Exercise self-efficacy of physically disabled students of Lemo district primary school

Abstract

Physical activity is vital for the health and wellness of every child, but students with physical disabilities frequently encounter different challenges that impact their participation. This research aimed to explore the factors affecting exercise self-efficacy among physically disabled students in primary schools. Using a mixed-method approach, a purposive sample of n = 152 students from grade 5 to 8 was selected across five public primary school in the Lemo district. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed that age (β = 0.062, t = 7.500, p < 0.05) and gender (β = 0.046, t = 3.500, p < 0.05) were significant predictors of exercise self-efficacy. Additionally, socioeconomic status (β = 0.073, t = 3.571, p = 0.001), peer support (β = 0.231, t = 3.750, p < 0.05), parental support (β = 1.021, t = 4.253, p < 0.001), teachers support (β = 0.084, t = 3.750, p < 0.05), and school administrative support (β = 0.277, t = 3.500, p = 0.001) had a significant positive effect. Totally these factors explained 86.9% of the variance in exercise self-efficacy. Qualitative analysis revealed that critical role of support systems but also face challenges such as insufficient training, lack of adapted equipment, and limited awareness among teachers, peers, parents, and school administrations. Our finding suggest that include comprehensive teacher training in inclusive education, development of peer support program, parental engagement through workshop, school accessibility audit and allocation of resource for adapted equipment.

Introduction

Worldwide, numerous children with physical disabilities (CwPDs) are marginalized from their education and social interactions, primarily because of stigma and its repercussions. Nonetheless, data regarding disability stigma is limited in low- and middle-income nations such as Ethiopia¹. Participation in physical activity has been constantly linked to positive outcome for children and adolescents with disabilities who participate in physical activity often demonstrate better academic skill, higher self-efficacy, greater will power, lower feeling of inferiority². Physical activity has been shown to strengthen perceived physical skill, which in turn enhance self-efficacy and participation aptitude³. This relationship is particularly strong among individual with higher level of disability, where self-efficacy, self –esteem, and acceptance of disability positively influence social participation⁴. Furthermore exercise self-efficacy, a crucial behavioral driver of physical activity, is also significantly predicted by participation in sports⁵. It indicates that such involvement improves a variety of aspects of life, such as social integration and psychosocial health.

Despite these benefit many children with physical disabilities barriers to participation, including limited parental awareness, little coaching expertise in inclusive settings, and low perceived community support⁶. Recent study on physical activity breaks in specific schools shows their practicality and acceptance, emphasizing the necessity for adaptable program designs to provide to diverse student requirements and offer different resources⁷.

In Ethiopia, empirical research on the exercise self-efficacy of children with physically disabilities in particularly limited. This knowledge gap hinder the development of evidence based strategies for inclusive physical education. The present study addresses this gap by examining how demographic factors age, gender, parental socioeconomic background and social–environmental influences teacher assistance, peer support from non-disabled students, and school administrative support affect the exercise self-efficacy of physically disabled students in primary schools within Lemo District, Hadiya Zone. The finding will guide educators and policymakers in creating initiatives that encourage fair participation and add to the scarce literature relevant to the Ethiopian context.

Materials and methods

Setting

The study was conducted in five public primary schools located in the Lemo district of central Ethiopia regional state. Lemo woreda is district in the Hadiya zone districts, with Hosanna city serving as its administrative capital. Hosanna, the capital of the district, is situated at Latitude 07°41′ N and Longitude 037°31′ E, noted for its mountainous landscape and hilly regions with inclines between 2 and 30%. The schools were chosen to represent varied environments, comprising urban (n = 2) and rural (n = 3) locations. Initial discussions with school administrators and relevant stakeholders began in 2023 to evaluate feasibility and enhance awareness of the research. Nevertheless, formal recruitment and data collection involving participants occurred only after ethical approval was granted by IBR on 1-15-2024 and ended on May 30, 2024.

Study design

A concurrent triangulation mixed-methods approach was utilized, combining quantitative survey data and qualitative interview data gathered at the same time. We used this design to facilitate the cross-validation of results and offered an in-depth insight into exercise self-efficacy in students with physical disabilities.

Participants

The study population constituted of (n = 152) participants physically disabled students (n = 45), teachers (n = 22), non-disabled peers (n = 35), parents (n = 30), and school administrators (n = 20).

Inclusion criteria

Participants consisted of students with physical disabilities enrolled in grades 5–8 at the chosen schools, their parents or guardians, teachers who had instructed the students for a minimum of one academic year, non-disabled classmates from the same classes, and school administrators (principals or vice-principals).

Exclusion Criteria

Students with cognitive or significant sensory impairments that would hinder participation in surveys or interviews were excluded, along with individuals who did not give consent and those not actively involved in school activities at the time of data collection.

Sampling technique and sampling size

Participants were selected employing a mix of census and purposive sampling methods to guarantee alignment with the study aims. The study sample comprises physically disabled students (n = 45), educators (n = 22), non-disabled peers (n = 35), parents (n = 30), and school leaders (n = 20). A census was conducted for all physically disabled students (n = 45) to guarantee full complete representation of this primary target group. The remaining participant groups were selected through purposeful sampling to capture diverse and relevant perspectives.

For the qualitative component, a subset of participants was selected from each group for in-depth interviews to achieve data saturation physically disabled students (n = 4), teacher (n = 5), non-disabled peers (n = 6), parents (n = 5), and school administrators (n = 4) participants. For the quantitative component, the minimum sample size was determined based on guidelines for multiple linear regression, applying the rule of 10–15 participants per predictor variable. According to this criterion, the final sample of 152 participants was sufficient to meet statistical requirements and support a comprehensive analysis.

Instruments

The data collection instrument used in our study was the Self-Efficacy for Physical Activity Scale (SEPA) developed by⁸. It was not under copyright and was publicly available at the time of its use in our study. To ensure validity in the present study, content and face validity were confirmed through expert review by two sport science lecturers and a pilot test with 20 students to check clarity and cultural appropriateness of the items. Construct validity is evidenced by previous research showing meaningful correlations between SEPA scores and physical activity behaviors. The reliability of our sample was assessed through internal consistency, with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.74, which is within the acceptable range, demonstrating sufficient reliability for research use. Qualitative data were gathered using semi-structured interview guides tailored to each participant group.

Data collection procedure

Data collection took place between January 15 and May 30, 2024, following ethical approval. Surveys were administered in person, with assistance provided to participants with reading difficulties. Interviews were conducted in the participants’ preferred language, audio-recorded with permission, and transcribed verbatim.

Data analysis

The study employed both quantitative and qualitative analysis technique. Fro quantitative, descriptive statistics frequency and percentage were used to summarize demographic information of age and gender for teachers, parents, non-disable peers, and school administrators. Multiple linear regression was used to determine the significant impact of teachers, parents, non-disabled peers, and school administrators on the exercise self-efficacy of physically disabled students.

For the qualitative method, data obtained from interviews were analyzed using content analysis. Transcript were read systematically, and meaningful units of text were inductively coded, allowing codes to emerge directly from the data rather than being pre-determined. Similar code were grouped into categories and themes to identify patterns and relationships. To enhance reliability, two researchers coded the data independently, compared result and resolve differences through discussion. This systematic approach ensured that the qualitative finding added quantitative result and provided deeper insight into the lived experience of the participants.

Ethical considerations

This study, titled “Exercise Self-Efficacy of Physically Disabled Students of Lemo District Primary School,” received ethical approval from the Wachemo University institutional research review board (IBR). The approval was granted on 1-15-2024, following a thorough review of the research proposal, including the study’s objectives, methodology, and procedures for ensuring the safety and confidentiality of all participants. The study adheres to all ethical guidelines and principles as set forth by the committee. Prior to participation, all students and their guardians were provided with detailed information about the study’s objectives, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants and their guardians. Participants were assured of their right to withdraw from the study at any time without any consequences. All personal information collected during the study was kept confidential. Data were anonymized and stored securely, accessible only to the research team. Participants were informed about their rights, including, the right to refuse participation or withdraw from the study at any time and the right to ask questions and receive answers about the study.

Results

Demographic characteristics of respondents

Table 1 summarize the demographic characteristics of the study participants. A total of.

Table 1.

Demographic characteristics of respondents.

	n	%	Age range	Gender distribution
				Male(n)	Male (%)	Female(n)	Female (%)
Physically disabled students	45	29.6	12–15	28	28.8	17	30.9
Teacher	22	14.4	35–60	15	15.4	7	12.7
Peers (non-disabled)	35	23.0	12–15	25	25.7	10	18.8
Parents	30	19.7	35–55	17	17.5	13	23.6
School administrators	20	13.1	35–65	12	12.3	8	14.5
Total	152	100.0		97	100.0	55	100.0

152 sample participated, including physically disable students, (n = 45, 26.6%), teachers (n = 22, 14.4%), non-disable peers (n = 35, 23.0%), parents (n = 30, 19.7%), and school administrators (n = 20, 13.1%). Among physical disable students, 28(28.8%) were male and 17(30.9%) were female. For teachers 15(15.4%) were male and 7(12.7%) were female. Among non-disable peers, 25(25.7%) were male and 10(18.8%) were female. Parents indicate 17 male (17.5%) and 13 female (23.6%), while school administrators include 12 male (12.3%) and 8 female (14.5%). Indeed the total sample consisted of 97 male (100%) and 55 female (100%).

Multiple linear regration analysis

Multiple linear regration was performed to examine predictors of exercise self-efficacy. Model assumptions were checked, including linearity, normality of residual, homoscedasticity and multicollinearity all VIF value < 2). (Table 2) summarize the regression coefficient and significant level.

Table 2.

Model summary for predictors of exercise self-efficacy in physically disabled students.

Model	R	R 2	Adjusted R2	SE
1	0.932a	0.869	0.832	3.277

^aPredictors: (constant), school administrative support, gender, socio-economic status of students parent, age, teachers support, peers support, parent support

^bDependent variable: exercise self-efficacy of physically disabled students

ANOVA for predictors of exercise self-efficacy

An ANOVA was conducted to evaluate the overall regression model predicting exercise self-efficacy among physically disable students. The result presented in (Table 3).

Table 3.

ANOVA for predictors of exercise self-efficacy in physically disabled students.

Model		SS	df	MS	F	p
1	Regression	1774.479	7	253.497	23.609	0.000
	Residual	268.430	25	10.737
	Total	2042.909	32

^bPredictors: school administrative support, gender, socio-economic status of students parent, age, teacher support, peer support, parent support.

^aDependent variable: exercise self-efficacy of physically disable student

Regression coefficients for predictors of exercise self-efficacy

The regression coefficient for predictors of exercise self-efficacy among physically disable students are presented in (Table 4).

Table 4.

Regression coefficients for predictors of exercise self-efficacy in physically disabled students.

		B	SE	Β	t	p	95% CI Lower	95% CI Upper
1	(Constant)	0.182	8.627	–	0.021	0.001	17.586	17.950
	Age	0.150	0.020	0.062	7.500	0.000	0.110	0.190
	Gender	3.500	1.000	0.046	3.500	0.001	1.500	5.500
	Socio-economic status	2.500	0.700	0.073	3.571	0.001	1.120	3.880
	Teacher support	0.150	0.040	0.084	3.750	0.000	0.070	0.230
	Peer support	0.300	0.080	0.231	3.750	0.000	0.144	0.456
	Parent support	0.987	0.232	1.021	4.253	0.000	0.509	1.465
	School administrative support	0.700	0.200	0.277	3.500	0.001	0.304	1.096

^aDependent variable: exercise self-efficacy of physically disable students. B = unstandardized regression coefficient; SE = standard error; β = standardized regression coefficient; t = t-value; p = significance value; CI = confidence interval *p<0.05 indicates statistical significance.

Qualitative results

Participant selection and data saturation

Interviews took place with 8 essential participants reflecting various viewpoints: 2 students with physical disabilities, 1 non-disabled peers, 1 parent, 2 school administrators, and 1 physical education teachers/experts in inclusive methods. Participants were chosen intentionally to reflect a variety of experiences concerning exercise self-efficacy among physically disabled students. Data collection continued until thematic saturation was reached, when no new themes or insights emerged from additional interviews.

Theme 1: Teacher support

Teacher support emerged as crucial factors influencing exercise self-efficacy. Student reported different level of encouragement and guidance.

Abraham Wolde, a grade 6 student with both legs unable to move, shared:

………… “My PE teacher rarely encourages me to join in because I have a wheelchair. He doesn’t show me how to adapt the exercises, so I often feel left out and unable to participate with everyone else.” (Abraham Personal communication, April 9, 2024).

This indicates limited teacher engagement in adapting activities, which negatively affects participation.

Anita Frew, a grade 8 student with a handicapped left leg, reported:

…………. “I am moderately confident. I’m good at activities like swimming and wheelchair basketball, but struggle with running or climbing. Proper support and equipment help, but some challenges lower my confidence.” (Anita .F. Personal communication, April 9, 2024).

Her response suggests that confidence is closely linked to tailored support and access to appropriate equipment.

Mr. Mebratu Haile, PE expert with 10 years of experience, highlighted:

…………"Inclusive practices are integral in my teaching, but achieving full inclusivity requires ongoing effort in adapting methods and fostering a supportive classroom environment for all students.“(Mebratu Haile, April 9, 2024).

This emphasizes that inclusive teaching requires continuous adaptation and effort.

Theme 2: Peer support

Peers also influence students’ exercise self-efficacy. Support from non-disabled peers was described as helpful but sometimes limited by resources:

Anniye Molito, a grade 7 student, stated:

……….“We try to adapt activities for everyone, but it’s challenging. Not all games are easily modified, and we often lack equipment or training. It’s important to include everyone, but it’s not always easy.“(Anniye Molito, personal communication, April 15, 2024).

Theme 3: Parent support

Parents provide crucial encouragement, but face challenges related to awareness and skills:

“……….We do our best to encourage our children to participate in physical activities, but we face challenges due to limited awareness and a skill gap. We need to find ways to support our children more effectively”. (Frew. F, Personal communication, May 5, 2024).

He further suggested strategies to enhance support:

“…………to encourage our children to engage in physical activity in a way that suits their needs, we require resources offering practical strategies and examples for adapting these activities. Workshops, and informational materials would all be beneficial”. (Frew. F, Personal communication, May 5, 2024).

These responses underscore the importance of parental guidance and structured support interventions.

Theme 4: School administrators support

School administrators play a key role in creating an inclusive environment, but infrastructural and pedagogical constraints persist:

Mr. Yohannes Eriso, school director with 15 years of experience, noted:

“……….Creating a truly inclusive learning environment for students with physical disabilities requires a multi-faceted approach”. (Yohannes. E, Personal communication, May 10, 2024).

Miss Bertukan Samuel, academic vice director, explain challenges and potential strategies:

“……….Our current facilities may not be fully accessible for all disabilities, lacking ramps, adapted equipment, or specialized exercise spaces. Second one traditional PE activities might not be adaptable for all students, necessitating exploration of more inclusive options.” (Bertukan. S, Personal communication, May 10, 2024).

She suggested possible interventions:

“……….We can consider peer support programs where students without physical limitations encourage and motivate peers with disabilities during physical activities. Additionally, conducting an accessibility audit of PE facilities can identify and address physical barriers, as well as assess the need for adapted equipment.” (Bertukan. S, Personal communication, May 10, 2024).

These responses emphasize the institutional role in promoting exercise self-efficacy and addressing systemic barriers.

This qualitative findings show that teacher engagement, peer inclusion, parental encouragement, and school administrative support are all critical to enhancing exercise self-efficacy among physically disabled students. Students’ confidence is highest when support is individualized and resources are available, while challenges persist when teachers, peers, parents, or school infrastructure limit participation.

Discussion

This study analysed the factors influencing exercise self-efficacy among physically disabled students at Lemo district Primary School. The study involved a diverse group of participants from the school system, including students with disabilities, their peers, teachers, parents, and administrators. The multiple linear regression analysis provided insightful results, demonstrating that several predictors significantly influenced the exercise self-efficacy of physically disabled students. Key predictors included age, gender, socio-economic status of parents, and support from teachers, peers, parents, and school administrators. The model explained a substantial 86.9% of the variance in exercise self-efficacy, emphasizing the combined impact of these factors.

Age was positively associated with exercise self-efficacy (β = 0.062, t = 7.500, p < 0.001) suggesting that older students may have developed greater coping strategies. This align with previous research suggesting that self-efficacy trend to increase with experience and exposure to adaptive activities⁹. Gender also emerged as significant predictor, with male indicate higher exercise self-efficacy than female (β = 0.046, t = 3.500, p = 0.001), reflecting societal patterns in which male often receives more encouragement to participate in physical activity¹⁰.

Parental socio-economic status positively influenced students ‘exercise self-efficacy (β = 0.073, t = 3.571, p = 0.001), consistent literature suggesting that higher socio-economic background often provide greater access to resource and opportunity for participating in physical activity¹¹.

In regarding to social support teachers significantly predicted exercise self-efficacy (β = 0.073, t = 3.571, p = 0.001). Qualitative result reveled that some students perceived limited encouragement from teacher, particularly in adapting activities for their ability. This support prior studies demonstrating that teacher engagement and inclusive practice can enhance students self-efficacy and participation¹².Peers support also showed that (β = 0.231, t = 3.750, p < 0.001). Students and peers reported effort to include all participants, though challenge related to limited equipment and lack of training were examined. Peer modeling and encouragement have been shown to be critical for adolescents motivation and self-efficacy in physical activity¹³. Parental support was the strongest predictors (β = 1.021, t = 4.253, p < 0.001). Parents indicated that challenges such as limited awareness, and skill but acknowledged the importance of nurturing and encouragement. This align with the evidence emphasizing parental involvement as crucial for promoting exercise self-efficacy among children with disability¹⁴.

School administrative support significantly predicted exercise self-efficacy (β = 0.277, t = 3.500, p = 0.001). Administrators explains enhancing inclusive school cultures and implementing policies ensuring equitable access. Main barriers included inaccessible facilities and traditional PE activities that are not adaptable for all students. This result align with prior research explain the role of school leaders in promoting inclusive practice and supporting students diverse need^15,16.

Qualitative finding ensures that supported the quantitative result. Students reported moderate confidence but indicate challenges when teachers provided limited guidance and peer lack resource. Parent emphasize the need for strategies and awareness to support their children, while school administrator indicate infrastructural and pedagogical constraints. In sum this result underline the need of multi stage intervention addressing individual, social and institutional factors to enhance exercise self-efficacy in physical disable students.

Conclusion

This study emphasizes the various factors affecting exercise self-efficacy in physically disabled students at primary schools in Lemo District. Quantitative results indicated that age, gender, socioeconomic status, and social support from teachers, peers, parents, and school administrators were significant predictors of self-efficacy, collectively accounting for 86.9% of the variance. Qualitative insights revealed that insufficient teacher training, scarce resources, and infrastructural obstacles limit participation, whereas robust support systems boost confidence and participation.

The results indicate practical significances creating inclusive school settings demands not individual encouragement but also systemic changes in training, curriculum development, and institutional policies. Boosting self-efficacy in students with physical disabilities can encourage involvement in physical activities, enhance psychosocial well-being, and support educational equity.

However, the study has its constraints. Its focus on one district restricts applicability to other similar Ethiopian settings. The small sample size, though sufficient for analysis, limits wider conclusions. Moreover, dependence on self-reported data brings in possible biases connected to social desirability and memory. Future research should utilize larger, more diverse samples and a combination of data sources to validate and broaden these findings.

Recommendations

To put these findings into practice, we provide recommendations tailored by each stakeholder groups.

For Educators

• Undertake in professional training initiatives focused on adaptive physical education and inclusive teaching strategies.

• Integrate adaptive, diverse activities into PE programs to guarantee involvement from students with different ability.

• Cultivate peer-supported learning settings that promote cooperation between disabled and non-disabled students.

For School Administrators

• Perform routine accessibility assessments of school facilities and emphasize enhancements like ramps, modified physical activity spaces, and appropriate equipment.

• Allocate dedicated resources to obtain adapted exercise equipment and learning materials.

• Establish structured peer-support and mentoring programs that meaningfully involve students with physical disabilities.

For Policymakers

• Incorporate inclusive physical education standards into national curricula for standardize implementation.

• Provide targeted funding streams for schools serving students with disabilities, enabling equitable access to facilities and resources.

• Develop awareness campaigns to engage parents and communities in supporting children’s physical activity, thereby reducing stigma and enhancing participation.

For Parents

• Participate in workshops that build awareness of the benefits of physical activity and practical ways to support children at home and in the community.

• Partner with schools and local health organizations to create supportive networks that extend opportunities for physical activity beyond the classroom. By engaging at these levels, stakeholders can collaboratively enhance the self-efficacy in exercise of physically disabled students and foster their greater inclusion in both school and community life.

Author contributions

S.G and M.W was crucial in the study’s conceptualization and design.They did extensive literature studies to establish the study setting andbackdrop. S.G also gathered and evaluated data, assuring the findings’correctness and trustworthiness. They helped to understand the findings andgave useful insights. Furthermore, S.G actively engaged in the production ofthe publication, ensuring that it followed to ethical rules and that the generalcoherence of the study was maintained. M.W and A.A contributedsignificantly to the research by aiding with data gathering and analysis. Theyactively participated in the data gathering process, ensuring that high-qualityand relevant data was collected. Both S.G, M. W and A.A also contributedsignificantly to the paper writing process by examining the findings andassisting with interpretation. Their knowledge and participation in theresearch improved the overall quality of the study. They aided with datacollecting, guaranteeing the data’s correctness and completeness. Theyoffered input on the study design, which assisted in the refinement of theresearch technique performed literature reviews, which contributed to thestudy’s theoretical foundation. The text writing process by examining thefinal draft for clarity and correctness.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data availability

The Sequence of data that support the findings of this study have been deposited in the data verse repository (10.5281/zenodo.14714140). The data available from the corresponding author, Samson Getu, upon reasonable request.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.