Traditional ecological knowledge of wild edible plants in the Dai communities of Lujiangba area, western Yunnan, China

Abstract

Background

The Dai people of Lujiangba area, Baoshan, Yunnan Province, have rich knowledge of collecting and consuming wild edible plants (WEPs). These plants contribute significantly to local food security, nutrition, and cultural identity. Rapid economic development and environmental changes threaten the transmission of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) of WEPs. However, few research or inventory of such TEK had been completed.

Methods

This study adopted ethnobotanical research methods, including semi-structured interviews and participatory observation, involving 147 local participants. Data were analyzed using the relative citation frequency (RCF) index to determine commonly used species, traditional harvesting techniques, and conservation strategies.

Results

In the Lujiangba area, a total of 177 wild edible plants (WEPs) were documented among the Dai people, representing 64 families. Herbaceous species predominated, comprising 63.84% of the recorded flora, with leaves (58.19%) and stems (55.93%) as the principal edible parts. Vegetables (67.23%) and herbal medicine (29.38%) constituted the primary categories of utilization. Among these species, 171 were wild, while 66 were cultivated either in situ or in translocated sites, primarily distributed across homegardens, mountainous areas, and ricefields. Approximately 50.85% of wild edible plants required management interventions such as weeding, irrigating, or fertilizing, whereas 10.73% did not require any additional management. Harvesting exhibited distinct seasonality, predominantly occurring in spring (69.49%), followed by summer and autumn, with minimal activity in winter; only 2.82% of species were harvested year-round. Through RFC value, the more significant plants are: Diplazium esculentum, Elsholtzia kachinensis, Lasia spinosa, and Buddleja officinalis. These findings indicate that this pattern demonstrates the high degree of cultural adaptation embedded within their traditional ecological knowledge regarding species selection, management practices, and seasonal utilization. Furthermore, traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) of wild edible plants (WEPs) is in danger of being lost due to the influence of modern life and generations.

Conclusions

The Dai people of the Lujiangba area exhibit profound TEK in their use of WEPs. The traditional ecological knowledge not only supports the sustainable use of plant resources but also embodies the Dai people’s cultural identity and regional heritage, highlighting the importance of preserving and transmitting this knowledge to maintain local biodiversity and promote food security and cultural continuity. Furthermore, both in situ and ex situ conservation strategies can mitigate the loss of TEK. However, additional measures are required, including the development of comprehensive databases, the integration of TEK with scientific knowledge, and the promotion of multidisciplinary and cross-cultural exchange.

Background

Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) refers to the knowledge systems that humans have developed through long-term interaction with the natural environment, encompassing the identification, use, management, and protection of biological resources. It is deeply embedded in local cultures and livelihood practices [1, 2]. In recent years, against the backdrop of global environmental change, ecological degradation, and cultural homogenization, TEK has gained increasing attention in the fields of ethnobiology and ethnoecology as a crucial resource for understanding human–environment relationships, promoting ecological sustainability, and safeguarding cultural diversity [3, 4]. As an important component of TEK, knowledge of wild edible plants (WEPs) not only reflects the reliance of local communities on natural resources but also represents cultural variation in food choices, health concepts, and ecological adaptation strategies among different ethnic groups [5–7].

Wild edible plants (WEPs) are naturally occurring plant species that grow without deliberate cultivation or domestication and can be consumed directly or after processing [8]. They are widely distributed worldwide, particularly in regions with high biodiversity. WEPs play essential roles in food security, nutritional supplementation, traditional culture, and local livelihoods [9, 10]. For many communities, WEPs are integral not only to daily diets but also to traditional medicine, cultural ceremonies, and ecological management systems [11–13]. In the context of accelerating climate change, biodiversity loss, and food insecurity, WEPs have attracted increasing attention due to their nutritional value and ecological adaptability [14–16]. Meanwhile, with the growing standardization of global food systems and rapid changes in traditional lifestyles, the documentation and study of TEK associated with WEPs have become increasingly urgent [17–19]. Within TEK systems, WEPs represent a key interface between ecological knowledge, food practices, and adaptive strategies to environmental variability.

Southwestern China represents a typical region where biological and cultural diversity intersect. Yunnan Province, characterized by complex topography, diverse climatic zones, and highly concentrated ethnic cultures, has become a key area for TEK research [20–22]. The Dai people, an important Indigenous ethnic group in Yunnan, maintain livelihoods closely associated with river valleys, terraced landscapes, and low mountain forest ecosystems [23]. Over generations, they have developed extensive knowledge regarding the identification of wild plants, taste preferences, seasonal harvesting, and ecological management practices [24]. However, existing research on the Dai people has largely focused on medicinal plants [25], cultivated crops [26], or traditional medical systems [27], with limited systematic, region-specific, and quantitative studies on their TEK of WEPs. Moreover, with the intensification of modern agriculture, out-migration of young people for work, and increased dependence on market vegetables, knowledge about the collection, use, and management of wild plants within Dai communities is diminishing, resulting in intergenerational gaps and risks of cultural erosion [28–30]. To date, no quantitative, TEK-oriented ethnobotanical study has systematically examined WEP knowledge, use, and management among Dai communities in dry-hot valley environments.

The Lujiangba area, located in a typical dry and hot valley in Yunnan, features a unique combination of dry–hot climate, river-valley landforms, and distinct vegetation assemblages, which together create highly heterogeneous ecological habitats and rich wild plant resources [31, 32]. The Dai community in this region has long engaged in rice cultivation, forest-product gathering, and small-scale farming, maintaining close interactions with surrounding mountains, river valleys, and forest edges. Through these practices, they have accumulated region-specific knowledge of WEPs utilization and ecological management [23, 24]. However, systematic ethnobotanical research on the Dai community in Lujiangba area remains limited, especially studies that take a TEK perspective to comprehensively examine the structure, functions, and contemporary socio-ecological challenges of traditional knowledge related to wild plants [25].

Therefore, this study takes the Dai community in the Lujiangba area of western Yunnan as a case study to address analytical questions concerning the structure, drivers, and dynamics of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) of wild edible plants (WEPs). We hypothesize that (i) the composition and uses of WEPs among Dai communities show distinct species composition and utilization patterns compared with non–Dai ethnic groups in China; (ii) local ecological factors, particularly altitude gradients and land-use systems, significantly influence species selection, utilization patterns, and ecological management strategies of WEPs; and (iii) socio-economic transformation and market integration are associated with intergenerational differences in knowledge transmission, leading to both transformation and partial erosion of TEK. To test these hypotheses, we employed participatory observation, semi-structured interviews, and quantitative ethnobotanical methods to analyze species diversity, utilization patterns, ecological management practices, and age-related knowledge variation. By doing so, this study aims to contribute to broader cross-cultural ethnobotanical discussions and to provide insights relevant for the conservation of biocultural diversity, the safeguarding of traditional knowledge, and the sustainable management of wild plant resources.

Methods

Study area

As shown in Fig. 1, the study site is located in the Lujiangba area, Baoshan, Yunnan Province, China. Known as Menghe in the Dai language, Lujiangba lies in the western part of Yunnan and comprises low-altitude basin within the Nujiang River valley. The area is predominantly hilly, with elevations ranging from 738 to 1,189 m above sea level. It benefits from abundant sunlight, remains frost-free year-round, and is recognized as one of China’s few representative subtropical dry-hot river valleys [33, 34]. The study was conducted in Bingmen and Moka villages, two administrative villages located in the Nu River valley of Lujiang Township, western Yunnan, China. According to Gazetteer of Lujiang Dai Township provided by The People’s Government of Lujiang Town, Longyang District, Yunnan Province [35], Bingmen Village is located at 25.07°N, 98.84°E, approximately 18 km from the township center. Moka Village is located at 24.98°N, 98.85°E. Both villages lie within valley and foothill landscapes influenced by the Nu River and its tributaries and adjacent to the Gaoligong Mountain region.

Fig. 1.

Location of study area of Baoshan City, Yunnan Province, China

As shown in Table 1, Bingmen Village occupies a total land area of approximately 19,967 mu (1 mu = 1/15 ha), including about 4,498 mu of cultivated land composed of paddy fields and sloping dry fields. The village consists of six natural villages and seven agricultural production groups. The total population is 1,621 residents from 360 households. Local residents identify themselves primarily as Dai, with smaller numbers of Lisu, Han, and Bai inhabitants. Dai residents speak Dai languages belonging to the Southwestern Tai branch of the Tai–Kadai language family, while Lisu residents speak Lisu (Sino-Tibetan, Lolo-Burmese branch). Mandarin Chinese is commonly used for interethnic communication. The dominant religious belief among Dai residents is Theravada Buddhism, which plays an important role in shaping daily practices, seasonal activities, and interactions with the surrounding environment. Bingmen Village lies at an average elevation of about 800 m above sea level, with a mean annual temperature of approximately 20 °C and annual precipitation of around 1,000 mm. Local livelihoods are centered on agriculture, particularly sugarcane, coffee, and rice, supplemented by fruit crops such as mango, longan, lychee, banana, and pomegranate. The Kunbeng and Puchong rivers flow through the village landscape, supporting irrigation and providing habitats for wild edible plants.

Table 1.

Socio-ecological characteristics of two villages investigated

Item	Bingmen Village	Moka Village
GPS	25.07°N, 98.84°E	24.98°N, 98.85°E
Altitude	800 m	1,020–1,300 m
Ecology	Hot and dry river-valley environment; valley floor and foothills influenced by the Nu River and tributaries	Valley plains and gentle hills with fertile soil
Ethnicity	Primarily Dai; Lisu, Han, and Bai residents	Predominantly Dai
Language	Dai language; Lisu languag; Mandarin Chinese	Dai language; Mandarin Chinese
Religion	Theravada Buddhism	Theravada Buddhism
Number of inhabitants	360 households; 1,621 residents	392 households; 1,675 residents

Moka Village covers approximately 12,831 mu (1 mu = 1/15 ha) and comprises seven natural villages, all locally recognized as long-established Dai settlements. The village had 392 households and a population of 1,675 residents, of whom nearly 90% identify themselves as Dai. The Dai language of the Southwestern Tai branch (Tai–Kadai family) is widely spoken in daily life, alongside Mandarin Chinese. Theravada Buddhism is the primary religious belief and is closely integrated into community life, agricultural cycles, and traditional knowledge transmission. Elevations range from approximately 1,020 to 1,300 m, and the landscape is characterized by fertile valley plains, gentle hills, and well-developed irrigation systems supplied by local rivers and springs. Agricultural production focuses on sugarcane, coffee, and rice, with additional crops including mango, longan, banana, lychee, and aromatic tobacco. Moka has long been locally recognized as a major sugarcane-producing area.

Despite differences in size and ethnic composition, Bingmen and Moka villages share similar ecological conditions, subsistence strategies, languages, and religious believes. In both villages, the collection and use of wild edible plants are embedded in Dai cultural practices and Buddhist worldviews and remain important components of local food systems. These shared characteristics make the two villages appropriate and complementary sites for investigating traditional ecological knowledge and the contemporary use of wild edible plants in the Lujiangba area.

Fieldwork and data collection

Prior to fieldwork, a comprehensive review and synthesis of published literature and local gazetteers on Dai traditional ecological knowledge and wild plant use in Yunnan were conducted. We reviewed historical developments, cultural contexts, and documented management practices of wild edible plants, providing a theoretical and contextual foundation for the field investigation. The investigation was conducted from July 2023 to August 2024. A total of five field investigations were carried out based on the growth habits of the wild edible plants in Moka and Bingmen villages. This research followed the ethical guidelines of the American Anthropological Association [36] and the International Society for Ethnobiology [37]. Informed consent was obtained from all participants, and the objectives and procedures of the study were clearly explained to them in advance. Participants expressed their understanding and support for the research.

This study employed a mixed-methods approach that integrated qualitative and quantitative techniques to investigate the traditional management of wild edible plants among the Dai people in the Lujiangba area. Ethnobotanical methods included participatory observation, semi-structured interviews, and snowball sampling to document traditional ecological knowledge and plant-use practices (Fig. 2). Fieldwork was carried out in Bingmen and Moka villages through participatory observation. Researchers accompanied community members in activities such as plant gathering, management of semi-wild species, processing and preparation of wild edible plants. Initial key informants were identified with the assistance of village leaders and community elders, based on their recognized knowledge of local plants and subsistence practices. Subsequently, a snowball sampling approach was applied, whereby each interviewed participant recommended other community members who were considered knowledgeable about wild edible plants, including experienced foragers, farmers, home gardeners, and elders. This iterative process allowed the research team to reach individuals with diverse expertise and social roles while ensuring that locally recognized knowledge holders were included.

Fig. 2.

Ethnoecological surveys of traditional management in Lujiangba area. (a)-(d). Semi-structured interview; (e)-(f). Participative observation. All people in the pictures have agreed to put their photos in the publications

A total of 147 people were interviewed, who were familiar with the specific information of this research of wild edible plants. Interview topics included the wild edible plants’ natural habitats, harvesting seasons, and cultivation techniques. As shown in Table 2, the sample consisted of approximately equal numbers of men and women, with a relatively even distribution across age groups. Notably, most middle-aged and elderly participants have resided in the Lujiangba area for their entire lives, demonstrating adaptability to and understanding of the local ecological and social environment. The interviews covered the following key areas:

Table 2.

Demographics of participants

Characteristics		Number of respondents	%
Sex	Male	75	51.06
	Female	72	48.94
Age	20–39	32	21.76
	40–59	50	34.01
	60–79	56	38.09
	>80	9	6.12
Formal education	Illiterate	35	23.81
	Primary school	72	48.98
	Middle school	28	19.05
	High school	6	4.08
	College	6	4.08
Main occupation	Farmer	109	74.14
	Public official	19	12.93
	Others	19	12.93

1. People’s demographic information, including name, nationality, age, gender, and educational background;

2. The types, edible parts, harvest periods, and uses of wild edible plants;

3. The number of collections and the preferred types of wild edible plants;

4. The management strategies of wild edible plants.

Data analysis

Quantitative statistical methods were applied to systematically organize and analyze the data obtained from semi-structured interviews and participatory observations, with a particular emphasis on assessing the diversity and cultural importance of wild edible plants. To evaluate the relative cultural importance of each recorded species, the relative frequency of citation (RFC) index was calculated. It was determined using the following formula:

where FC represents the number of participants citing a particular species and N is the total number of participants participating in the survey [11, 38].

In addition, the Jaccard similarity index (JI) was employed to conduct comparative analyses between the present study and previously published ethnobotanical studies from neighboring regions or different ethnic groups. The Jaccard index was calculated using the following formula:

where A and B represent the total number of species recorded in each study and C denotes the number of species shared by both datasets [42].

ArcGIS 10.8 was used to make maps of the survey areas, while Origin 2021 and R 4.4.1 were employed to conduct data analysis and produce statistical graphs.

Plant specimens were identified by Professor Long Chunlin. All specimens have been deposited in the herbarium at Minzu University of China. Taxonomic classification follows the APG IV system [39], with nomenclature based on the Flora of China (https://www.iplant.cn) [40] and World Flora Online (https://www.worldfloraonline.org) [41]. The compiled data are presented in Table 3.

Table 3.

The inventory of wild edible plants in Lujiangba area

Scientific name	Dai name	Family name	Used parts	Preparations	Uses	RFC	Voucher number
Achyranthes aspera L.	Huai o long	Amaranthaceae	Root	Prepared as a soup	Medicine	0.2835	NJB170
Acmella paniculata (Wall. ex DC.) R. K. Jansen	Ya pa pi	Asteraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.2992	NJB128
Acorus calamus L.	Han hao pa	Araceae	Rhizome	Prepared as a soup	Medicine; ornamental plant	0.6142	NJB095
Acorus gramineus Soland.	San bu pa	Araceae	Rhizome	Prepared as a soup	Herb	0.1890	NJB129
Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb.	Duo hong long	Rosaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4409	NJB140
Allium macrostemon Bunge	Pa hao	Liliaceae	Bulb	Stir-fried	Vegetable	0.3780	NJB176
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC.	Pa biu	Amaranthaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.2756	NJB044
Amaranthus blitum L.	Pa hong kei	Amaranthaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.5984	NJB001
Amaranthus viridis L.	Pa hong nan	Amaranthaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.2677	NJB079
Amaranthus retroflexus L.	Pa hong nan	Amaranthaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.5354	NJB109
Amaranthus spinosus L.	Pa hong kei	Amaranthaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.5669	NJB014
Anredera cordifolia (Ten.) Steenis	Pa bang wa	Basellaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.5276	NJB142
Aralia elata (Miq.) Seem.	Mai guo	Araliaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.6142	NJB100
Aralia thomsonii Seem.	Dang gai	Araliaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.6063	NJB190
Artemisia argyi H. Lév. & Vaniot	Ya mi	Asteraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; medicine	0.5276	NJB084
Bassia scoparia (L.) A. J. Scott	Peng dou duo	Amaranthaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4409	NJB104
Bauhinia variegata var. candida (Roxb.) Voigt	Mai xiu	Fabaceae	Flower	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; ornamental plant	0.6929	NJB024
Bidens pilosa L.	Ya jing bu	Asteraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.7717	NJB027
Bombax ceiba L.	Mai niu	Malvaceae	Flower	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; medicine	0.5118	NJB050
Broussonetia papyrifera (Linnaeus) L’Heritier ex Ventenat	Guo sha	Moraceae	Male inflorescence	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.7008	NJB026
Buddleja officinalis Maxim.	Luo fan	Loganiaceae	Flower	Infused as tea or steamed with rice	Dye	0.8661	NJB048
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik.	Hu sheng cao	Brassicaceae	Tender stem and leaf; root	Blanched and served cold or processed into fillings	Vegetable	0.6929	NJB035
Caragana sinica (Buc’hoz) Rehder	Duo he ne	Fabaceae	Flower	Pan-fried with eggs	Vegetable	0.5118	NJB039
Carica papaya L.	Ma gui sha bao	Caricaceae	Fruit	Consumed fresh or boiled	Snack	0.6220	NJB022
Centella asiatica (L.) Urb.	Pa nuo	Apiaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.6850	NJB033
Chenopodium album L.	Pa hong ge	Chenopodiaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.5984	NJB042
Chenopodium ficifolium Smith	Pa hong ge	Chenopodiaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.6142	NJB066
Chimonobambusa quadrangularis (Franceschi) Makino	Man bang	Poaceae	Tender shoot	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.5827	NJB110
Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B. L. Burtt & A. W. Hill	Mang men	Anacardiaceae	Fruit	Consumed fresh	Snack	0.5276	NJB054
Chrysanthemum indicum L.	Pa ba dui	Asteraceae	Flower	Boiled in water	Tea substitute; medicine	0.5984	NJB182
Cirsium japonicum Fisch. ex DC.	Ya xian duo	Asteraceae	Tender stem and leaf; root	Prepared as a soup	Vegetable; medicine	0.6220	NJB036
Clerodendrum bungei Steud.	Bing hao	Viticoideae	Flower; leaf	Steamed together with eggs	Vegetable; medicine; ornamental plant	0.4252	NJB009
Clinopodium chinense (Benth.) Kuntze	Peng hen long	Lamiaceae	Tender shoots	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.1890	NJB112
Coix lacryma-jobi L.	Ma nei niu	Poaceae	Seed	Cooked as porridge	Food substitute	0.5276	NJB187
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott	Bo rui	Araceae	Rhizome; flower; petiole	Consumed after steaming, boiling, or stewing	Vegetable; food substitute	0.7402	NJB076
Commelina communis L.	Ya song	Commelinaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.2677	NJB069
Cornus officinalis Siebold & Zucc.	Pa ma ha leng	Cornaceae	Fruit	Boiled	Medicine	0.3543	NJB161
Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S. Moore	Ya ge la	Asteraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; medicine	0.6063	NJB073
Crateva unilocularis Buchanan-Hamilton	Pa gong	Capparaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Pickled	Vegetable	0.6063	NJB060
Crotalaria pallida Aiton	Pa nuo pa	Fabaceae	Fruit	Boiled	Medicine	0.1654	NJB193
Cryptotaenia japonica Hassk.	Pa nuo han	Apiaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Stir-fried with pork	Vegetable	0.6063	NJB179
Cucumis hystrix Chakr.	Ma nong huo	Cucurbitaceae	Fruit	Stir-fried	Snack	0.4331	NJB072
Dendrobium nobile Lindl.	Luan nan gai	Orchidaceae	Stem	Prepared as a soup	Tea substitute	0.5512	NJB058
Dendrocalamus giganteus Wall. ex Munro	Mai bang lang	Poaceae	Shoot	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; construction material	0.5984	NJB141
Dicliptera chinensis (L.) Juss.	Ya ke suo	Acanthaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4409	NJB025
Diospyros kaki Thunb.	Ye he teng	Ebenaceae	Fruit	Consumed fresh	Snack	0.4409	NJB164
Diospyros lotus L.	Mai gang	Ebenaceae	Fruit	Consumed fresh	Snack; medicine	0.2677	NJB132
Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sm.	Guo gun	Athyriaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried with fermented beans	Vegetable	0.9606	NJB007
Docynia delavayi (Franch.) Schneid.	Ma guo mian	Rosaceae	Fruit	Consumed fresh	Snack	0.6850	NJB077
Dregea volubilis (L. f.) Benth. ex Hook. f.	Wu mu	Apocynaceae	Flower; tender stem and leaf	Pan-fried with eggs	Vegetable	0.7008	NJB053
Dryopteris crassirhizoma Nakai	Gu dang	Dryopteridaceae	Tender stem and leaf; petiole	Blanched and then stir-fried with fermented black beans	Vegetable	0.4409	NJB101
Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke	Ma xi nan mie	Rosaceae	Fruit	Consumed fresh	Snack	0.4331	NJB163
Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.	Huang jiu	Asteraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.2598	NJB135
Elaeagnus conferta Roxb.	Ha ma luan	Elaeagnaceae	Fruit	Consumed fresh	Snack	0.5906	NJB047
Elephantopus scaber L.	Ya din dian	Asteraceae	Root	Blanched and then stir-fried	Medicine	0.3386	NJB019
Eleutherococcus setosus (H. L. Li) Y. R. Ling	Guo dang gai; Pa ke bian	Araliaceae	Tender stem and leaf; root	Blanched and served cold	Vegetable	0.6142	NJB023
Eleutherococcus trifoliatus (L.) S. Y. Hu	Ha bing	Araliaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.3543	NJB002
Elsholtzia kachinensis Prain	Pa leng	Lamiaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Served cold or cooked as a soup	Vegetable; spice	0.9528	NJB062
Elsholtzia rugulosa Hemsl.	La you ma	Lamiaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Tea substitute; medicine	0.6220	NJB070
Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.	Pa nan	Asteraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.1732	NJB185
Epilobium hirsutum L.	Nuo dong	Onagraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4331	NJB139
Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl.	Pa ba	Rosaceae	Fruit	Consumed fresh	Snack; medicine	0.5433	NJB151
Eryngium foetidum L.	Pa beng le mang	Apiaceae	Tender leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; spice	0.7717	NJB011
Euryale ferox Salisb. ex K.D.Koenig & Sims	Ma hong nuo	Nymphaeaceae	Kernel	Cooked as porridge	Medicine	0.5354	NJB154
Fagopyrum dibotrys (D. Don) Hara	Pa ge mong	Polygonaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4331	NJB038
Ficus racemosa L.	Guo mai hu zhuang	Moraceae	Tender stem and leaf; fruit	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; snack	0.5669	NJB040
Ficus semicordata Buch.-Ham. ex J. E. Smith	Guo de	Moraceae	Fruit	Consumed fresh	Snack	0.7087	NJB032
Ficus virens Aiton	Mi nuo	Moraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Consumed fresh	Vegetable; snack	0.6142	NJB029
Ficus auriculata Lour.	Pa luo	Moraceae	Tender stem and leaf; fruit	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; snack	0.6142	NJB017
Galinsoga parviflora Cav.	Pa man	Asteraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.3701	NJB149
Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis	Mo bai ha	Rubiaceae	Fruit	Stewed as a soup	Medicine	0.4409	NJB191
Glechoma longituba (Nakai) Kupr.	Ya min long	Lamiaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Medicine	0.5984	NJB125
Gynostemma pentaphyllum (Thunb.) Makino	Ya ha bai	Cucurbitaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Medicine	0.4331	NJB126
Gynura divaricata (L.) DC.	Peng na dang	Asteraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.2677	NJB003
Hibiscus syriacus L.	Luo mai liang long	Malvaceae	Flower	Stewed together with pork	Vegetable; medicine	0.5197	NJB146
Houpoea officinalis (Rehder & E. H. Wilson) N. H. Xia & C. Y. Wu	Pa po	Magnoliaceae	Bark	Cooked as a soup	Medicine	0.3465	NJB121
Houttuynia cordata Thunb.	Pa hao dong	Saururaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.7795	NJB034
Hovenia acerba Lindl.	Mai sha	Rhamnaceae	Fruit	Consumed fresh	Snack	0.5276	NJB192
Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv.	Hua huan	Poaceae	Root	Prepared as a soup	Medicine	0.3543	NJB088
Lasia spinosa (L.) Thwaites	Pan meng lang	Araceae	Tender stem and leaf; petiole	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.8819	NJB015
Lepidium apetalum Willd.	Pi nan	Brassicaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.2677	NJB108
Ligusticum sinense ‘Chuanxiong’	Ge xing	Apiaceae	Root	Prepared as a soup	Vegetable; medicine	0.6142	NJB097
Lilium brownii var. viridulum Baker	Pa luo nong	Liliaceae	Bulb	Consumed after steaming or boiling	Vegetable, medicine; ornamental plant	0.5827	NJB091
Liriope spicata (Thunb.) Lour.	Pa leng	Liliaceae	Root	Prepared as a soup	Vegetable	0.2598	NJB160
Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers.	Guo sha hai teng	Lauraceae	Fruit	Cooked as a soup	Vegetable; spice	0.5433	NJB056
Lonicera japonica Thunb.	Wo hao lin	Caprifoliaceae	Flower	Boiled in water	Medicine	0.6929	NJB155
Lycium chinense Mill.	Ge ji	Solanaceae	Tender shoot	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4409	NJB114
Lysimachia clethroides Duby	Ya hai ba	Primulaceae	Tender leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4409	NJB083
Manihot esculenta Crantz	Men niu	Euphorbiaceae	Rhizome	Boiled	Food substitute	0.4331	NJB052
Melia azedarach L.	Mei heng	Meliaceae	Fruit	Boiled	Medicine	0.1654	NJB137
Mentha canadensis L.	Huang nen	Lamiaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Served cold	Herb; ornamental plant	0.7874	NJB004
Mirabilis jalapa L.	Nuo wai niang	Nyctaginaceae	Flower	Stir-fried with meat	Medicine; ornamental plant	0.5118	NJB195
Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng.	Ma xi ga	Cucurbitaceae	Seed	Stewed as a soup	Medicine	0.3543	NJB145
Morus alba L.	Mai mang	Moraceae	Fruit; tender stem and leaf	Consumed fresh	Vegetable; snack	0.5512	NJB055
Musa acuminata Colla	Gui huang	Musaceae	Flower	Consumed fresh	Vegetable; snack	0.7008	NJB065
Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.	Pa hong	Nymphaeaceae	Tender stem and leaf; flower	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; medicine	0.6850	NJB136
Nepeta cataria L.	Guang guo	Lamiaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Served cold or cooked as a soup	Herb; medicine	0.7795	NJB130
Ocimum basilicum L.	Guang guo	Lamiaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Served cold or cooked as a soup	Herb	0.6142	NJB045
Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC.	Pa an e	Apiaceae	Tender stems and leaves	Stir-fried or served cold	Vegetable	0.6299	NJB166
Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz	Lin deng a	Bignoniaceae	Fruit	Infused as tea with honey	Vegetable	0.5512	NJB049
Oxalis corniculata L.	Song xiang ga	Oxalidaceae	Tender leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.6142	NJB082
Oxalis corymbosa DC.	Luo han song xiang ga	Oxalidaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.0945	NJB119
Paederia foetida L.	Ke dun ma	Rubiaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.5197	NJB031
Paris polyphylla var. yunnanensis (Franch.) Hand.-Mazz.	Ya gan zhuang	Liliaceae	Root	Prepared as a soup	Medicine	0.7087	NJB107
Pastinaca sativa L.	Fang feng	Apiaceae	Root	Stewed as a soup	Medicine	0.4409	NJB173
Patrinia monandra C. B. Clarke	Mie heng	Valerianaceae	Root; tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; medicine	0.0945	NJB162
Patrinia scabiosifolia Fisch. ex Trevir.	Ya xian long	Caprifoliaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.2598	NJB092
Patrinia villosa (Thunb.) Juss.	Ga dong bian	Valerianaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.5276	NJB150
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton	Zha a liang	Lamiaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Served cold or cooked as a soup	Herb	0.7717	NJB081
Persicaria chinensis (L.) H. Gross	Song bie	Polygonaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4409	NJB030
Persicaria orientalis (L.) Spach	Mei hong	Polygonaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Cooked together with fish	Vegetable	0.1181	NJB120
Persicaria perfoliata (L.) H. Gross	Dun xiao teng	Polygonaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and served cold	Vegetable	0.2283	NJB133
Persicaria viscosa (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) H. Gross ex Nakai	Fei man	Polygonaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Cooked together with fish	Herb	0.5984	NJB064
Phyllanthus emblica L.	Ma ka m	Phyllanthaceae	Fruit	Consumed fresh or soaked in water	Snack	0.6142	NJB075
Phyllanthus urinaria L.	Ya hai ba	Phyllanthaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; medicine	0.4409	NJB184
Phyllostachys edulis (Carrière) J. Houz.	Mai bang	Poaceae	Tender shoots	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.5984	NJB144
Phyllostachys sulphurea var. viridis R.A.Young	Mai chang han	Poaceae	Tender shoot	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.5669	NJB113
Picris divaricata Vaniot	Fan p.a. ga	Asteraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.3543	NJB106
Pimpinella candolleana Wight & Arn.	Pa dian hao	Apiaceae	Root	Prepared as a soup	Medicine	0.6850	NJB177
Piper sarmentosum Roxb.	Pa xie	Piperaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4094	NJB037
Plantago asiatica L.	Ya ying re	Plantaginaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; medicine	0.7717	NJB008
Pleuropterus multiflorus (Thunb.) Nakai	Nuo ya zai	Polygonaceae	Root	Prepared as a soup	Medicine	0.5748	NJB118
Pogostemon amaranthoides Benth.	Bai mai lei k	Lamiaceae	Tender stem and leaf; root	Blanched and served cold or cooked as a soup	Vegetable	0.7480	NJB021
Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle	Ma wei gen	Liliaceae	Tender stem and leaf; root	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; food substitute; medicine	0.4409	NJB041
Polygonatum kingianum Collett & Hemsl.	Ma wei gen	Liliaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; food substitute; ornamental plant	0.7087	NJB020
Polygonatum odoratum (Mill.) Druce	Ya nan lang	Liliaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Prepared as a soup	Vegetable; food substitute	0.5354	NJB189
Polygonatum sibiricum Redouté	Mang han	Liliaceae	Root	Prepared as a soup	Medicine	0.6220	NJB124
Pontederia vaginalis Burm. f.	Pa hen	Pontederiaceae	Tender leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4882	NJB068
Portulaca oleracea L.	Pa bo liang	Portulacaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.6929	NJB046
Potentilla chinensis Ser.	Nan p.a. ma	Rosaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.3386	NJB172
Prunella vulgaris L.	Ya gui wen	Lamiaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Boiled in water	Medicine; tea substitute	0.5118	NJB175
Pseudognaphalium affine (D. Don) Anderb.	Pa gao	Asteraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Processed into fillings	Vegetable	0.3543	NJB165
Pyrus pashia Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don	Guo kei gai	Rosaceae	Flower	Pan-fried with eggs	Vegetable	0.5197	NJB010
Reynoutria japonica Houtt.	Bi bi han	Polygonaceae	Root	Blanched and then stir-fried	Medicine	0.2756	NJB122
Rhododendron decorum Franch.	De chang	Ericaceae	Flower	Blanched and then stir-fried with pork	Vegetable; ornamental plant	0.5276	NJB016
Rhus chinensis Mill.	Guo ma po	Anacardiaceae	Fruit	Stewed together with meat	Medicine	0.5276	NJB180
Robinia pseudoacacia L.	Ya la meng long	Fabaceae	Flower	Steamed	Vegetable	0.3858	NJB099
Rorippa indica (L.) Hiern	Pa ya guo mu	Brassicaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4409	NJB028
Rumex acetosa L.	Pa ling	Polygonaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.2362	NJB168
Rumex japonicus Houtt.	Pa ya teng	Polygonaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.3780	NJB181
Sagittaria trifolia L.	Ya gan gai	Alismataceae	Rhizome	Boiled	Vegetable	0.3465	NJB071
Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge	Dan shen	Lamiaceae	Root	Stewed as a soup	Medicine	0.4646	NJB103
Saposhnikovia divaricata (Turcz.) Schischk.	Fang feng	Apiaceae	Root	Stewed as a soup	Medicine	0.7165	NJB111
Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr.	Ha pa wan	Phyllanthaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Pickled	Vegetable	0.6850	NJB059
Scleromitrion diffusum (Willd.) R. J. Wang	Ya ling o	Rubiaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.2677	NJB087
Senegalia pennata (L.) Maslin	Song bai	Fabaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Pan-fried with eggs	Vegetable	0.7008	NJB074
Senna tora (L.) Roxb.	Ya la meng nan	Fabaceae	Seed	Infused as tea	Medicine	0.3386	NJB131
Sigesbeckia orientalis L.	Ya men gong	Asteraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4252	NJB174
Smilax china L.	Ya nan nen	Smilacaceae	Root; tender stem and leaf	Stewed as a soup or steamed	Vegetable; food substitute	0.3465	NJB085
Solanum americanum Miller	Pa dian lang	Solanaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.7717	NJB057
Solanum torvum Swartz	Hao ya tie	Solanaceae	Fruit	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4882	NJB061
Solanum violaceum Ortega	Pa li	Solanaceae	Fruit	Stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4724	NJB012
Solanum lyratum Thunb.	Ma wang fa	Solanaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Stewed	Vegetable	0.3622	NJB089
Solanum spirale Roxb.	Ma wang	Solanaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Stir-fried	Vegetable	0.3543	NJB067
Sonchus oleraceus L.	Pa yang	Asteraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4252	NJB134
Spondias pinnata (L. F.) Kurz	Guo ma ge	Anacardiaceae	Fruit; tender stem and leaf	Consumed with chili sauce	Vegetable; snack	0.6535	NJB006
Stemona japonica (Blume) Miq.	Nan guang	Stemonaceae	Root	Prepared as a soup	Vegetable; medicine	0.4409	NJB090
Stemona tuberosa Lour.	Ya nan guang	Stemonaceae	Root	Prepared as a soup	Vegetable; medicine	0.4331	NJB102
Talinum paniculatum (Jacq.) Gaertn.	Huo na ti xing	Portulacaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Tea substitute; medicine	0.3071	NJB171
Tamarindus indica L.	Ma hang	Fabaceae	Fruit	Consumed fresh or used as seasoning	Snack	0.6220	NJB167
Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz.	Nan mo dan	Asteraceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable; medicine	0.6929	NJB152
Toona sinensis (A. Juss.) Roem.	Mai yong	Meliaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.5197	NJB063
Toxicodendron succedaneum (L.) Kuntze	Mai xi	Anacardiaceae	Fruit	Oil-extracted and then used for stewing chicken	Medicine	0.5118	NJB183
Toxicodendron vernicifluum (Stokes) F. A. Barkley	Mai ha wan	Anacardiaceae	Fruit	Oil-extracted and then used for stewing chicken	Medicine	0.5512	NJB153
Trevesia palmata (Roxb.) Vis.	Dang ao	Araliaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.6142	NJB013
Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim.	Ma huai hong	Cucurbitaceae	Fruit	Cooked as a soup	Medicine	0.2677	NJB116
Trifolium repens L.	Ya pa wan	Fabaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.0787	NJB086
Ulmus pumila L.	Mai guo	Ulmaceae	Fruit	Consumed after steaming or boiling	Vegetable	0.4331	NJB188
Urtica fissa E. Pritz.	Nan fan	Urticaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.3701	NJB178
Urtica mairei H. Lév.	Nan fan	Urticaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.2598	NJB105
Verbena officinalis L.	Ya hang yan	Verbenaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.6850	NJB143
Viola philippica Cav.	Pa wan ding	Violaceae	Tender stem and leaf	Blanched and then stir-fried	Vegetable	0.3543	NJB194
Xanthium strumarium L.	Ya xi wen	Asteraceae	Fruit	Decoction prepared	Oil substitute	0.2598	NJB094
Zanthoxylum armatum DC.	Guo gan	Rutaceae	Fruit; tender stem and leaf	Prepared as a soup	Spice	0.6772	NJB080
Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maxim.	Ma xian	Rutaceae	Fruit	Stewed as a soup or stir-fried	Vegetable	0.4409	NJB123
Zanthoxylum nitidum (Roxb.) DC.	Hei nan huo	Rutaceae	Root	Stir-fried with pork	Medicine	0.3543	NJB138
Zizania latifolia (Griseb.) Turcz. ex Stapf	Ti pao	Poaceae	Tender stem	Stir-fried with pork	Vegetable	0.5276	NJB115

Results

Diversity and taxonomic composition of wild edible plants

Statistical analysis of wild edible plants collected and utilized in Bingmen and Moka villages revealed a total of 177 species across 64 angiosperm families (Fig. 3). These plants were taxonomically diverse, with the most represented families being Asteraceae, comprising 17 species. Lamiaceae followed with 11 species, while Polygonaceae with 9 species. Liliaceae, Apiaceae, and Fabaceae, each contributed 8, while Poaceae, and Amaranthacea, each with 7 species. Rosaceae, Moraceae, and Solanaceae, each with 6 species, while Anacardiaceae contributed 5. Additional notable families included Araceae, Phyllanthaceae, each contributed 4. The remaining 67 species belonged to various other families such as Theaceae, Stemonaceae, Smilacaceae, Simaroubaceae, Saururaceae, Primulaceae, Portulacaceae, Pontederiaceae, Plantaginaceae, and Piperaceae. This broad taxonomic distribution indicates a high diversity of wild edible plant resources among the Dai people, which may be associated with the region’s environmental and climatic conditions.

Fig. 3.

Diversity of wild edible plants

From an ecological perspective (Fig. 3), herbaceous plants dominate, accounting for 63.84% of species, followed by trees (19.77%), shrubs (10.17%), and vines (6.21%). The prominence of herbs and trees may be attributed to the accessibility and regeneration capacity, which are consistent with the subsistence-oriented use patterns reported by the Dai people. Tree-derived parts, such as fruits and young leaves, also served as important food sources. The lower representation of vines suggested they play a more supplementary dietary role.

As shown in Fig. 3, the leaves (103 species) and stems (99 species) were most commonly consumed, far exceeding fruits (37 species) and roots (29 species). Additionally, the edible parts of a few plants included flowers (17 species) and shoots (6 species). This pattern reflects a preference for vegetative plant parts over reproductive structures and is consistent with detailed knowledge of edible plant components reported by community members.

In terms of consumption types (Fig. 3), wild plants served various roles in local food systems. The majority were used as vegetables (119 species, 67.23%), underlining their significance in daily nutrition and dietary diversity. 52 species (29.38%) had medicinal uses, indicating their role in traditional Chinese medicine. 19 species (10.73%) were consumed as snacks, reflecting their cultural importance in traditional food practices. Additionally, 10 species (5.65%) were employed as herbs and spices, supporting food therapy and flavor enhancement. A smaller number served as food substitutes (7 species, 3.95%) and tea substitutes (5 species, 2.82%), revealing their function in periods of scarcity or specific cultural contexts. Collectively, these patterns indicate a selective strategy favoring renewable vegetative parts, suggesting an embedded ecological rationale that balances dietary needs with sustainable harvesting, rather than opportunistic exploitation of reproductive structures.

Ecological drivers of wild edible plants selection and management

According to statistical data (Fig. 4), the collection of wild edible plants by the Dai people was distributed across all four seasons, with notable variation in species richness. The highest number of species was collected in Spring (123 species, 69.49%), coinciding with the initial germination phase of many plants, during which their nutritional and edible value is high, indicating it as the peak harvesting season. Summer follows closely with 78 species (44.07%). Autumn yields a comparatively smaller number (52 species, 29.38%), likely due to climatic changes and the end of the plant growth cycle. Winter had the lowest yield (17 species, 9.60%), as low temperatures lead many plants into dormancy, limiting their availability. Additionally, five species were harvested year-round, reflecting ecological adaptability and continuous nutritional value. Overall, the seasonal variation in plant collection aligns with phenological patterns and highlights the Dai community’s deep ecological knowledge. This seasonal harvesting pattern closely follows local phenological cycles, indicating that ecological factors such as plant growth stages and climatic conditions play a central role in shaping collection practices.

Fig. 4.

The harvest time of wild edible plants

Regarding the distribution of transplanted wild edible plants (Fig. 5), wild edible plants mainly occur in three types of environments: mountainous regions, homegardens, and ricefields. Among these, homegardens contribute the highest number (50 species), suggesting that domesticated or semi-wild species often thrive near residential areas, benefiting from intentional or incidental management. Mountainous regions accounted for 9 species, emphasizing their importance for naturally occurring wild flora. In contrast, only four species were collected from ricefields, likely due to competition with intensive agricultural land use. These patterns highlight differences among habitat types in terms of wild edible plant occurrence and management. In terms of cultivation status, 171 species were collected in the wild, indicating that natural ecosystems remained the primary source of edible plant resources. Eight species have become escaped and were semi-wild. However, 66 species have been brought under artificial cultivation, reflecting efforts to ensure year-round availability and sustainable harvesting. Economically, 99 species were sold in local markets, underscoring their commercial value and market demand. Conversely, 78 species were not marketed and were likely used for subsistence purposes or have untapped economic potential. Collectively, these findings illustrated the ecological versatility and socioeconomic significance of wild edible plants within the Dai community (Fig. 5). The predominance of homegarden and minimally managed environments highlights an intermediate management strategy between wild collection and cultivation, which occur in contexts characterized by ecological constraints and ongoing land-use change.

Fig. 5.

Different management of wild edible plants

Management practices for wild edible plants included weeding, irrigating, pruning, application of farmyard manure, and, in some cases, no intervention (Fig. 6). Among the 177 documented species, weeding was the most common practice (41 species, 23.16%), reflecting efforts to maintain optimal growth conditions by reducing competition. Irrigating was applied to 30 species (16.95%), suggesting moderate water dependency in certain plants. Pruning is relatively uncommon (8 species, 4.52%), while 11 species (6.21%) benefited from the application of organic fertilizers, indicating traditional knowledge of enhancing plant productivity. Notably, 19 species (10.73%) required no additional management, implying resilience and natural adaptability. These varied management strategies reflected a nuanced understanding of ecological regulation and sustainable utilization embedded in traditional Dai agricultural practices.

Fig. 6.

Management measures for wild edible plants

Intergenerational variation in traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)

Statistical results show that elderly participants (≥ 60 years) identified markedly more species, recalled a wider range of uses, and reported more extensive foraging experience than middle-aged and younger participants. On average, the elderly group identified 156 species, compared with 88 species in the middle-aged group (40–59 years) and 29 species in the younger group (≤ 39 years). A similar pattern was observed in the selection or preference for wild edible plants: plants with distinctive flavors, seasonal significance, or combined medicinal and dietary functions showed consistently more popular among the elderly. Younger participants not only recognized fewer species but also demonstrated limited understanding of ecological distribution, seasonal collection schedules, and traditional processing techniques. Most (62%) were familiar only with common leafy vegetables or the few wild species occasionally available in markets. Moreover, 74% of elderly participants accurately described prohibited harvesting periods, ritual-related restrictions, and sustainable collection practices, whereas the proportions declined to 39% in the middle-aged group and 11% in the young group, indicating a weakening of ecological management knowledge (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7.

The management of natural resources by the Dai people. (a)-(d). Religious or ritual management practices; (e)-(f). Community management practices

Generational differences were also evident in actual foraging behaviors and dietary preferences. While 82% of elderly participants reported foraging annually, participation declined sharply among the young, only 19% of whom engaged in foraging, a decline largely attributed to outmigration for work, the convenience of market-available vegetables, and shifting taste preferences. Younger participants preferred mild-flavored plants requiring minimal preparation, whereas the elderly expressed stronger attachment to traditional wild vegetables with bitter, sour, or aromatic flavors, as well as seasonal fruits. Elderly respondents further exhibited clear recall of the uses and collection timing of species with characteristic bitterness, distinctive aromas, or seasonal availability. They liked to plant their favorite vegetables in the ricefields near the house, and even 98% of local people reported that chemical fertilizers inhibit fern growth and cause leaf spotting, making them unsuitable for collection or sale. Instead, natural farmyard manure or no fertilizer at all was preferred to support healthy plant development (Fig. 8). In contrast, more than half of younger participants reported being “unfamiliar” or having “never heard” of these species. Knowledge transmission pathways have similarly contracted: 68% of elderly participants reported taking their children to forage, whereas only 23% of young respondents had ever gone foraging with elders. Many young participants had rarely accompanied older relatives to learn foraging skills, and several traditional plant names were forgotten or replaced by common Chinese names. Overall, these results indicate clear generational differences in traditional ecological knowledge, with younger cohorts exhibiting substantially reduced species recognition, ecological understanding, and practical engagement, providing empirical evidence of generational differences in traditional ecological knowledge that are associated with socio-economic change.

Fig. 8.

The management of wild edible plants from different perspectives in ricefields by the Dai people. (a)-(c). Front view; (d). Left view; (e). Right view

Comparison of WEPs between Dai people and other groups

A comparative analysis of wild edible plants (WEPs) used by the Dai people in the Lujiangba area and those reported for other ethnic groups and regions in China showed generally low to moderate levels of similarity (Table 4). The Jaccard similarity index (JI) values ranged from 2.27 to 13.33, indicating limited overlap in species composition among different regions and ethnic groups.

Table 4.

Jaccard similarity index (JI) for Dai people and other groups

Study area	Indices			JI	References
	A	B	C
Fangchenggang	177	163	38	12.58	[8]
Laifeng County	177	163	40	13.33	[38]
Dulongjiang Township	177	148	25	8.33	[42]
Four counties (Yuanyang, Lüchun, Honghe, and Jinping)	177	224	39	10.77	[43]
Lijiang area	177	139	7	2.27	[44]
Daur minority area in Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang	177	52	6	2.69	[45]
Diqing Prefecture	177	168	20	6.15	[46]

The highest similarity values were observed for Laifeng County (JI = 13.33) and Fangchenggang (JI = 12.58). These areas share comparable subtropical climatic conditions and vegetation types, which may contribute to partial overlap in available edible plant resources. However, even in these regions, the number of shared species remained limited, with only 38 to 40 species in common, suggesting that local selection and use of WEPs are not determined solely by ecological similarity.

Moderate similarity values were recorded for the four counties of Yuanyang, Lüchun, Honghe, and Jinping (JI = 10.77) and for Dulongjiang Township (JI = 8.33). Although these areas are geographically closer to the study site and characterized by similar mountainous environments, the overlap in WEPs was still relatively low. This indicates that differences in cultural traditions, dietary practices, and knowledge transmission among ethnic groups contribute to distinct patterns of WEPs utilization.

In contrast, very low similarity values were observed for the Lijiang area (JI = 2.27), the Daur minority areas of Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang (JI = 2.69), and the Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture (JI = 6.15). These regions differ markedly from the Lujiangba area in terms of climate, altitude, vegetation, and dominant subsistence systems, which limits the range of shared edible plant species. Differences in food culture and livelihood strategies further reduce overlap in WEPs use.

Overall, the number of shared species between the Dai people and other ethnic groups ranged from 6 to 40, reflecting substantial variation in WEPs composition across regions. Several species recorded in the Dai community were absent from previous ethnobotanical studies conducted in other parts of China, suggesting the presence of locally specific or previously underreported uses. These findings indicate that WEPs utilization in China exhibits clear regional and cultural differentiation shaped by both environmental conditions and culturally embedded knowledge systems.

Discussion

Cultural and ecological values of wild edible plants

Through long term adaptation to the hot and dry river valley environment, the Dai people of the Lujiangba area a locally distinctive pattern of wild edible plant use, characterized mainly by fresh aroma, pungency, mild bitterness, and subtle sourness. This system has taken shape through the combined influence of the local microclimate, vegetation composition, and established culinary practices, and it contributes to a sense of regional cultural identity.

Aromatic species such as Perilla frutescens, Mentha canadensis, Nepeta cataria, and Persicaria viscosa are locally regarded as plants that enhance flavor and are commonly used in cold dishes, soups, grilled foods, and rice noodle preparations. These plants are appreciated not only for their ability to add fragrance and freshness, but also for their perceived role in stimulating appetite and supporting digestion under hot climatic conditions. Bitter tasting plants including Senegalia pennata, Crassocephalum crepidioides, and Solanum americanum are culturally understood as having heat relieving and cooling properties. The local saying that bitterness nourishes the body reflects an adaptive understanding of dietary balance in high temperature environments and demonstrates how taste preferences are closely connected with ecological conditions and physiological needs [8]. Mildly sour or fermented tasting species such as Crateva unilocularis and Diplazium esculentum are commonly used to reduce greasiness and stimulate appetite, while pungent plants like Houttuynia cordata contribute to the characteristic aromatic profile of Dai cuisine.

Taken together, these practices suggest a locally coherent pattern of flavor use, in which aroma is associated with freshness, bitterness with bodily regulation, and sourness with appetite control. This flavor system differs markedly from those reported for several other ethnic groups in China [42–46]. The observed differences are consistent with our first hypothesis that the Dai flavor system can be interpreted as a culturally specific form of ecological adaptation rather than a general pattern shared among neighboring groups. Comparative evidence from other areas of Yunnan and Guizhou further highlights this distinctiveness. While the Dulong, Hani, Naxi, Daur, Tujia, Zhuang, and Tibetan communities often emphasize the use of fruits or the combined use of leaves and stems [8, 38, 42–46], the Dai show a clear preference for bitter, aromatic, and sour vegetative parts. This preference reflects both local environmental availability and dietary knowledge transmitted through cultural tradition [47].

An illustrative example of the cultural importance of wild edible plants is Buddleja officinalis, commonly known as the rice dyeing flower [48]. Among the Dai, its flowers are collected in early spring and used to color glutinous rice for festivals and religious offerings. The preparation of luofan or kaoluosuo enhances the visual and sensory qualities of food and also conveys symbolic meanings related to auspiciousness and Buddhist beliefs. The continued presence of this practice among neighboring ethnic groups suggests that certain elements of traditional ecological knowledge can circulate beyond a single cultural group while retaining local symbolic significance [49].

Therefore, several practices documented in this study, particularly the systematic use of bitter and aromatic vegetative parts, represent that have been underreported or rarely documented in previous regional studies. These findings indicate that ethnobotanical novelty does not arise only from the identification of new species or new uses, but also from analytical approaches that reveal how local communities organize, interpret, and transmit plant knowledge.

Despite the strengths of this study, several limitations should be acknowledged. Firstly, the research was conducted in a limited number of Dai settlements within the Lujiangba area. The findings therefore reflect locally specific ecological, cultural, and socio-economic contexts. Caution should be exercised when generalizing these results to other Dai communities or to other regions of Southwest China, where environmental conditions and cultural practices may be very different. Secondly, the data were collected within a defined time frame and do not capture long-term or cross-year dynamics in wild edible plant use. Seasonal availability, market integration, and ongoing environmental change may influence plant selection and management practices over time. Future longitudinal studies are needed to assess temporal trends.

Traditional ecological knowledge and conservation of wild edible plants

Our results indicate that the Dai community in the Lujiangba area has developed a relatively coherent and experience-based body of traditional ecological knowledge for the conservation and management of wild edible plants, incorporating both in situ and ex situ strategies. In situ conservation practices include selective harvesting, seasonal restrictions, protection of culturally significant sites, and ritual or religious regulations [50]. Elder participants described prohibitions on collecting certain vine shoots and fruits during specific growth stages, as well as the deliberate protection of plants growing near forest margins and water bodies due to religious beliefs and feng shui concepts, particularly those associated with Ficus species [51]. These culturally embedded norms can function as informal regulatory mechanisms that help control harvesting intensity and spatial distribution, thereby potentially contributing to the persistence of local plant resources.

Such practices are consistent with observations from other Dai communities in Yunnan [52], suggesting that systematic plant management knowledge has emerged through prolonged interaction with local ecosystems (Fig. 7). From an environmental perspective, these in situ practices contribute to the maintenance of habitat stability and local biodiversity in the hot and dry river valley environment, which is characterized by fragile ecosystems and high climatic sensitivity. By aligning harvesting activities with plant phenology and habitat characteristics, these practices may enhance the resilience of wild plant populations under increasing environmental variability. These findings are consistent with our second hypothesis (H2), indicating that ecological factors such as phenology, habitat type, and land use systems play a central role in shaping plant selection and management strategies.

Ex situ conservation is primarily reflected in the domestication and cultivation of wild edible plants in household gardens and areas surrounding villages [53]. As shown in Table 3, species with high relative frequency of citation values, including Diplazium esculentum, Elsholtzia kachinensis, Lasia spinosa, and Buddleja officinalis, occupy an important position in the daily diet and cultural practices of the Dai community [11, 38]. In rice field systems, the Dai have developed a distinctive approach to managing wild edible plants such as Diplazium esculentum, Elsholtzia kachinensis, and Lasia spinosa (Fig. 8). Community members actively introduce high-value wild edible species, including bitter leafy vegetables, edible and medicinal vines, and trees, into household courtyards and small family gardens. This practice reduces pressure on surrounding natural habitats while ensuring stable and convenient access to important food resources throughout the year.

In terms of public health implications, these ex situ practices contribute to dietary diversity and nutritional security, particularly in a region exposed to seasonal food shortages and increasing market dependence. Many of the cultivated wild edible plants are traditionally valued for their bitter, aromatic, or mildly sour characteristics, which are locally associated with appetite regulation, digestive support, and bodily cooling under hot climatic conditions. The continued use of such plants may help buffer dietary monotony and support adaptive food strategies in the context of rising temperatures and changing food environments.

Taken together, the in situ and ex situ conservation measures observed in the Dai community of Lujiangba reflect the multifunctional role of traditional ecological knowledge in linking environmental stewardship with food systems and cultural continuity. However, rapid socio-economic change, shifting livelihood patterns, and the declining transmission of traditional knowledge are altering collection behaviors and weakening some customary management practices. This trend may have implications not only for the conservation of wild edible plant resources but also for future food security and community health. Therefore, integrating locally grounded knowledge systems with contemporary ecological monitoring and participatory management frameworks may represent an important approach to promoting the sustainable use of wild edible plants and safeguarding biocultural diversity in the study area [9, 54, 55].

Conservation strategies from the perspective of biocultural diversity

From a biocultural diversity perspective, the conservation of traditional ecological knowledge related to WEPs among the Dai requires attention not only to biological resources but also to cultural values, social institutions, and knowledge transmission pathways [56, 57]. The pronounced generational differences documented in this study provide evidence consistent with our third hypothesis (H3), indicating that traditional knowledge is undergoing accelerated transformation and partial erosion under contemporary socio-economic conditions.

It is essential to strengthen the systematic documentation and long-term monitoring of local knowledge [58]. Much of the knowledge on harvesting routes, plant identification cues, processing methods, and the cultural contexts of plants in festivals, religious practices, and therapeutic uses relies on oral transmission, which is highly vulnerable to intergenerational discontinuity [8]. Establishing community-participatory knowledge archives that include botanical data, folklore narratives, use classifications, phenological characteristics, and harvesting coordinates will provide a solid foundation for subsequent transmission and research. In addition, integrating local schools, village cultural centers, and ethnographic museums to promote education on local plant culture can extend knowledge transmission from family-based contexts to broader community, school, and societal structures.

It is necessary to promote the complementary integration of traditional knowledge and modern science to enhance the interpretability and adaptability of TEK in contemporary society [59, 60]. Scientific analysis of the main nutritional components, bioactive compounds, and ecological adaptation traits of WEPs can provide a more persuasive basis for traditional uses, thereby increasing recognition of TEK in modern food systems, health-focused diets, and industrial development [48]. Meanwhile, the introduction of plant ecology, sustainable harvesting assessment methods, and habitat conservation techniques can help communities adjust harvesting intensity, protect high-risk species, and establish ecologically sensitive areas, ensuring the sustainable renewal of resources [61].

To enhance the visibility of cultural practices and the spaces in which they are performed is necessary to strengthen the social vitality of knowledge [62]. Traditional festivals, religious rituals, ethnic culinary events, and craft exhibitions are important arenas for the active transmission of TEK [63, 64]. Encouraging communities to revive traditional practices such as cooking rice with Buddleja officinalis flowers, wild vegetable banquets, and forest pilgrimages during festivals can facilitate the relearning and reproduction of knowledge. In addition, developing ecotourism, ethnic cooking courses, and cultural creative products based on traditional plant knowledge can increase the cultural recognition of WEPs while providing economic incentives for local residents, creating a positive cycle linking knowledge conservation and livelihood improvement [65, 66].

To promote knowledge sharing and social collaboration across ethnic and regional boundaries is necessary [67]. This study shows that some culturally symbolic WEPs have gradually spread to surrounding groups, creating new opportunities for the continuation of TEK [49]. Guided by the concept of biocultural diversity, platforms for interethnic exchange should be strengthened, such as regional ethnobotanical conferences, cross-community plant workshops, and traditional food festivals. By sharing experiences, exchanging plant materials, and jointly engaging in resource conservation, broader cultural and ecological communities can be established, enhancing the resilience of knowledge systems [24, 68].

Therefore, through multi-dimensional strategies including systematic documentation, scientific integration, cultural reproduction, and regional collaboration, the continuity and adaptability of TEK associated with WEPs can be effectively strengthened, providing useful insights for future discussions on resource management and cultural heritage preservation.

Conclusion

The traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) of wild edible plants (WEPs) among the Dai people in Lujiangba area demonstrates their rich cultural heritage and ecological adaptation strategies. A systematic analysis of genus and family distributions, plant habits, edible parts, food types, cultivation and harvesting methods, management practices, and seasonal collection patterns reveals that the Dai have developed a distinct system for utilizing wild plants during their long-term adaptation to the hot and dry valley environment. Most WEPs are herbaceous (63.84%), followed by trees (19.77%) and shrubs (10.17%). Leaves and stems are the primary edible parts, while vegetables and medicinal plants constitute the main food types. The majority of species (171) occur in the wild, most requiring no additional management, although some cultivated or escaped species necessitate weeding, watering, or fertilization. Harvesting is highly seasonal, peaking in spring, with some species extending into summer and autumn, and a few available year-round. Beyond their nutritional and medicinal roles, WEPs also carry cultural significance, serving as markers of individual identity, ethnic belonging, and regional heritage, such as Diplazium esculentum, Elsholtzia kachinensis, Lasia spinosa, and Buddleja officinalis.

Abbreviations

RFC

Relative frequency of citation

TEK

Traditional ecological knowledge

WEPs

Wild edible plants

Author contributions

CLL conceived, organized, and supervised the study. XH, LLB, MMW, QYC, and CLX conducted the field surveys and literature review. XH and LLB performed the data analysis. XH drafted the manuscript, and CLL edited and revised it. All authors have reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Baoshan Administration of Gaoligongshan National Nature Reserve (202305AF150121 & GBP-2022-01), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (32370407 & W2523057).

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in the published article.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

All participants were asked for their free prior informed consent before interviews were conducted.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.