Unveiling the multifaceted potential of Artemisia: Cutting-edge insights into nutritional benefits and emerging therapeutic applications

Abstract

The Artemisia genus, comprising over 500 species, is a cornerstone of traditional and modern medicine due to its extensive phytochemical diversity and remarkable therapeutic properties. As highlighted in this review, Artemisia demonstrates exceptional potential across nutritional, therapeutic, and industrial domains. The genus is rich in bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, sesquiterpene lactones, and terpenoids, which exhibit potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial effects. Its nutritional benefits are equally notable, with species like Artemisia annua and Artemisia absinthium providing macronutrients, essential minerals, and vitamins critical for metabolic health and immune support. This review systematically explores Artemisia's role in addressing chronic diseases, including its neuroprotective potential against Alzheimer's desease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) through oxidative stress reduction and inflammatory pathway modulation. Furthermore, Artemisia's contributions to sustainable agriculture, functional foods, and cosmeceuticals underline its adaptability and economic significance. However, gaps in clinical validation, sustainable cultivation, and regulatory frameworks remain barriers to fully harnessing its potential. Future multidisciplinary research and ethical policies are essential to integrate Artemisia more effectively into global health and industry. The insights provided here aim to inspire innovation in the utilization of Artemisia as a transformative botanical resource for health, industry, and sustainability.

Graphical abstract

Highlights

• •Artemisia's phytochemistry drives diverse bioactivities and therapeutic value.
• •Exhibits antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antimicrobial effects.
• •Provides neuroprotection by reducing oxidative stress and modulating pathways.
• •Combines with nanotech to improve drug delivery, stability, and bioavailability.
• •Supports functional foods, cosmetics, and sustainable agriculture practices.

1. Introduction

The genus Artemisia, a member of the Asteraceae family, encompasses over 500 species of herbaceous plants and shrubs distributed across diverse climatic regions, including temperate zones and arid landscapes [1]. Known for their aromatic properties and resilience in challenging environments, Artemisia species have long captivated the attention of botanists and researchers alike. The unique phytochemical profile of this genus includes an array of bioactive compounds such as sesquiterpene lactones, flavonoids, and essential oils, many of which exhibit profound therapeutic potential [2]. In addition to their chemical diversity, Artemisia plants possess notable nutritional properties. Emerging evidence highlights their application as functional foods, offering health benefits beyond basic nutrition. These attributes have spurred investigations into the integration of Artemisia into both dietary regimens and therapeutic paradigms [3].

The medicinal use of Artemisia can be traced back to antiquity, with its roots embedded in the traditional practices of numerous cultures across Asia, Africa, and Europe [4,5]. For instance, Artemisia annua, or sweet wormwood, holds a prominent place in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) as a remedy for febrile illnesses [6]. The discovery of artemisinin, the cornerstone of modern antimalarial therapy, is a testament to the enduring legacy of this plant in contemporary medicine. Beyond malaria, other species such as Artemisia vulgaris and Artemisia absinthium have been employed for centuries to treat digestive disorders, respiratory conditions, and inflammatory diseases [7]. In recent decades, research has unveiled their potential in combating cancers, neurodegenerative disorders, and microbial infections, thereby bridging traditional wisdom with advanced scientific inquiry. Modern applications of Artemisia extend into nutraceuticals [8] and cosmeceuticals [9], reflecting its adaptability and relevance in diverse industries. The plant's bioactive compounds are now being investigated for their antioxidant, immunomodulatory, and antimicrobial activities, offering promising avenues for developing novel therapeutics and health products [[10], [11], [12]].

This review presents an in-depth exploration of the diverse potential of Artemisia, with a particular focus on its nutritional value and therapeutic applications. It investigates the genus's phytochemical diversity and its role in promoting health, while also examining its historical and modern relevance in medicine, notably through innovations like artemisinin-based treatments. The review highlights current research trends that integrate Artemisia into modern pharmacology, nutraceutical development, and disease management, and it outlines future research directions to address existing challenges and unlock new opportunities. Organized systematically, the article begins with the botanical and chemical characteristics of Artemisia, then delves into its health benefits and clinical implications, supported by case studies and comparative analysis. The discussion also emphasizes the need for continued research and innovation to fully realize the genus's potential. Designed for a broad scientific audience—including pharmacologists, nutritionists, and biotechnologists—this review serves as a comprehensive resource, blending historical context with contemporary findings to underscore Artemisia's emerging role in global health and scientific advancement.

2. Taxonomy and biodiversity of Artemisia

2.1. Taxonomy and classification

The genus Artemisia is one of the most taxonomically complex and diverse groups within the Asteraceae family. It comprises over 500 species, ranging from annual herbs to perennial shrubs, showcasing an impressive adaptability across varied ecosystems. This genus is systematically divided into subgenera and sections based on morphological features, phytochemical profiles, and molecular data. Recent advancements in molecular phylogenetics have further refined the classification of Artemisia, elucidating evolutionary relationships and resolving ambiguities within the genus [13]. Taxonomic markers, such as the presence of sesquiterpene lactones and pollen structure, have proven indispensable in distinguishing species. These markers not only aid in classification but also correlate with the therapeutic potential of specific Artemisia species, underpinning their significance in both biodiversity and pharmacological research.

2.2. Geographic distribution and centers of diversity

The geographic range of Artemisia spans a remarkable array of habitats, from the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere to arid and semi-arid zones. The genus is most diverse in Asia, particularly in Central and East Asia, which are considered its primary centers of origin. High-altitude ecosystems, such as the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayan ranges, harbor a wealth of Artemisia species, reflecting their evolutionary adaptation to challenging environments [2,14]. In addition to Asia, the Mediterranean region and North America serve as secondary centers of diversity. The species thriving in these regions exhibit unique ecological roles, including contributions to soil stabilization and local food webs. For example, Artemisia tridentata, commonly known as sagebrush, dominates the shrublands of western North America, playing a pivotal role in maintaining the ecological balance of its habitat. Fig. 1 represents the taxonomy and geographic distribution of Artemisia.

Fig. 1.

Taxonomy and geographic distribution of Artemisia.

2.3. Notable species with unique properties

Certain species within the Artemisia genus stand out due to their distinctive chemical profiles and applications in medicine, agriculture, and industry. Artemisia annua, for instance, is renowned for its production of artemisinin, a compound that revolutionized malaria treatment and earned global recognition for its therapeutic impact [5]. Similarly, Artemisia vulgaris (mugwort) has a long history of use in traditional medicine for its anti-inflammatory and digestive properties [15]. Another noteworthy species, Artemisia absinthium (wormwood), is celebrated for its use in the production of absinthe and its potential neuroprotective effects [16]. Emerging research suggests that lesser-known species, such as Artemisia dracunculus (tarragon), possess bioactive compounds with antidiabetic and antioxidant properties, paving the way for novel applications in nutraceuticals and functional foods [17].

2.4. Conservation status and challenges

Despite their ecological and medicinal significance, many Artemisia species face threats due to habitat destruction, overharvesting, and climate change. Habitat fragmentation in biodiversity-rich regions such as the Himalayas and the Mediterranean basin poses a significant challenge to the survival of endemic species. Overexploitation of medicinally valuable species, including Artemisia annua, further exacerbates the risk of genetic erosion [18].

Conservation efforts must prioritize sustainable harvesting practices, habitat restoration, and ex situ cultivation strategies. Advances in tissue culture and genetic banking have shown promise in preserving the genetic diversity of vulnerable species. For instance, cryopreservation of seeds and in vitro propagation techniques have been successfully employed for several Artemisia species to mitigate the risk of extinction [19].

3. Phytochemical composition

3.1. Overview of bioactive compounds in Artemisia

The genus Artemisia boasts a remarkable array of bioactive compounds, underscoring its extensive use in traditional medicine and its emerging role in modern therapeutics. These compounds span diverse classes, including phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, and sesquiterpene lactones, each contributing to the plant's pharmacological versatility. Collectively, these phytochemicals exhibit a broad spectrum of biological activities, ranging from antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects to antimicrobial and antimalarial properties [20].

The intricate interplay of these compounds within Artemisia species underpins their therapeutic efficacy. For instance, the synergy between flavonoids and terpenoids has been shown to enhance antioxidant activity, making Artemisia extracts particularly effective in combating oxidative stress-related disorders. Additionally, the chemical diversity among species such as Artemisia annua and Artemisia absinthium highlights their potential for application in various health domains, including oncology and infectious diseases [21,22]. Fig. 2 illustrates the major bioactive compounds found in the Artemisia genus, including phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids, and sesquiterpene lactones.

Fig. 2.

Overview of bioactive compounds in Artemisia.

3.2. Phenolics, flavonoids, and terpenoids

Phenolic compounds, widely recognized for their potent antioxidant properties, are abundant in Artemisia species [2]. These include hydroxycinnamic acids, caffeic acid derivatives, and coumarins, which play crucial roles in scavenging free radicals and mitigating oxidative damage. For example, Artemisia vulgaris has been identified as a rich source of phenolics, which have demonstrated significant potential in reducing lipid peroxidation and enhancing cellular resilience [23].

Flavonoids, another prominent class of bioactives, exhibit diverse pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and neuroprotective effects. Compounds such as luteolin and quercetin, commonly found in Artemisia annua, have been extensively studied for their ability to modulate inflammatory pathways and induce apoptosis in cancer cells [24]. Similarly, terpenoids, including monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, contribute significantly to the aromatic and therapeutic profiles of Artemisia species. Artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone derived from Artemisia annua, has revolutionized malaria treatment, underscoring the importance of these compounds in modern medicine.

3.3. Alkaloids and sesquiterpene lactones

Alkaloids, though less studied in Artemisia, represent another valuable group of bioactives. These nitrogen-containing compounds often exhibit potent bioactivities, including antimicrobial and anticancer effects. For example, preliminary studies have identified unique alkaloid structures in Artemisia absinthium that may hold promise for developing novel antimicrobial agents [25].

Sesquiterpene lactones, one of the hallmark phytochemicals of Artemisia, have garnered significant attention for their diverse therapeutic applications. Artemisinin, the most notable among them, not only serves as a cornerstone in antimalarial therapy but is also being explored for its potential in cancer treatment and immune modulation. Other sesquiterpene lactones, such as absinthin and santonin, exhibit antiparasitic and anti-inflammatory activities, further broadening the pharmacological landscape of Artemisia. To support comparative insights, Table S1 provides a side-by-side analysis of major Artemisia species, highlighting their phytochemical compositions, therapeutic activities, and notable applications, serving as a valuable guide for targeted pharmacological exploration.

3.4. Advances in phytochemical profiling techniques

Recent technological advancements have greatly enhanced the ability to characterize and quantify the complex phytochemical profiles of Artemisia [2]. Techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy have become indispensable tools in phytochemical research. These methods enable the precise identification of bioactive compounds, even in trace amounts, and facilitate the standardization of Artemisia-based products.

For instance, HPLC has been widely used to quantify phenolics and flavonoids in Artemisia annua, providing insights into their relative abundance across different cultivars and growing conditions. Similarly, GC-MS has proven effective in analyzing the volatile terpenoid fractions, which contribute to the characteristic aroma and therapeutic properties of Artemisia essential oils. The integration of these techniques with computational tools, such as chemometric analysis, has further expanded the scope of phytochemical research, enabling the discovery of novel compounds and their bioactivities [26]. Table S2 provides a consolidated overview of genomic, transcriptomic, and metabolomic data across different Artemisia species, highlighting major bioactive compounds and their molecular targets to aid in therapeutic research and compound discovery.

4. Nutritional benefits of Artemisia

4.1. Macronutrients and micronutrients

The genus Artemisia is not only known for its therapeutic applications but also for its nutritional profile, which comprises an array of macronutrients and micronutrients essential for human health. Species such as Artemisia annua and Artemisia vulgaris have been reported to contain significant amounts of proteins [27,28], carbohydrates [29], and dietary fibers, making them potential candidates for incorporation into functional foods [3,30].

Micronutrient analysis of Artemisia reveals the presence of vitamins (e.g., vitamin C and B-complex) and essential minerals like potassium, magnesium, and calcium. For instance, Artemisia absinthium is particularly rich in potassium [31], which plays a critical role in maintaining electrolyte balance and cardiovascular health. Additionally, trace elements such as zinc and selenium, identified in Artemisia annua, contribute to enzymatic functions and bolster immune defenses, further enhancing the genus's appeal as a nutraceutical source [32]. Fig. 3 illustrates the macronutrients, micronutrients, and their synergistic health benefits, emphasizing Artemisia as a vital source for digestive health and overall well-being.

Fig. 3.

Nutritional profile of genus Artemisia. This infographic illustrates the macronutrients, micronutrients, and their synergistic health benefits, emphasizing Artemisia as a vital source for digestive health and overall well-being.

4.2. Antioxidant properties

Artemisia species are renowned for their exceptional antioxidant properties, primarily attributed to their rich content of phenolics, flavonoids, and terpenoids. These compounds effectively neutralize free radicals, reducing oxidative stress and mitigating its deleterious effects on cellular structures. Studies on Artemisia vulgaris have demonstrated its ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation and enhance antioxidant enzyme activities, such as superoxide dismutase and catalase, which are critical for maintaining cellular homeostasis [15].

Moreover, Artemisia annua has been identified as a potent source of antioxidant flavonoids like quercetin and luteolin, which not only protect cells from oxidative damage but also exhibit anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties. These attributes position Artemisia as a valuable dietary intervention for preventing chronic conditions such as cancer and neurodegenerative diseases [28].

4.3. Role in metabolic regulation (e.g., diabetes, cardiovascular health)

Emerging research highlights the role of Artemisia in regulating metabolic pathways, offering therapeutic potential for managing conditions such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. For example, Artemisia dracunculus has shown promise in improving glucose metabolism by modulating insulin signaling pathways and reducing hyperglycemia [33]. Its bioactive compounds, including flavonoids and terpenoids, enhance insulin sensitivity and promote glucose uptake in peripheral tissues, providing a natural alternative for diabetes management [34].

In the context of cardiovascular health, the genus contributes significantly through its lipid-lowering and anti-inflammatory effects. Sesquiterpene lactones in Artemisia absinthium have demonstrated potential in reducing cholesterol levels and mitigating vascular inflammation, thus lowering the risk of atherosclerosis. Additionally, antioxidant compounds in Artemisia vulgaris support endothelial function and protect against oxidative damage, further underscoring its role in cardiovascular disease prevention [35].

4.4. Impact on gut microbiota and digestive health

The relationship between Artemisia and gut microbiota is an area of growing scientific interest [36]. The dietary fibers and bioactive compounds in Artemisia species act as prebiotics, fostering the growth of beneficial gut microbes such as Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium [37]. For instance, Artemisia annua has been shown to enhance gut microbial diversity, promoting a balanced gut ecosystem and improving digestive health [26].

Furthermore, Artemisia absinthium is traditionally known for its digestive benefits, including alleviating bloating, indigestion, and gastric discomfort. A recent study described the gastroprotective properties of Artemisia absinthium (commonly known as wormwood), focusing on its effectiveness in managing digestive disorders [38]. The research highlighted the use of aqueous extracts—hot and room-temperature macerations—from its aerial parts, which showed promising results in experimental gastric ulcer models induced by ethanol. The room-temperature extract (RTAE) significantly protected the gastric mucosa by reducing lesion areas, maintaining mucosal integrity, and alleviating oxidative stress. This protective effect was attributed to compounds like sesquiterpene lactones and flavonoids, emphasizing the plant's therapeutic potential in preserving the gastric barrier. Despite the absence of increased antioxidant molecule levels such as glutathione, the RTAE's ability to counteract lipid peroxidation contributed to its efficacy. Further studies on its safety profile and long-term benefits were suggested to reinforce its traditional and clinical uses in gastrointestinal health. Table 1 provides a comprehensive overview of the nutritional profiles of Artemisia species, categorized into macronutrients, micronutrients, and bioactive compounds.

Table 1.

Nutritional profiles and their impact on health.

Nutrient category	Key components	Health impacts	Example sources in Artemisia
Macronutrients	Carbohydrates, proteins, dietary fibers	Provide energy, support tissue repair, promote gut health through fiber	Artemisia vulgaris, Artemisia annua
Micronutrients	Vitamins (C, B-complex), minerals (potassium, magnesium, calcium, zinc, selenium)	Boost immune function, enhance metabolic processes, strengthen bones and muscles	Artemisia absinthium, Artemisia annua
Bioactive compounds	Phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, SLs	Neutralize free radicals, reduce oxidative stress, lower inflammation, and combat infections	Artemisia annua, Artemisia vulgaris, Artemisia absinthium

SLs: sesquiterpene lactones.

5. Therapeutic potential of Artemisia

5.1. Antioxidant activity and mechanisms

The antioxidant properties of Artemisia are among its most extensively studied attributes, driven by its rich content of phenolics, flavonoids, and terpenoids. These compounds mitigate oxidative stress by scavenging free radicals, chelating metal ions, and upregulating endogenous antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase. Studies on species like Artemisia dracunculus and Artemisia abrotanum revealed mechanisms such as free radical scavenging, metal ion chelation, and the upregulation of antioxidant enzymes (e.g., superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase) [11]. These mechanisms collectively mitigate oxidative stress, protect against lipid peroxidation, and prevent oxidative DNA damage. Advanced analytical methods like HPLC with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI MS) have confirmed the diversity of bioactive compounds in Artemisia, correlating its chemical composition with robust in vitro and in vivo antioxidant activities. This evidence underscores the plant's therapeutic potential in reducing oxidative stress-related pathologies.

Mechanistically, these compounds neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), preventing the initiation of oxidative chain reactions that compromise cellular integrity. By modulating oxidative pathways, Artemisia not only shields cells from damage but also reduces the risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disorders and neurodegeneration. Fig. 4 illustrates the diverse antioxidant mechanisms of Artemisia bioactive compounds, including phenolics that scavenge free radicals, flavonoids that enhance cellular protection, and terpenoids that modulate oxidative pathways. Additionally, endogenous enzyme upregulation boosts internal antioxidant defenses, while metal ion chelation mitigates oxidative stress by binding harmful ions. These mechanisms highlight Artemisia's role in combating oxidative damage and supporting cellular health.

Fig. 4.

The diverse antioxidant mechanisms of Artemisia bioactive compounds, including phenolics that scavenge free radicals, flavonoids that enhance cellular protection, and terpenoids that modulate oxidative pathways. Additionally, endogenous enzyme upregulation boosts internal antioxidant defenses, while metal ion chelation mitigates oxidative stress by binding harmful ions. These mechanisms highlight Artemisia's role in combating oxidative damage and supporting cellular health.

5.2. Anti-inflammatory properties: key pathways and cytokine modulation

Inflammation is a hallmark of many pathological conditions, and Artemisia demonstrates significant anti-inflammatory effects by modulating key molecular pathways. These anti-inflammatory effects are largely attributed to its bioactive sesquiterpene lactones (SLs), such as artemisinin, dihydroartemisinin, and deoxyartemisinin, which target key regulators of inflammatory responses. These compounds modulate major pro-inflammatory cytokines—including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6)—primarily through inhibition of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) pathway and suppression of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascade. Research demonstrated that SL-enriched fractions effectively reduced edema, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and nitric oxide (NO) production, highlighting their role in suppressing inflammation in acute and chronic models [39,40].

Notably, SLs interact with thiol groups in proteins via the α-methylene-γ-lactone moiety, a mechanism linked to their potency. For example, yomogin, isolated from A. princeps, inhibits inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression, reducing NO production in inflammatory cells. Additionally, A. annua extracts, rich in artemisinin derivatives, selectively attenuate immune responses in hypersensitivity models, presenting potential for treating autoimmune diseases [40]. These findings underscore the versatility of Artemisia phytochemicals in mitigating inflammation, offering therapeutic pathways for conditions like arthritis and colitis while minimizing side effects compared to conventional drugs.

Fig. 5 illustrates four key cellular processes influenced by bioactive compounds from Artemisia species. The antioxidant defense mechanism involves the activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2) and the antioxidant response element (ARE) signaling pathway, which together enhance the production of endogenous antioxidant enzymes. Anti-inflammatory effects are achieved by downregulating NF-κB-mediated cytokine signaling. Apoptosis regulation is mediated through stabilization of mitochondrial function and inhibition of caspase activation. Neuroprotection is facilitated by modulation of neurotrophic factors through phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) signaling, promoting neuronal survival and reducing neurodegeneration. These pathways collectively underpin the therapeutic potential of Artemisia in chronic diseases and neuroinflammation.

Fig. 5.

Biochemical pathways modulated by Artemisia phytochemicals depicting their therapeutic mechanisms. The antioxidant defense mechanism is initiated through activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its downstream antioxidant response element (ARE) signaling, which enhances the transcription of key antioxidant enzymes and strengthens cellular redox balance. Anti-inflammatory activity is achieved by suppressing nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB)–mediated cytokine signaling, thereby reducing the production of pro-inflammatory mediators. Regulation of apoptosis involves stabilization of mitochondrial membrane potential and inhibition of caspase activation, preventing programmed cell death and protecting cellular integrity. Neuroprotection is facilitated through modulation of neurotrophic pathways, particularly the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) signaling cascade, which promotes neuronal survival, enhances synaptic resilience, and mitigates neurodegeneration. Together, these interconnected mechanisms highlight the broad therapeutic relevance of Artemisia phytochemicals in combating oxidative stress, inflammation, cellular dysfunction, and neurological decline.

5.3. Anticancer potential

5.3.1. Mechanisms of action: apoptosis and cell cycle arrest

The anticancer properties of Artemisia and its derivatives, such as artemisinin, stem from their ability to generate ROS selectively in cancer cells, leading to oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and apoptosis [41]. These compounds further exert antiproliferative effects by triggering cell cycle arrest at specific checkpoints, such as the G1 phase (first gap phase) or the G2/M phase (transition from the second gap phase to mitosis), depending on the particular derivative and cancer type. Artemisinin-based therapies also inhibit angiogenesis by targeting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) pathways, preventing tumor growth and metastasis. Additionally, nanoformulations and conjugates, such as artemisinin-transferrin complexes, have enhanced the stability, solubility, and targeted efficacy of these compounds, showing promise in improving clinical outcomes.

Flavonoids such as quercetin and luteolin have been extensively studied for their ability to enhance the sensitivity of cancer cells to apoptosis by modulating apoptotic proteins and disrupting cell cycle progression. Quercetin has been shown to induce apoptosis in human leukemia-60 (HL-60) cells by activating caspase-3 and regulating the expression of members of the B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) protein family. Specifically, quercetin treatment decreases the level of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 while increasing the level of the pro-apoptotic protein Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax), thereby shifting the cellular balance toward apoptosis. Similarly, luteolin has demonstrated the ability to induce apoptosis in cancer cells. Studies indicate that luteolin treatment leads to the activation of pro-apoptotic proteins and inhibition of anti-apoptotic factors, contributing to increased apoptotic cell death in various cancer cell lines [42]. Luteolin has also been shown to induce G2/M phase arrest—the transition from the second gap phase (G2) to mitosis (M)—in human colon cancer LoVo cells. This cell cycle arrest is associated with the downregulation of cyclin B1 and the inactivation of cell division cycle protein 2 (Cdc2), both of which are essential regulators of the G2/M checkpoint. By inhibiting these proteins, luteolin effectively halts cell cycle progression, leading to growth inhibition and apoptosis of cancer cells.

5.3.2. Epigenetic impacts of Artemisia phytochemicals

Emerging research reveals that Artemisia phytochemicals exert epigenetic effects, modulating gene expression through DNA methylation, histone acetylation, and microRNA regulation. Artemisinin and its derivatives have been shown to demethylate tumor suppressor genes, reactivating their expression in cancer cells. Similarly, flavonoids from Artemisia influence histone modifications, enhancing the accessibility of chromatin to transcription factors involved in apoptosis and cell cycle regulation.

5.4. Antimicrobial properties: spectrum and mechanisms

The antimicrobial properties of Artemisia span a wide spectrum, targeting bacteria, fungi, and even parasites. Essential oils derived from species like Artemisia absinthium and Artemisia vulgaris exhibit potent activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, disrupting cell membranes and interfering with metabolic pathways. Furthermore, artemisinin has revolutionized antimalarial therapy by targeting the Plasmodium parasite, inhibiting its heme detoxification pathway and leading to oxidative damage. Similarly, the antifungal activity of Artemisia is attributed to its ability to disrupt fungal cell walls and membranes, making it effective against strains like Candida albicans [42]. Table 2 summarizes the therapeutic activities of Artemisia species, highlighting their key bioactive compounds, mechanisms of action, example species, and potential applications.

Table 2.

Summary of therapeutic activities across Artemisia species.

Biological and therapeutic activity	Key bioactive compounds	Mechanisms	Example species	Potential applications
Antioxidant	Phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids	Scavenging free radicals, upregulating antioxidant enzymes	Artemisia annua, Artemisia vulgaris	Preventing oxidative stress-related diseases
Anti-inflammatory	SLs, flavonoids	Inhibiting NF-κB, reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines	Artemisia absinthium, Artemisia dracunculus	Treating arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease
Anticancer	Artemisinin, dihydroartemisinin, flavonoids	Inducing ROS, mitochondrial dysfunction, apoptosis	Artemisia annua, Artemisia absinthium	Therapies for breast, lung, and colorectal cancer
Antimicrobial	Essential oils, sesquiterpenes	Disrupting microbial membranes, inhibiting key enzymes	Artemisia absinthium, Artemisia vulgaris	Treating bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections
Antimalarial	Artemisinin, artesunate	Inhibiting heme detoxification in parasites	Artemisia annua	Malaria treatment and drug development

SLs: sesquiterpene lactones; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; ROS: reactive oxygen species.

6. Emerging therapeutic applications

The Artemisia genus holds immense promise for emerging therapeutic applications, offering innovative solutions across diverse medical fields. Its neuroprotective properties have shown potential in managing neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) by mitigating oxidative stress and inflammation. The genus also demonstrates significant immunomodulatory effects, balancing immune responses to treat autoimmune disorders like rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. Additionally, Artemisia compounds synergize effectively with modern pharmaceuticals, enhancing the efficacy of chemotherapeutics and antibiotics while minimizing side effects. The integration of Artemisia with advanced drug delivery systems, including nanotechnology-based formulations, highlights its role in improving drug stability, bioavailability, and targeted action. These advancements position Artemisia as a cornerstone for future drug development and an integral component of modern therapeutic strategies. Fig. 6 demonstrates the integration of Artemisia compounds such as artemisinin and flavonoids into modern drug delivery platforms, including nanoparticles, liposomes, and hydrogels. The encapsulated agents exhibit improved solubility, stability, targeted tissue accumulation, and sustained release. This approach enhances therapeutic efficacy while minimizing systemic toxicity and degradation in physiological environments.

Fig. 6.

Integration of Artemisia-derived phytochemicals into advanced drug delivery systems illustrating mechanisms of action and therapeutic benefits.

6.1. Artemisia in neuroprotection: AD and PD

Artemisia species have shown significant promise in neuroprotection, particularly in the context of neurodegenerative diseases such as AD and PD [43]. The phytochemicals within Artemisia, including flavonoids and terpenoids, exhibit potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that counteract the oxidative stress and neuroinflammation central to these disorders.

Artemisia derivatives, particularly artemisinin and its analogs, have shown significant neuroprotective potential in addressing AD pathology. These compounds were found to modulate key aspects of AD, including reducing amyloid-beta (Aβ) plaque formation by inhibiting β-secretase activity, which decreased Aβ production [43]. They also mitigated tau hyperphosphorylation, a critical hallmark of AD, by lowering phosphorylated tau levels. In addition, Artemisia derivatives demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects by downregulating pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α through the inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway. The antioxidant properties of Artemisia compounds were observed to activate the Nrf2/ARE pathway, reducing oxidative stress markers and improving mitochondrial function. These multitarget effects, including reductions in neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and synaptic pathology, highlight the therapeutic potential of Artemisia derivatives as promising candidates for combating multifactorial neurodegenerative diseases like AD.

The neuroprotective properties of various Artemisia plant-derived bioactive compounds, such as flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenolics, demonstrate significant efficacy in reducing oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and Aβ aggregation, which are hallmark features of these diseases [44]. Fig. 7 illustrates the role of phytochemicals in mitigating apoptosis pathways in neurodegeneration. It highlights how bioactive compounds regulate key proteins, enhancing antioxidant responses and inhibiting pro-apoptotic markers such as Bax, caspases, and cytochrome-c (Cyt-c).

Fig. 7.

Mechanisms of phytochemical intervention in oxidative stress-induced apoptosis. Figure illustrates the major molecular pathways modulated by phytochemicals to counteract oxidative stress and inhibit programmed cell death (apoptosis) in neurodegenerative conditions. Under oxidative stress, excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) damage the mitochondria, leading to activation of the pro-apoptotic protein B-cell lymphoma 2–associated X protein (Bax). Activated Bax permeabilizes the mitochondrial membrane, resulting in the release of cytochrome-c (Cyt-c) into the cytosol and the assembly of the apoptosome complex. This apoptosome subsequently activates caspase-9 followed by caspase-3, culminating in the execution of apoptosis. Phytochemicals exert protective effects by upregulating anti-apoptotic proteins such as B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2), which antagonize Bax activity and help stabilize mitochondrial membrane integrity. They also inhibit pro-apoptotic signaling pathways mediated by the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) pathways, thereby blocking downstream signals that promote apoptotic cell death. Additionally, phytochemicals enhance neuronal survival mechanisms by upregulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which activates tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) receptors. This activation triggers downstream signaling through the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) pathway and the MAPK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)–ERK cascade, hereafter referred to as the MEK–ERK cascade. In this context, MEK denotes MAPK/ERK kinase. These pathways converge on transcription factors such as the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) response element-binding protein (CREB), which promotes antioxidant gene expression and supports cell survival. Furthermore, the PI3K/Akt signaling axis interacts with the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) and the nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathways, collectively enhancing cellular defenses against oxidative damage and preserving neuronal integrity. PTEN: phosphatase and tensin homolog. Reprinted from Ref. [44] with permission.

In the context of AD, bioactive compounds derived from Artemisia species inhibit acetylcholinesterase activity and restore neurotransmitter balance, thereby preserving cognitive function and mitigating neurodegeneration. Similarly, in PD, these compounds stabilize mitochondrial function and activate the Nrf2/ARE pathway, bolstering cellular antioxidant defenses and reducing oxidative damage. These findings highlight the therapeutic potential of Artemisia phytochemicals as complementary treatments to existing therapies or as promising candidates for novel drug development. [44]. Fig. 8 illustrates the pivotal role of oxidative stress in driving neurodegeneration, triggered by excessive ROS and pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1. It highlights how phytochemicals intervene in these processes by modulating tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) and tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2)-mediated signaling pathways. These interventions suppress apoptotic cascades, reduce inflammation, and mitigate ROS accumulation, thereby protecting neuronal integrity and counteracting the mechanisms of cell death and inflammation associated with neurodegenerative diseases.

Fig. 8.

Phytochemical modulation of oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and apoptosis in neurodegeneration. This figure illustrates the molecular pathways activated under oxidative stress and how they contribute to inflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and programmed neuronal cell death. Elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and pro-inflammatory cytokines—such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6)—bind to tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) and tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2), initiating downstream signaling cascades. Binding of TNF-α to TNFR1 recruits adaptor proteins including TNF receptor–associated death domain (TRADD), receptor-interacting protein (RIP or RIP1), and TNF receptor–associated factor (TRAF), which activate multiple parallel pathways. These include the apoptotic cascade mediated through Fas-associated death domain (FADD) and caspase activation, and the inflammatory/survival pathways mediated by nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB). NF-κB activation occurs through phosphorylation of its inhibitor, inhibitor of κB (IκB), by the IκB kinase (IKK) complex. Simultaneously, oxidative stress and TNF signaling activate mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, including c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), p38 MAPK, and the mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase (MEK)–extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) axis. These kinases phosphorylate transcription factors such as activator protein-1 (AP-1), promoting the expression of genes involved in inflammation, stress responses, and neuronal apoptosis. Oxidative stress also initiates mitochondrial injury by activating B-cell lymphoma 2–associated X protein (Bax), leading to mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization and release of cytochrome-c (Cyt-c). The released Cyt-c forms the apoptosome, activating caspase-9 and caspase-3, which execute apoptosis. Collectively, these interconnected pathways illustrate how ROS, cytokine signaling, and mitochondrial dysfunction converge to promote inflammation, apoptosis, and neurodegeneration. ASK1: apoptosis signal–regulating kinase 1; iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase. Reprinted from Ref. [44] with permission.

6.2. Applications in immunomodulation and autoimmune disorders

The immunomodulatory effects of Artemisia stem from its ability to balance pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory responses. Compounds such as SLs modulate key cytokines, reducing the overactivation of the immune system often observed in autoimmune diseases. For instance, Artemisia absinthium has been explored for its role in managing rheumatoid arthritis, with studies showing reduced joint inflammation and alleviation of pain. The regulation of cytokines like TNF-α and IL-6 by Artemisia extracts demonstrates its potential in addressing systemic autoimmune disorders such as lupus and multiple sclerosis [45,46].

Zimmermann-Klemd et al. [47] explored the immunosuppressive properties of Artemisia argyi extract, focusing on its ability to inhibit T cell proliferation without cytotoxic effects. They demonstrated that the ethyl acetate extract of Artemisia argyi reduced the activation of T lymphocytes and modulated key intracellular signaling pathways by specifically inhibiting the transcription factors nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT) and NF-κB, while leaving activator protein-1 (AP-1) activity unaffected. The study further revealed that the extract suppressed calcium (Ca²⁺) influx into cells—a critical upstream event required for NFAT activation—indicating that the mechanism of calcium signaling inhibition did not involve calcium sequestration. The anti-inflammatory effects were additionally reflected in the decreased secretion of cytokines such as interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), both of which play pivotal roles in T-cell–mediated immune responses. Furthermore, the investigation identified SLs as the key bioactive compounds within the extract, with several demonstrating selective inhibition of T-cell activation markers, including cluster of differentiation 25 (CD25). However, the isolated compounds were less effective in replicating the extract's comprehensive activity, suggesting a synergistic effect of the extract's components. These findings support the traditional use of A. argyi in managing inflammatory and autoimmune conditions and highlight its potential for developing novel immunosuppressive therapies.

6.3. Synergistic effects with modern pharmaceuticals

The integration of Artemisia-derived compounds with modern pharmaceuticals has shown enhanced therapeutic efficacy and reduced side effects. Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) are a cornerstone in malaria treatment, exemplifying how traditional herbal remedies can synergize with synthetic drugs for optimal outcomes. Beyond malaria, studies have indicated that combining Artemisia extracts with chemotherapeutic agents like cisplatin improves cancer cell targeting while mitigating chemotherapy-induced toxicity.

Lang et al. [48] investigated the anticancer potential of flavonols chrysosplenol D and casticin derived from Artemisia annua. Their study revealed that chrysosplenol D selectively induced apoptosis in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells by activating the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) signaling pathway while sparing normal cells. This activation promoted mitochondrial dysfunction and ROS production, ultimately triggering apoptosis. The researchers further demonstrated that the cytotoxic effects of chrysosplenol D were dependent on sustained ERK1/2 activation, as inhibition of this pathway mitigated its effects. Additionally, the compound induced cell cycle arrest in cancer cells, with specific impacts on the S and G2/M phases, suggesting its capability to disrupt cell proliferation. In vivo studies supported these findings, showing that chrysosplenol D significantly inhibited tumor growth in breast cancer xenografts without causing systemic toxicity. These results highlighted the potential of chrysosplenol D as a candidate for enhancing cancer therapies, either as a standalone treatment or in combination with conventional chemotherapeutics like paclitaxel. The ability of Artemisia annua flavonols to enhance therapeutic efficacy and reduce off-target effects underscores their relevance in integrative cancer treatment strategies. Table S3 presents a summary of verified preclinical studies evaluating the therapeutic effects of various Artemisia species and their bioactive compounds. It includes details on the type of extract used, experimental models, administered dosages, duration of treatment, targeted health conditions (e.g., diabetes, liver disorders, and cancer), and the main pharmacological outcomes.

6.4. Future potential in drug development

The therapeutic versatility of Artemisia positions it as a promising resource for novel drug development. Advanced extraction techniques and bioinformatics tools have enabled the identification of new bioactive compounds from Artemisia, many of which are now being evaluated for their pharmacological potential.

Artemisinin derivatives, for instance, are being explored for their applications beyond malaria, including antiviral therapies targeting diseases like COVID-19 [49] and hepatitis [50]. Additionally, Artemisia compounds are being developed into nanoparticle formulations to improve drug delivery and bioavailability, particularly in cancer and neurodegenerative therapies [51].

Future research should focus on the large-scale cultivation of medicinal Artemisia species, the standardization of extracts, and clinical trials to ensure safety and efficacy. As the demand for plant-derived pharmaceuticals grows, Artemisia is poised to contribute significantly to the evolution of integrative medicine.

7. Industrial applications and economic potential

7.1. Use of Artemisia in functional foods

The integration of Artemisia into functional foods has garnered significant attention due to its rich phytochemical profile and health-promoting properties. Compounds such as flavonoids, SLs, and polyphenols enhance antioxidant activity, making Artemisia an ideal candidate for fortifying beverages, dietary supplements, and functional snacks. For example, Artemisia argyi extracts have been incorporated into teas and nutraceutical formulations to support immune function and reduce oxidative stress [52].

Moreover, the incorporation of Artemisia into food products not only enhances their nutritional value but also contributes distinctive sensory attributes, particularly its characteristic bitter flavor profile. Recent advancements in microencapsulation technologies have enabled the effective integration of Artemisia-derived bioactive compounds into functional food matrices, ensuring improved stability, controlled release, and enhanced bioavailability. This strategy aligns with the increasing consumer demand for plant-based functional ingredients, especially among health-conscious individuals seeking natural alternatives with scientifically validated health benefits.

7.2. Applications in cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries

The cosmetic industry has embraced Artemisia for its anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and skin-soothing properties. Extracts from species such as Artemisia capillaris and Artemisia vulgaris are widely used in formulations for anti-aging creams, acne treatments, and skin repair serums [53]. The high concentration of antioxidants, including flavonoids and terpenoids, protects the skin from environmental stressors and delays premature aging. Additionally, Artemisia essential oils, known for their antimicrobial effects, have been incorporated into deodorants, cleansers, and hair care products to address scalp infections and enhance hair health [26].

In the pharmaceutical domain, artemisinin derivatives have revolutionized antimalarial therapy, with ACTs remaining the gold standard [16]. Beyond malaria, Artemisia compounds are being explored for their potential to combat multidrug-resistant bacterial strains and as adjunct therapies in oncology and neurodegenerative diseases. The scalability of Artemisia cultivation and advancements in pharmaceutical extraction techniques have bolstered its position in global drug development efforts.

7.3. Agricultural benefits: biopesticides and soil health

The agricultural sector has recognized Artemisia for its eco-friendly biopesticidal properties. Essential oils derived from Artemisia absinthium and Artemisia annua contain active compounds like camphor, thujone, and artemisinin, which exhibit potent insecticidal and antifungal activities [54]. These natural compounds provide a sustainable alternative to synthetic pesticides, reducing environmental toxicity while maintaining crop health.

In addition to pest control, Artemisia has been utilized to improve soil health through its allelopathic effects. Certain species release bioactive compounds into the soil that suppress the growth of invasive weeds and promote beneficial microbial activity. These properties make Artemisia a valuable component in crop rotation systems, enhancing soil fertility and agricultural productivity.

7.4. Market trends and economic impact

The global market for Artemisia-derived products has witnessed remarkable growth, driven by rising consumer interest in natural and plant-based solutions. The demand spans multiple sectors, including functional foods, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals, with significant economic contributions from artemisinin-based therapies. The World Health Organization's endorsement of ACTs has solidified the economic value of Artemisia annua cultivation in malaria-endemic regions, providing both health benefits and income opportunities for local farmers [55].

Furthermore, the incorporation of Artemisia into sustainable agricultural practices and eco-friendly product lines aligns with global trends favoring green technologies and ethical sourcing [31]. Countries investing in large-scale cultivation and processing infrastructure are poised to benefit from its economic potential, fostering innovation and growth in multiple industries. The versatile applications of Artemisia underscore its transformative role in shaping future market landscapes.

Table 3 [9,16,26,31,53,[56], [57], [58], [59], [60], [61], [62], [63]] highlights the diverse industrial applications of Artemisia across functional foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and agriculture, emphasizing key bioactive compounds, benefits, and example uses.

Table 3.

Industrial applications and economic potential of Artemisia.

Application domain	Key compounds/features	Key benefits	Example applications	Relevant trends/impact	Refs.
Functional foods	Flavonoids, polyphenols, SLs	Supports immune health, reduces oxidative stress, adds nutritional value	Functional teas, dietary supplements, microencapsulated foods	Increasing demand for plant-based functional foods	[26,56]
Cosmetics	Flavonoids, terpenoids, essential oils	Anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, anti-aging, skin protection	Anti-aging creams, acne treatments, deodorants, hair care products	Rise in natural and eco-friendly cosmetic formulations	[9,53]
Pharmaceuticals	Artemisinin, artemisinin derivatives	Revolutionized antimalarial therapies, potential in cancer and neurodegenerative treatments	ACTs for malaria, adjunct oncology therapies, antibacterial treatments	Global reliance on ACTs, potential expansion in drug discovery	[16,[57], [58], [59]]
Agriculture	Essential oils (camphor, thujone), artemisinin	Eco-friendly pest control, promotes soil health, reduces environmental toxicity	Biopesticides, crop rotation for soil health, weed suppression	Adoption of sustainable agriculture practices	[60,61]
Market trends and economics	Artemisinin-based therapies, essential oil products	Boosts income for farmers, aligns with sustainability trends, drives innovation	Artemisia-based economic development in malaria-endemic regions	Expanding markets across multiple industries, ethical sourcing initiatives	[31,62,63]

SLs: sesquiterpene lactones; ACTs: artemisinin-based combination therapies.

8. Challenges and future directions

8.1. Gaps in current research

Despite the extensive body of research on Artemisia, significant gaps persist, particularly in understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying its therapeutic effects. For instance, while artemisinin and its derivatives are well-studied, the synergistic interactions between other bioactive compounds, such as flavonoids and terpenoids, remain largely unexplored [22,64]. Additionally, most studies focus on individual species like Artemisia annua or Artemisia absinthium, leaving other potentially valuable species understudied. Comprehensive genomic and metabolomic studies are needed to map the full spectrum of bioactive compounds across diverse Artemisia species.

Clinical studies also represent a critical gap, with most findings limited to preclinical models. The transition from laboratory research to human trials is essential to validate the efficacy and safety of Artemisia-derived compounds. Furthermore, the lack of standardized extraction and formulation methods hinders the reproducibility of results, emphasizing the need for robust protocols to ensure consistency and reliability in research outcomes.

8.2. Challenges in cultivation and sustainable harvesting

The increasing demand for Artemisia in pharmaceuticals, functional foods, and cosmetics has raised concerns about the sustainability of its cultivation and harvesting. Environmental factors such as soil degradation, water scarcity, and climate change impact the yield and quality of Artemisia crops, particularly in regions where they are traditionally cultivated. Moreover, overharvesting in the wild poses a threat to biodiversity, jeopardizing the availability of lesser-known species that may hold untapped therapeutic potential [65].

Addressing these challenges requires the implementation of sustainable agricultural practices, such as intercropping, organic farming, and soil conservation techniques. Advances in biotechnology, including tissue culture and genetic modification, could play a pivotal role in enhancing crop resilience and productivity. Furthermore, community-based initiatives promoting fair trade and equitable sharing of benefits among local farmers and indigenous communities are essential for ensuring long-term sustainability.

8.3. Future directions for multidisciplinary research

The multifaceted potential of Artemisia demands a multidisciplinary research approach that integrates biology, chemistry, agriculture, and data science. For instance, employing systems biology and bioinformatics could elucidate the complex pathways through which Artemisia bioactives exert their therapeutic effects. The use of artificial intelligence (AI) in drug discovery could accelerate the identification of novel compounds and their targets, paving the way for new therapeutic applications [66].

Collaborations between academia, industry, and policymakers are also critical to bridging the gap between basic research and practical applications. For example, partnerships with pharmaceutical companies could facilitate large-scale clinical trials, while collaboration with agricultural scientists could optimize cultivation techniques. Such interdisciplinary efforts would not only enhance our understanding of Artemisia but also unlock its full potential as a cornerstone of integrative medicine and sustainable industry practices.

8.4. Policy implications and ethical considerations

The growing interest in Artemisia raises important policy and ethical issues. Intellectual property rights and benefit-sharing agreements must be established to protect the traditional knowledge of indigenous communities who have historically used Artemisia for medicinal purposes. Ensuring that these communities benefit equitably from commercialization efforts is crucial to maintaining ethical integrity.

Regulatory frameworks must also address the quality, safety, and efficacy of Artemisia-based products. This includes setting global standards for cultivation, extraction, and manufacturing processes to ensure consistency and consumer safety. Additionally, policies promoting sustainable harvesting and conservation of Artemisia species are essential to prevent overexploitation and loss of biodiversity.

Finally, public education campaigns highlighting the importance of sustainability and ethical practices in the use of Artemisia can foster consumer awareness and support for responsible industry practices. These measures, coupled with robust scientific research, will ensure that the industrial and therapeutic potential of Artemisia is realized in a manner that is equitable, sustainable, and impactful.

9. Conclusion

The extensive exploration of Artemisia species underscores their multifaceted potential in health, industry, and beyond. Key findings emphasize the genus's diverse phytochemical composition, including SLs, flavonoids, and essential oils, which collectively contribute to significant antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. These bioactive compounds have demonstrated transformative potential in addressing chronic diseases, such as neurodegenerative disorders and cancer, and in promoting metabolic and immune health. Moreover, the industrial applications of Artemisia span functional foods, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics, offering economic opportunities while addressing global health challenges.

The transformative potential of Artemisia lies not only in its therapeutic capabilities but also in its ability to bridge traditional medicine with modern scientific advancements. The genus has inspired innovative strategies in sustainable agriculture, eco-friendly pest control, and drug development, showcasing its adaptability across sectors. This dual role as a cornerstone of integrative medicine and a catalyst for economic innovation reinforces Artemisia's significance in fostering global sustainability and health.

Despite these promising findings, substantial gaps remain in understanding the molecular mechanisms of Artemisia's bioactivity and its long-term safety and efficacy. Addressing these challenges through multidisciplinary research and clinical studies will be pivotal in unlocking the full potential of this genus. Further policy support and ethical considerations will ensure equitable and sustainable use of Artemisia resources, preserving their legacy for future generations. This review serves as a foundation for future studies, encouraging comprehensive exploration and responsible utilization of Artemisia in addressing contemporary health and industrial needs.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Samy Selim: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Supervision, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Data curation, Conceptualization. Mohammad Harun-Ur-Rashid: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Software, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization. Soad K. Al Jaouni: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Investigation, Data curation, Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

The following is/are the supplementary data to this article: