength and optimism on BDI scores were not significant and were thus excluded. The final model included PSS, tenacity, and BDI scores. The model fit indices were as follows: CMIN/df = 0.434, RMR = 0.004, RMSEA < 0.001, GFI = 1.000, NFI = 1.000, CFI = 1.000. These values met the reference criteria (CMIN/df < 3, RMR < 0.05, RMSEA < 0.08, GFI > 0.9, NFI > 0.9, CFI > 0.9)⁴³, indicating a well-fitting structural equation model. Path analysis is shown in Fig. 2, and the mediation effect test results are presented in Table 2. The total effect of PSS on BDI scores was significant (β = 0.438, 95% CI: 0.382–0.493). The direct effect of PSS on BDI scores was also significant (β = 0.356, 95% CI: 0.297–0.415), accounting for 81.28% of the total effect. The mediation effect of tenacity was significant (β = 0.082, 95% CI: 0.058–0.112), explaining 18.72% of the total effect. These results suggest that higher levels of perceived stress were associated with higher depressive symptoms, and tenacity partially mediated the relationship between the two (Table 3).

Table 2.

Correlations between perceived stress, psychological resilience, and depressive symptoms.

Variable	Perceived stress	Depressive symptoms	Tenacity	Strength	Optimism
Perceived Stress	1
Depressive Symptoms	0.438***	1
Tenacity	−0.423***	−0.365***	1
Strength	−0.453***	−0.363***	0.868***	1
Optimism	−0.334***	−0.285***	0.697***	0.759***	1

***p < 0.001 (two-tailed test).

Table 3.

Bootstrap test results of the mediation effect.

Type of effect	β	95%CI	P	SE	Effect percentage
Total Effect	0.438	[0.382, 0.493]	<0.001	0.028
Direct Effect	0.356	[0.297, 0.415]	<0.001	0.030	81.28%
Tenacity Mediation Effect	0.082	[0.058, 0.112]	<0.001	0.014	18.72%

CI confidence interval, SE standard error.

Analysis of gender’s moderating role in the pathways

Since tenacity mediated the relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms, we further explored the moderating role of gender in the relationship between perceived stress, tenacity, and depressive symptoms. The results of the moderated mediation model test (Table 4; Fig. 3) showed that the interaction term between perceived stress and gender did not significantly predict tenacity (β = −0.012, t = −0.224, p = 0.823) but the interaction term between perceived stress and gender (β = 0.210, t = 3.629, p < 0.001) significantly predicted depressive symptoms. The interaction term between tenacity and gender (β = −0.293, t = −2.634, p < 0.001) significantly predicted depressive symptoms. These results suggest that gender moderated the direct pathway from perceived stress to depressive symptoms, as well as the pathway from tenacity to depressive symptoms.

Table 4.

Moderated mediation model test.

Outcome variable Predictor variable	Tenacity			Depressive symptoms
	β	SE	t	β	SE	t
Constant	0.0003	0.027	0.013	− 0.011	0.026	− 0.447
Gender	− 0.159	0.055	− 2.894**	− 0.009	0.053	− 0.168
Perceived stress	− 0.394	0.027	− 14.844***	0.350	0.028	12.481***
Perceived stress x Gender	− 0.012	0.055	− 0.224	0.210	0.058	3.629***
Tenacity				− 0.160	0.054	− 2.970***
Tenacity x Gender				− 0.293	0.111	− 2.634***
R-sq	0.165			0.241
F	78.089***			53.656***

SE standard error.

Fig. 3.

The moderating role of gender in the relationship between perceived stress, psychological resilience, and depressive symptoms among college students. Path coefficients are standardized, and all path coefficients have p-values < 0.001.

A simple slope analysis was used to further clarify the moderating role of gender, with groups defined by gender. In men, perceived stress (PSS) significantly predicted depressive symptoms (BDI) positively (simple slope = 0.218, t = 4.782, p < 0.001). In women, perceived stress significantly predicted depressive symptoms positively (simple slope = 0.428, t = 12.036, p < 0.001), and the prediction was stronger (Fig. 4). Thus, women had a significantly higher risk of depression in high-stress environments compared to men.

Fig. 4.

Moderating role of gender in the relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms.

As shown in Fig. 5, in men, tenacity positively predicted depressive symptoms, but it was not statistically significant (simple slope = 0.024, t = 0.274, p = 0.784). In women, tenacity significantly but negatively predicted depressive symptoms (simple slope = −0.269, t = −3.937, p < 0.001). Thus, tenacity has a protective effect on depressive symptoms in women, but not in men.

Fig. 5.

Moderating role of gender in the relationship between tenacity and depressive symptoms.

Discussion

The results of this study show that perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and the sub-dimensions of psychological resilience (tenacity, strength, and optimism) are closely related. Tenacity mediates the relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms, and gender moderates the pathways from perceived stress to depressive symptoms and from tenacity to depressive symptoms. Specifically, in examining the relationship between perceived stress and depressive symptoms, it was found that higher levels of perceived stress were associated with higher depressive symptom scores, and the direct effect of perceived stress on depressive symptoms was significant. This result is consistent with previous studies^9,12, suggesting that college students with high perceived stress are more likely to develop depressive symptoms under environmental pressure⁸. According to Arnold’s “appraisal-arousal” theory, when individuals begin to assess their stress levels in response to a triggering event, they are likely to make negative evaluations, such as “fear,” which leads to negative emotions⁴⁴. Therefore, interventions aimed at reducing perceived stress levels among college students may help reduce the risk of developing depressive symptoms.

Tenacity was found to be the only significant mediating variable between perceived stress and depressive symptoms in college students. This finding may stem from the unique psychological characteristics of tenacity. Unlike traits such as strength and optimism, which emphasize proactive coping, tenacity focuses more on an individual’s ability to endure and persist in stressful situations⁴⁵. College students with lower tenacity often struggle to withstand prolonged stress, leading to noticeable emotional fluctuations and an increased risk of depressive symptoms⁹. In contrast, college students with higher tenacity are able to maintain relatively objective cognitive appraisals and exhibit greater psychological resilience and adaptability⁴⁵.　Some studies suggest that psychological resilience is not a single, static trait, but a multidimensional construct that includes both trait-like and state-like components⁴⁶. We believe that the results of this study not only validate the mediation hypothesis proposed based on the diathesis-stress model^21,23–25, but also provide a concrete explanation for the “stress erosion model.” Chronic stress primarily erodes the “dynamic state” components of psychological resilience, which are expendable psychological resources, rather than its stable “trait-based foundation“^26,27. It is precisely this specific depletion of functional resilience resources that constitutes the core mediating mechanism through which stress leads to depression. Therefore, in promoting mental health among college students, interventions should focus on restoring and strengthening these dynamic resources, which can be depleted by stress. Strategies such as enhancing emotional resilience through mindfulness training or accumulating successful coping experiences through moderate adversity exposure can be considered as systemic approaches to improving tenacity and effectively countering the erosive effects of stress^47,48.

Gender was also found to moderate the direct pathway from perceived stress to depressive symptoms, with women exhibiting significantly higher depressive risk than men in high-stress environments. Studies have shown that individuals may develop depressive symptoms after encountering stressors⁴⁹, and women are more likely to be harmed by repeated exposure to stress. Their life experiences make them more susceptible to higher perceived stress and more prone to negative emotions⁵⁰. From a personality traits perspective, female college students tend to be more emotional, with lower self-esteem and a sense of control⁵¹; and are more susceptible to external negative information and more sensitive to increases in stress⁵².

Gender also moderated the pathway from tenacity to depressive symptoms. Tenacity had a protective effect on depressive symptoms in women, but this protective effect was not significant for men. This gender difference can be explained from the perspective of social behavioral mechanisms. Women with high tenacity typically exhibit higher self-efficacy, which allows them to maintain more stable self-perceptions in stressful situations and be less affected by external negative evaluations. When facing adversity, they actively mobilize personal resources and seek various stress relief strategies, rather than passively enduring^45,53. We hypothesize that these positive cognitive and behavioral patterns together form a “resilience-support-adaptation” positive cycle, where psychological resilience promotes the acquisition of social support, and effective social support further strengthens adaptability. This dynamic, positive interaction may significantly enhance emotional regulation capacity, thereby reducing the risk of developing depressive symptoms. In contrast, the behaviors of men with high tenacity differ. Influenced by traditional gender role norms, men are more likely to adopt a coping strategy of enduring stress alone when faced with pressure⁵⁴. In the long term, this lack of emotional expression in coping strategies may increase the risk of depression, manifesting as sudden emotional breakdown or somatization symptoms⁵³.　For female college students, efforts can be made to further strengthen and utilize their social support networks, maximizing the protective role of high tenacity. For male students, it is necessary to reshape their understanding of psychological resilience and help them integrate endurance with proactive help-seeking behaviors, such as through group counseling, to reduce psychological barriers to seeking help⁵⁵. Future research could further explore how to develop differentiated psychological resilience training programs based on gender characteristics.

Study implications

This study advances the understanding of stress-coping mechanisms among college students at both theoretical and applied levels. Theoretically, the findings not only support the diathesis–stress model and the mediation hypothesis but also incorporate the perspective of the “stress erosion model.” Perceived stress significantly and negatively predicted all three sub-dimensions of psychological resilience (tenacity, strength, and optimism). However, among the pathways from these sub-dimensions to depressive symptoms, only tenacity served as a significant mediator, whereas the direct paths from strength and optimism to depressive symptoms were not significant. This finding suggests that stress may not erode psychological resources uniformly; rather, it primarily affects depressive symptoms by depleting the tenacity resources essential for sustained coping and recovery. Future studies may further examine the conditions under which strength and optimism can effectively buffer the impact of stress on depression, thereby enhancing the explanatory power of the model across different populations and contexts. Practically, the findings suggest a dual shift in university mental-health efforts: from focusing solely on stressors to prioritizing the cultivation of resilience resources, and from generic interventions to gender-specific support, thereby establishing a more precise and responsive psychological support system.

Study limitations

This study has several limitations, which point the way forward for future research. First, the cross-sectional design makes it difficult to establish causal relationships between variables. Future research could adopt a longitudinal design to track the dynamic temporal relationships between variables, further confirming their causal pathways. Second, the study sample was limited to college students with depressive symptoms, and the gender ratio within the sample was unbalanced, which may affect the generalizability of the results. Future research should test the stability of this model in a broader, more diverse, and gender-balanced student population. Third, this study mainly focused on revealing the mediating role of the subdimensions of psychological resilience (particularly tenacity). Future research could use preset competing models to further explore and compare the complex functions of psychological resilience in different models (such as mediation models, moderation models, and moderated mediation models). Finally, exploring effective pathways to systematically integrate proven resilience training programs into the university mental health education system is a crucial step in translating the findings of this study into practice and realizing their public health value.

Conclusion

Our study indicated that perceived stress levels in college students are closely related to depressive symptoms. Among these, tenacity, a subdimension of psychological resilience, serves as an important psychological bridge linking perceived stress and depressive symptoms. When persistent stress erodes this quality, individuals’ ability to maintain emotional stability declines, thereby increasing the risk of depressive symptoms. Gender is an important factor influencing the above psychological processes. Female students are more likely to develop depressive symptoms under high stress conditions, and their depressive symptoms are more likely to be alleviated by an increase in their level of tenacity. It is recommended that university staff pay attention to the perceived stress levels of college students and implement personalized interventions to enhance psychological resilience while monitoring changes in their depressive symptoms.

Supplementary Information

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Author contributions

Sicheng Chen: Investigation, Data curation, Writing- Original draft Shufan Li: Investigation Zhenyu Zhang: Conceptualization, Methodology, and Supervision.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Informed consent was obtained from all study participants. The study was approved by the ethical committee of Shanghai University of Sport (102772023RT075) and all the methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Clinical trial number

Not applicable.