Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Journal of Fungi logoLink to Journal of Fungi
. 2026 May 13;12(5):359. doi: 10.3390/jof12050359

Stereospecific Antifungal Activity of Strigolactone Analogues Against Botrytis cinerea and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

Pingliang Huang 1,2,3, Ruifeng Yao 1,2,3,*, Li Chen 1,2,3,*
Editor: Florentine Marx
PMCID: PMC13209101  PMID: 42187841

Abstract

Plant hormones and their synthetic analogueues offer sustainable alternatives for crop protection, yet the direct antifungal activity of strigolactone (SL) and its analogues against necrotrophic pathogens remain largely unexplored. Here, we screened eight phytohormones and related analogues for treatments of Botrytis cinerea and identified the SL analogue rac-GR24 (racemic GR24) as a concentration-dependent growth inhibitor active at low micromolar concentrations. Given the stereochemical complexity of SLs and their analogues, we evaluated multiple enantiopure isomers and found that ent-5DS and GR24ent-5DS, which differ in configuration from natural SLs, exhibited the strongest inhibitory activity. This stereospecific response was further validated using another filamentous fungus, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, which displayed an identical susceptibility profile. Combinatorial treatments with enantiopure isomers and double-concentration rac-GR24 revealed that the antifungal effect of the racemate is primarily attributable to the GR24ent-5DS enantiomer, whereas the opposite enantiomer GR245DS is almost inactive. Collectively, our findings uncover a stereospecific response in fungal pathogens, demonstrating that B. cinerea and S. sclerotiorum respond to exogenous SL analogues in a chirally selective manner. This work establishes a stereochemically defined framework for developing enantioselective fungicidal agents with potential applications in sustainable agriculture.

Keywords: strigolactone analogues, stereospecificity, antifungal activity, Botrytis cinerea, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

1. Introduction

A wide range of filamentous fungi are devastating pathogens of major crops. Among them are Botrytis cinerea and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, two typical necrotrophic fungi that cause severe yield losses. B. cinerea causes annual global economic losses estimated at 10 billion to 100 billion across more than 1400 plant species, with particularly severe impacts on grapevine, strawberry, tomato, and ornamentals. S. sclerotiorum affects over 400 plant species worldwide, with yield losses ranging from 20 to 60% in susceptible crops such as oilseed rape, soybean, and sunflower, annual economic losses are estimated at hundreds of millions of dollars [1,2,3,4,5]. The fungus affects crops throughout the growth cycle, from seedlings to maturity [6]. Owing to the difficulty of its control, B. cinerea causes severe yield losses and substantial economic damage worldwide. B. cinerea propagates primarily asexually via the production of abundant conidia and the formation of sclerotia, the latter of which also enables sexual reproduction following fertilization by microconidia [7,8,9,10]. Although the fungus is capable of producing ascospores, conidia serve as the main propagules and represent the primary source of inoculum, being widely distributed in the air [11,12,13]. Conidia land on plant surfaces, germinate to form short germ tubes, and penetrate directly through the leaf cuticle. Infection can also occur from established hyphae, which form multicellular infection cushions. Following penetration, epidermal and cortical cells undergo sequential cell death, allowing the establishment of primary infection [14,15,16,17,18,19].

Current management strategies for resistance of filamentous fungi depend heavily on chemical fungicides; however, their overuse has precipitated a marked increase in fungicide resistance, compromising disease control efficacy [20,21]. Consequently, there is an urgent need for sustainable alternatives. The development and application of plant-derived fungicides have become a central pillar of integrated management strategies against grey mould caused by B. cinerea. Such fungicides are primarily sourced from plant secondary metabolites, whose active ingredients are extracted and purified to yield efficacious pathogen inhibitors [22,23,24]. Concurrently, recent studies have highlighted the antifungal potential of alternative approaches, such as chitosan–zinc oxide nanocomposites, underscoring the growing diversity of emerging strategies for plant protection [25]. In studies on disease resistance mechanisms mediated by plant endogenous compounds, exogenous application of salicylic acid has been shown to significantly enhance vascular bundle lignification in Arabidopsis thaliana. This effect restricts pathogen infection by inducing lignin synthesis [26,27,28,29]. Furthermore, both jasmonic acid (JA) and methyl jasmonate (MeJA) enhance tomato resistance against B. cinerea, whereas upregulation of repressive components in the JA signalling pathway reduces their ability to resist B. cinerea infection [23].

Strigolactones (SLs) are a class of plant hormones initially identified for their ability to induce germination of the parasitic plant Striga [30,31]. Based on their chemical structure, SLs are classified into canonical and non-canonical types. Canonical SLs contain a tricyclic lactone (ABC-ring) connected to a butenolide moiety (D-ring) via an enol ether bond. Non-canonical SLs lack the ABC-ring but retain the conserved enol ether bond and D-ring [32,33]. Subsequent studies have revealed that, in addition to regulating parasitic weed germination, SLs play multiple key physiological roles, including promoting arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal (AMF) symbiosis with host plant roots, modulating shoot branching, and mediating responses to abiotic stress [34,35,36,37,38]. Natural SLs comprise a family of over 20 compounds, which differ primarily in the methylation pattern of the cyclohexenyl A-ring or in the hydroxyl/acetyloxy substitutions on the A and B rings. Owing to the difficulty of obtaining sufficient quantities of natural SLs for physiological studies, various synthetic analogueues with simpler structures but retained biological activity have been developed [39,40]. Among these, the GR (germination releaser) series, including rac-GR24 (racemic GR24), GR7, and GR5, are artificially synthesized strigol analogues. rac-GR24, a commercially available 5-deoxystrigol mimetic, exhibits comparable activity and stability with natural SLs and has become the most widely used SL analog in SL research, particularly for studies on plant development and rhizosphere interactions [41,42,43].

In addition to regulating plant growth and development, SLs mediate various symbiotic interactions with microorganisms. Upon release into the soil, SLs are perceived by AMF, stimulating mitochondrial aerobic respiration, hyphal elongation, and spore germination, thereby promoting symbiosis establishment and enhancing host plant nutrient uptake and growth [44]. Beyond their effects on mycorrhizal fungi and parasitic plants, SLs also influence plant pathogenic fungi. Exogenous treatment with rac-GR24 has been shown to induce multiple responses in pathogenic fungi, including hyphal branching, altered growth, increased respiratory activity, ATP and NADPH production, mitosis, and effector gene expression [45,46,47]. Notably, fungal colony growth rate decreases in a rac-GR24 concentration-dependent manner. GR24 can also affect fungal pathogenicity of Mucor by restricting hyphal growth and inducing reactive oxygen species (ROS) production [10,48]. However, the precise conformational and stereochemical determinants required for fungal recognition of these small molecules remain to be elucidated.

Although accumulating evidence indicates that GR24 inhibits phytopathogenic fungi, it remains unclear whether filamentous fungi possess a stereoselective recognition mechanism for SL analogues. Specifically, the stereoisomeric configuration responsible for the observed antifungal activity has yet to be identified, and it is unknown whether such stereospecificity is conserved among distinct necrotrophic fungal species. Accordingly, this study aimed to screen a panel of plant hormones and their analogues to identify SL-based inhibitors active against B. cinerea, to evaluate the concentration-dependent response of rac-GR24 and systematically assess the antifungal activity of natural and synthetic SL stereoisomers, and to determine whether the observed stereospecificity extends to another necrotrophic pathogen, S. sclerotiorum. By elucidating the stereochemical determinants of antifungal activity, this study provides a theoretical foundation and practical reference for the development of enantioselective fungicides.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Fungal Strains and Culture Conditions

Botrytis cinerea wild-type strain B05.10 and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum were cultured at 22 °C in the dark on potato dextrose agar media (PDA; 200 g/L peeled potato, 20 g/L glucose, and 16 g/L agar). B. cinerea and S. sclerotiorum strains were kindly provided by Paul Tudzynski (University of Münster, Germany), Shiping Tian (Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences), and the Hubei Academy of Agricultural Sciences. All small-molecule compounds, including the eight SL-related stereoisomers and the additional phytohormones and their analogues, were purchased from Olchemim company (Olomouc, Czech Republic) (https://www.olchemim.cz/Products.aspx?idc=1&idp=30, accessed on 5 May 2025) or Chiralix company (Nijmegen, The Netherlands) (https://www.chiralix.com/en/home, accessed on 5 May 2025).

2.2. The Poisoned Food Technique

For each experimental setup, the wild-type strain was pre-cultured on PDA at 22 °C in the dark for 48 h. Mycelial plugs (5 mm diameter) were excised from the actively growing peripheral zone of the colonies and transferred to PDA plates supplemented with the indicated compounds (preparation details are provided below). Plates were incubated at 22 °C in the dark. At specified time points, colony diameters were measured, and the colony area was calculated. Relative colony area (%) was determined as (treatment colony area/control colony area) × 100%.

2.3. Growth Detection of Botrytis cinerea Treated with Different Small Molecules

To assess the sensitivity of B. cinerea to different small molecules, stock solutions of rac-GR24 (a synthetic strigolactone analogue), D-OH (the hydrolyzed product of GR24 after receptor recognition, lacking SL activity [49,50,51], carba-GR24 (a non-hydrolyzable GR24 derivative, also inactive) [52], methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and jasmonic acid-Isoleucine (JA-Ile, two forms of the defence-related phytohormone jasmonic acid), coronatine (COR, a JA analogue) [23], abscisic acid (ABA, a phytohormone primarily involved in abiotic stress responses) [53], and indole-3-acetic acid (IAA, a major natural auxin regulating plant growth and development) [54] were first dissolved in DMSO to prepare stock solutions at concentrations of 10 mM or 20 mM, respectively. Each stock was added at 0.1% (v/v) to cooled PDA medium to achieve final working concentrations of 10 μM or 20 μM of the respective compound. PDA supplemented with 0.1% (v/v) DMSO served as the solvent control. A mycelial plug (5 mm in diameter) of the wild-type strain B05.10 was then inoculated onto the PDA plates containing the indicated compounds and incubated at 22 °C. Colony diameters and areas were measured after 24 h and 48 h of incubation. Each treatment consisted of at least three technical replicates, and the entire experiment was performed independently three times.

2.4. Dose–Response Assay of B. cinerea to rac-GR24

To assess the sensitivity of B. cinerea to increasing concentrations of rac-GR24, stock solutions of rac-GR24 were first dissolved in DMSO to prepare stock solutions at 1 mM, 5 mM, 10 mM, and 20 mM. Each stock was added at 0.1% (v/v) to cooled PDA medium to yield final working concentrations of 1 μM, 5 μM, 10 μM, and 20 μM, respectively. PDA supplemented with 0.1% (v/v) DMSO served as the solvent control. A mycelial plug (5 mm diameter) of the wild-type B. cinerea strain B05.10 was inoculated onto the prepared plates and incubated at 22 °C. Colony diameters and areas were measured after 48 h of cultivation. Each treatment consisted of at least three technical replicates, and the entire experiment was performed independently three times.

2.5. Detection of the Effects of Different Stereoisomers of SLs and GR24 Analogues on the Growth of Botrytis cinerea and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

To assess the responses of B. cinerea (wild-type strain B05.10) and S. sclerotiorum to different stereoisomers of SLs and the synthetic analogue, stock solutions of (+)5-deoxystrigol (5DS), (-)5-deoxystrigol (ent-5DS), (-)2′-epi-5-deoxystrigol (4-deoxyorobanchol, 4DO), (+)2′-epi-5-deoxystrigol (ent-4DO), GR245DS, GR24ent−5DS, GR244DO, and GR24ent−4DO were first dissolved in DMSO to prepare stock solutions at 10 mM; rac-GR24 was similarly prepared at 20 mM. Each stock was added at 0.1% (v/v) to cooled PDA medium. PDA supplemented with 0.1% (v/v) DMSO served as the solvent control. Mycelial plugs (5 mm diameter) of each strain were inoculated onto the respective plates and incubated at 22 °C. Colony diameters were measured at specified time points post-inoculation: 40 h for B. cinerea and 22 h for S. sclerotiorum. Each treatment consisted of at least three technical replicates, and the entire experiment was performed independently three times. To date, two major types of natural SLs have been isolated and characterized from plants: 4DO (representative of the orobanchol type and 5DS (representative of the strigol type). The chemical synthesis of the enantiomers ent-5DS and ent-4DO has been achieved through stereoselective synthetic strategies [40,55,56]. As the synthetic analogue that most closely recapitulates both the structural and functional attributes of natural SLs, GR24 also possesses four distinct stereoisomers owing to its unique stereochemical configuration: GR245DS, GR24ent-5DS, GR244DO, and GR24ent-4DO. Among these, GR245DS and GR24ent-5DS are combined in equal proportions to form the commonly employed racemic mixture, rac-GR24, which is widely used in physiological and functional studies of SL signalling [57].

2.6. Detection of Effects of Two Stereoisomers in rac-GR24 on the Growth of Botrytis cinerea

To determine the contribution of the two stereoisomers present in rac-GR24 (GR245DS and GR24ent-5DS) to growth inhibition of B. cinerea, each compound was independently dissolved in DMSO to prepare stock solutions at 10 mM or 20 mM. For combination treatments, GR245DS and GR24ent-5DS were added together to cooled PDA medium at 0.05% (v/v) each (total 0.1%, v/v), yielding final working concentrations of 5 μM + 5 μM or 10 μM + 10 μM, respectively. For comparison, rac-GR24 was added alone at 0.1% (v/v) to achieve final concentrations of 10 μM or 20 μM. PDA supplemented with 0.1% (v/v) DMSO served as the solvent control. Mycelial plugs (5 mm diameter) of the wild-type B. cinerea strain B05.10 were inoculated onto the prepared plates and incubated at 22 °C in the dark for 40 h. Colony diameters were measured at specified time points after inoculation. Each treatment consisted of at least three technical replicates, and the entire experiment was performed independently three times.

2.7. Quantification and Statistical Analysis

Each experiment included three biological replicates (n = 3), with three technical replicates per biological replicate. Two-group comparisons were analyzed using Student’s t-test, and multiple comparisons were assessed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD post hoc test. Significance levels were calculated using GraphPad Prism 9.0. Different letters in the figures indicate significant differences at p < 0.01. In addition, ‘****’ denote the significance levels p < 0.0001.

3. Results

3.1. rac-GR24, a Synthetic SL Analogue, Inhibits the Growth of Botrytis cinerea

To evaluate the effects of selected plant hormones and their analogues on the growth of B. cinerea, the wild-type strain B05.10 was treated with eight compounds (Figure S2) at two different concentrations, and subsequent colony growth was monitored and quantified. After 24 h of growth on medium supplemented with the respective compounds, only rac-GR24 significantly inhibited fungal growth compared with the DMSO control. The relative colony area in the rac-GR24 treatment group was 40–45% of that in the control group (Figure S1). Similar results were observed after 48 h of cultivation (Figure 1). These findings indicate that the synthetic SL analogue rac-GR24 exerts a significant inhibitory effect on the growth of B. cinerea. This is consistent with prior findings showing that GR24 suppresses the growth of multiple pathogenic fungi [48].

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Open in a new tab

The synthetic strigolactone analogue GR24 inhibits the growth of B. cinerea. Growth status of the wild-type B. cinerea strain B05.10 on PDA medium supplemented with 10 or 20 μM of various plant hormones or their analogues after 48 h (A), scale bar = 10 mm; and quantification of the relative colony area ((B); mean ± SD, n = 3). ‘****’ indicate significant differences (p < 0.0001, two-tailed Student’s t-test).

3.2. rac-GR24 Inhibits the Growth of Botrytis cinerea in a Concentration-Dependent Manner

To further characterize the inhibitory effect of the synthetic SL analogue rac-GR24 on B. cinerea, a refined concentration gradient of rac-GR24 was applied exogenously, and fungal growth was assessed. Following 48 h of treatment, significant inhibition was already observed at a concentration as low as 5 μM rac-GR24, with the colony area reduced to approximately 65–70% of that in the DMSO control group. Moreover, when the concentration of rac-GR24 was increased to 10 μM and 20 μM, a progressive reduction in colony area was observed under the same treatment duration, indicating an enhanced inhibitory effect with increasing concentrations (Figure 2). Collectively, these results demonstrate that B. cinerea growth is responsive to rac-GR24 even at low concentrations and is suppressed in a strictly concentration-dependent manner.

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Open in a new tab

Effects of different concentrations of exogenous rac-GR24 on the growth of B. cinerea. Growth of the wild-type B. cinerea strain B05.10 cultured on PDA medium supplemented with the control (DMSO) or with 1, 5, 10, and 20 μM rac-GR24 for 48 h (A) and quantification of the relative colony area ((B); mean ± SD, n = 3), scale bar = 10 mm. Different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.01, one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD post hoc test).

3.3. The Inhibitory Effects of Different GR24 and 5DS Stereoisomers on Botrytis cinerea Vary

To determine which stereoisomeric configuration of SLs predominantly accounts for the growth-regulatory effects on B. cinerea, we evaluated the antifungal activity of four corresponding stereoisomers. Notably, among the four SL-related stereoisomers examined, ent-5DS exerted a pronounced inhibitory effect on B. cinerea, reducing the colony area to less than 10% of that in the DMSO control group. In contrast, the other three compounds did not exhibit substantial suppression of fungal growth under the same experimental conditions (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Figure 3

Open in a new tab

Effects of stereoisomers of strigolactones and the synthetic analogue GR24 on the growth of B. cinerea. Chemical structures of SLs or GR24 stereoisomers with different stereochemical features (A). Growth status of wild-type B. cinerea strain B05.10 after 40 h of treatment with DMSO (control), 10 μM of each of the eight stereoisomers derived from strigolactones and the synthetic analogue GR24, or 20 μM of the racemic mixture rac-GR24 (B), scale bar = 10 mm. The relative colony area were quantified ((C), mean ± SD, n = 3). Different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.01, one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD post hoc test).

To further determine whether the four stereoisomers of GR24 exhibit antifungal activity comparable to that of natural SLs, we conducted parallel experiments using each of the four GR24 stereoisomers as individual treatments. The results revealed that, analogous to the observations with natural SL enantiomers, the GR24ent-5DS stereoisomer and racemic mixture rac-GR24 including GR24ent-5DS potently inhibited B. cinerea growth, whereas the remaining three stereoisomers did not confer substantial suppression under the same experimental conditions (Figure 3). Collectively, these findings indicate that among the stereoisomers examined, the ent-5DS and GR24ent-5DS configurations play a predominant role in restraining B. cinerea growth. Moreover, these results underscore the stereoselective nature of B. cinerea responses to both natural SLs and their synthetic analogues. Building upon previous reports that GR24 inhibits fungal growth [48], the present study provides a novel and significant finding: the filamentous fungus B. cinerea does not respond indiscriminately to all stereoisomeric configurations of GR24. Instead, it exhibits marked stereospecificity, responding exclusively to the ent-5DS enantiomer.

3.4. The Same Chiral Stereoselectivity Exerts Inhibitory Effects on Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

To further validate the stereoisomeric selectivity of filamentous fungi toward this phytohormone and its analogues, parallel experiments were conducted using another necrotrophic fungal pathogen, S. sclerotiorum, employing the same panel of eight stereoisomeric compounds (Figure 4). Notably, ent-5DS, GR24ent-5DS and the rac-GR24 mixture (which contains GR24ent-5DS) each exerted pronounced inhibitory effects on S. sclerotiorum growth (Figure 4). This pattern of stereoisomer-depending activity closely recapitulated the results observed in our previous experiments with B. cinerea (Figure 3). Collectively, these findings demonstrate that GR24 exhibits inhibitory activity against key filamentous fungi, with clear stereoselectivity. Furthermore, the consistency of the results across two distinct fungal species suggests that SLs and their synthetic analogue GR24 may exert broad spectrum inhibitory effects against filamentous fungi.

Figure 4.

Figure 4

Open in a new tab

Effects of stereoisomers of strigolactones and the synthetic analogue GR24 on the growth of S. sclerotiorum. Growth status of wild-type S. sclerotiorum after treatment with DMSO (control), 10 μM of each of the eight stereoisomers derived from strigolactones and the synthetic analogue GR24, or 20 μM of the racemic mixture rac-GR24 (A), scale bar = 10 mm. The relative colony area were quantified ((B), mean ± SD, n = 3). Different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.01, one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD post hoc test).

3.5. The GR24ent-5DS Configuration Plays a Predominant Role in the Growth Inhibition of B. cinerea

As described in the preceding experiments (Figure 3), the racemic mixture rac-GR24 consists of equal proportions of the two stereoisomers GR245DS and GR24ent-5DS [57]. To further dissect whether the GR24ent-5DS stereoisomer serves as the primary contributor to the growth suppressive activity of the mixture against B. cinerea, we performed a series of treatments using defined concentration combinations. Notably, the combination treatment elicited an inhibitory effect comparable to that of the double concentration racemic mixture, with nearly identical levels of growth suppression. To corroborate these findings, we applied a higher concentration combination consisting of 10 μM GR245DS plus 10 μM GR24ent-5DS and compared its effect with that of 20 μM rac-GR24. Consistent with the results obtained at lower concentrations, both treatments exhibited equivalent inhibitory activity relative to the DMSO control (Figure 5).

Figure 5.

Figure 5

Open in a new tab

Effects of the mixture of GR245DS and GR24ent-5DS on the growth of B. cinerea. The wild-type strain B05.10 of B. cinerea was treated with DMSO (1 in the upper panel, solvent control), two concentration combinations of GR245DS plus GR24ent-5DS (2 and 4 in the upper panel), or two concentrations of rac-GR24 (3 and 5 in the upper panel). Fungal colony growth on the culture medium was documented, and the relative colony area was quantified (Upper panel, mean ± SD, n = 3). Representative growth of B. cinerea corresponding to each treatment are shown in the lower panel below the x-axis (Lower panels); scale bar = 10 mm. Different letters above the bars indicate statistically significant differences (p < 0.01, one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD post hoc test).

4. Discussion

B. cinerea, as a devastating phytopathogenic fungus, inflicts substantial economic losses on agricultural production worldwide each year [1,11]. Recent reports have shown that the strigolactone (SL) analogue GR24 inhibits phytopathogenic fungi [48,58,59]. However, whether filamentous fungi possess a stereoselective recognition system for this compound and its natural counterparts remains unexplored. In this study, we demonstrate that B. cinerea and S. sclerotiorum exhibit a strict stereoselective response to both natural SLs and GR24, responding exclusively to the ent-5DS configuration (and its synthetic equivalent, GR24ent-5DS). In contrast, other stereoisomers, including 5DS, 4DO, and ent-4DO, as well as GR245DS, showed no significant inhibition (Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3, Figure S1). This finding extends beyond the mere antifungal activity of GR24 and reveals a previously uncharacterized level of chemical discrimination in fungi.

The observed stereospecificity is reminiscent of plant SL signalling, where the receptor D14 selectively recognizes the D-ring orientation of SLs, thereby triggering downstream developmental and symbiotic responses [60,61,62]. Notably, D14 hydrolyzes SLs and forms a covalent intermediate with the D-ring, a process highly sensitive to stereochemistry [50,57,63,64]. We speculate that a functionally analogous receptor may exist in filamentous fungi, capable of distinguishing the ent-5DS configuration. Notably, parallel experiments with S. sclerotiorum [2,17] revealed an analogous inhibitory profile (Figure 4), suggesting that GR24 exerts broad-spectrum and stereospecific antifungal activity. A widely used synthetic SL analogue, rac-GR24 consists of equal proportions of GR245DS and GR24ent-5DS [57]. Our equimolar combination experiments showed that the inhibitory efficacy of the mixture is fully accounted for by GR24ent-5DS, with GR245DS contributing little additional activity (Figure 5). These data collectively demonstrate that the ent-5DS configuration is the main determinant of GR24’s antifungal activity against B. cinerea. The lack of activity of the other stereoisomers suggests that the putative fungal receptor imposes stringent structural requirements on the ligand, possibly due to a constrained ligand binding pocket or distinct hydrogen bonding networks. Future structural and molecular studies aimed at resolving the binding domain architecture of fungal versus plant receptors will be essential to explain the narrow stereochemical preference observed here.

Nevertheless, several limitations of this study should be acknowledged. First, although we have unequivocally demonstrated that B. cinerea and S. sclerotiorum exhibit strict stereoselectivity toward the ent-5DS configuration, the molecular basis of this recognition remains unknown. We have not identified the putative fungal receptor or effector proteins that directly bind GR24 or natural SLs. Without such target characterization, the causal link between stereochemical recognition and downstream growth inhibition remains possibility of correlation. Second, all experiments were conducted under in vitro conditions on synthetic media, which lack the complexity of the plant–fungus interface. Whether the same stereoselective inhibition occurs in planta—where plant-derived SLs, microbial competitors, and host immunity factors are present—has yet to be tested. Third, our study focused exclusively on vegetative growth; the potential effects of GR24 stereoisomers on fungal development, such as sclerotia formation, conidiation, or infection-related morphogenesis, were not examined. Finally, we did not perform genetic loss- or gain-of-function experiments to validate the proposed stereoselective pathway. Future efforts should integrate chemical proteomics, structural biology, and reverse genetics to isolate the fungal receptor for SLs. Moreover, in planta infection assays using stereoisomer-specific treatments, combined with transcriptomic or proteomic analyses, will be essential to decipher downstream signalling events and to evaluate the translational potential of enantioselective GR24 analogues as green fungicides. Despite these caveats, our findings establish a conceptual foundation for stereochemical targeting of fungal pathogens and open an avenue for rational design of next-generation crop protection agents.

5. Conclusions

In summary, through a screening of multiple plant hormones and their analogues, this study demonstrated that the synthetic SL analogue rac-GR24 effectively inhibits colony growth of B. cinerea with dose–response. Further stereochemical analysis revealed that both B. cinerea and another filamentous fungus S. sclerotiorum exhibit a strict stereoselective response, displaying strong inhibition exclusively toward the ent-5DS configuration, whereas other stereoisomers showed only marginal activity. Moreover, the antifungal activity of rac-GR24 was attributed predominantly to GR24ent-5DS, with GR245DS contributing minimally to the observed effect. Collectively, these findings provide physiological evidence for the stereoselective responsiveness of filamentous fungi to SL analogues.

Acknowledgments

We thank Paul Tudzynski (University of Münster, Germany) and Shiping Tian (Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences) for providing B. cinerea strain. This work was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (2021YFA1300400) and Central Guidance for Local Science and Technology Development Fund Project in Hunan (2024ZYC029).

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/jof12050359/s1, Figure S1: The treatment of synthetic strigolactone analog GR24 inhibits the growth of Botrytis cinerea after 24 h treatment. Figure S2: Chemical structures of all compounds used in this study.

jof-12-00359-s001.zip (759.5KB, zip)

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.C. and R.Y.; methodology, P.H. and L.C.; validation, P.H. and L.C.; investigation, P.H., L.C.; resources, R.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, P.H.; writing—review and editing, L.C. and R.Y.; supervision, L.C. and R.Y.; project administration and funding acquisition, R.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article/Supplementary Material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Funding Statement

This research was funded by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (grant number: 2021YFA1300400) and the Central Guidance for Local Science and Technology Development Fund Project in Hunan (grant number: 2024ZYC029).

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

References

  • 1.Dean R., Van Kan J.A.L., Pretorius Z.A., Hammond-Kosack K.E., Di Pietro A., Spanu P.D., Rudd J.J., Dickman M., Kahmann R., Ellis J., et al. The Top 10 fungal pathogens in molecular plant pathology. Mol. Plant Pathol. 2012;13:414–430. doi: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2011.00783.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 2.Derbyshire M.C., Newman T.E., Khentry Y., Owolabi Taiwo A. The evolutionary and molecular features of the broad-host-range plant pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Mol. Plant Pathol. 2022;23:1075–1090. doi: 10.1111/mpp.13221. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.Van Baarlen P., Woltering E.J., Staats M., Van Kan J.A.L. Histochemical and genetic analysis of host and non-host interactions of Arabidopsis with three Botrytis species: An important role for cell death control. Mol. Plant Pathol. 2006;8:41–54. doi: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2006.00367.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Williamson B., Tudzynski B., Tudzynski P., Van Kan J.A.L. Botrytis cinerea: The cause of grey mould disease. Mol. Plant Pathol. 2007;8:561–580. doi: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2007.00417.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.Huang X., Liu W., Dong F., Xu Y., Tian S., Chen T. Sapindus mukorossi saponins inhibit gray mold on strawberry fruit by impairing membrane integrity and organellar homeostasis of Botrytis cinerea. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2024;207:112594. doi: 10.1016/j.postharvbio.2023.112594. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 6.Weiberg A., Wang M., Lin F.-M., Zhao H., Zhang Z., Kaloshian I., Huang H.-D., Jin H. Fungal Small RNAs Suppress Plant Immunity by Hijacking Host RNA Interference Pathways. Science. 2013;342:118–123. doi: 10.1126/science.1239705. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.Mary Wanjiru W., Zhensheng K., Buchenauer H. Importance of Cell Wall Degrading Enzymes Produced by Fusarium graminearum during Infection of Wheat Heads. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 2002;108:803–810. doi: 10.1023/A:1020847216155. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 8.ten Have A., Breuil W.O., Wubben J.P., Visser J., van Kan J.A.L. Botrytis cinerea Endopolygalacturonase Genes Are Differentially Expressed in Various Plant Tissues. Fungal Genet. Biol. 2001;33:97–105. doi: 10.1006/fgbi.2001.1269. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 9.Bi K., Liang Y., Mengiste T., Sharon A. Killing softly: A roadmap of Botrytis cinerea pathogenicity. Trends Plant Sci. 2023;28:211–222. doi: 10.1016/j.tplants.2022.08.024. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.Viefhues A., Heller J., Temme N., Tudzynski P. Redox Systems in Botrytis cinerea: Impact on Development and Virulence. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 2014;27:858–874. doi: 10.1094/MPMI-01-14-0012-R. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11.Cleveland J., Montville T.J., Nes I.F., Chikindas M.L. Bacteriocins: Safe, natural antimicrobials for food preservation. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2001;71:1–20. doi: 10.1016/s0168-1605(01)00560-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.Choquer M., Fournier E., Kunz C., Levis C., Pradier J.-M., Simon A., Viaud M. Botrytis cinerea virulence factors: New insights into a necrotrophic and polyphageous pathogen. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 2007;277:1–10. doi: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.00930.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13.Feng H.Q., Li G.H., Du S.W., Yang S., Li X.Q., de Figueiredo P., Qin Q.M. The septin protein Sep4 facilitates host infection by plant fungal pathogens via mediating initiation of infection structure formation. Environ. Microbiol. 2017;19:1730–1749. doi: 10.1111/1462-2920.13613. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14.Kars I., Krooshof G.H., Wagemakers L., Joosten R., Benen J.A.E., Van Kan J.A.L. Necrotizing activity of five Botrytis cinerea endopolygalacturonases produced in Pichia pastoris. Plant J. 2005;43:213–225. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-313X.2005.02436.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15.Lee Y.-H., Kong W., Chen N., Liu T., Zhu J., Wang J., He X., Jin Y. Large-Scale Transcriptome Analysis of Cucumber and Botrytis cinerea during Infection. PLoS ONE. 2015;10:e0142221. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142221. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.Petrasch S., Knapp S.J., van Kan J.A.L., Blanco-Ulate B. Grey mould of strawberry, a devastating disease caused by the ubiquitous necrotrophic fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea. Mol. Plant Pathol. 2019;20:877–892. doi: 10.1111/mpp.12794. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 17.Richardson P.M., Amselem J., Cuomo C.A., van Kan J.A.L., Viaud M., Benito E.P., Couloux A., Coutinho P.M., de Vries R.P., Dyer P.S., et al. Genomic Analysis of the Necrotrophic Fungal Pathogens Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and Botrytis cinerea. PLoS Genet. 2011;7:e1002230. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1002230. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Rodenburg S.Y.A., Terhem R.B., Veloso J., Stassen J.H.M., van Kan J.A.L., Turgeon B.G. Functional Analysis of Mating Type Genes and Transcriptome Analysis during Fruiting Body Development of Botrytis cinerea. mBio. 2018;9:e01939-17. doi: 10.1128/mBio.01939-17. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.Viaud M., Brunet-Simon A., Brygoo Y., Pradier J.M., Levis C. Cyclophilin A and calcineurin functions investigated by gene inactivation, cyclosporin A inhibition and cDNA arrays approaches in the phytopathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea. Mol. Microbiol. 2003;50:1451–1465. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2958.2003.03798.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20.Chen D., Chen T., Chen Y., Zhang Z., Li B., Tian S. Bio-source substances against postharvest diseases of fruits: Mechanisms, applications and perspectives. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2023;198:112240. doi: 10.1016/j.postharvbio.2023.112240. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Leroux P., Fritz R., Debieu D., Albertini C., Lanen C., Bach J., Gredt M., Chapeland F. Mechanisms of resistance to fungicides in field strains of Botrytis cinerea. Pest Manag. Sci. 2002;58:876–888. doi: 10.1002/ps.566. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Gao K., Zhan J., Qin Y., Liu S., Xing R., Yu H., Chen X., Li P. Synthesis and effects of the selective oxidation of chitosan in induced disease resistance against Botrytis cinerea. Carbohydr. Polym. 2021;265:118073. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118073. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.Liu C., Chen L., Zhao R., Li R., Zhang S., Yu W., Sheng J., Shen L. Melatonin Induces Disease Resistance to Botrytis cinerea in Tomato Fruit by Activating Jasmonic Acid Signaling Pathway. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2019;67:6116–6124. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b00058. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 24.Romanazzi G., Smilanick J.L., Feliziani E., Droby S. Integrated management of postharvest gray mold on fruit crops. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 2016;113:69–76. doi: 10.1016/j.postharvbio.2015.11.003. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 25.Ahmed M.J., Shoaib A., Rafiq M. Synergistic antifungal action of chitosan-zinc oxide nanocomposite against sclerotial-forming phytopathogenic fungus Sclerotium rolfsii. Pestic. Biochem. Physiol. 2026;219:107008. doi: 10.1016/j.pestbp.2026.107008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Gupta R., Leibman-Markus M., Weiss D., Spiegelman Z., Bar M. Tobamovirus infection aggravates gray mold disease caused by Botrytis cinerea by manipulating the salicylic acid pathway in tomato. Front. Plant Sci. 2023;14:1196456. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1196456. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27.Ha S.T.T., Kim Y.-T., Jeon Y.H., Choi H.W., In B.-C. Regulation of Botrytis cinerea Infection and Gene Expression in Cut Roses by Using Nano Silver and Salicylic Acid. Plants. 2021;10:1241. doi: 10.3390/plants10061241. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28.Wang J., Pei G., Wang Y., Wu D., Liu X., Li G., He J., Zhang X., Shan X., Li P., et al. Phase separation of the nuclear pore complex facilitates selective nuclear transport to regulate plant defense against pathogen and pest invasion. Mol. Plant. 2023;16:1016–1030. doi: 10.1016/j.molp.2023.04.008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29.Wang J., Wu D., Pei G., Wang Y., Liu X., Tian S., Zhang Z., Zhang X., Li P., Xie D., et al. The pathogen effector BcSSP2 suppresses the NPC phase separation to facilitate Botrytis cinerea infection. Nat. Commun. 2025;16:8610. doi: 10.1038/s41467-025-63632-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30.Cook C.E., Whichard L.P., Turner B., Wall M.E., Egley G.H. Germination of Witchweed (Striga lutea Lour.): Isolation and Properties of a Potent Stimulant. Science. 1966;154:1189–1190. doi: 10.1126/science.154.3753.1189. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 31.Brown R., Johnson A.W., Robinson E., Todd A.R. The stimulant involved in the germination of Striga hermonthica. Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. B Biol. Sci. 1949;136:1–12. doi: 10.1098/rspb.1949.0001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32.Zwanenburg B., Pospíšil T., Ćavar Zeljković S. Strigolactones: New plant hormones in action. Planta. 2016;243:1311–1326. doi: 10.1007/s00425-015-2455-5. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33.Wang Y., Bouwmeester H.J. Structural diversity in the strigolactones. J. Exp. Bot. 2018;69:2219–2230. doi: 10.1093/jxb/ery091. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34.Akiyama K., Matsuzaki K.-i., Hayashi H. Plant sesquiterpenes induce hyphal branching in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Nature. 2005;435:824–827. doi: 10.1038/nature03608. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35.Gomez-Roldan V., Fermas S., Brewer P.B., Puech-Pagès V., Dun E.A., Pillot J.-P., Letisse F., Matusova R., Danoun S., Portais J.-C., et al. Strigolactone inhibition of shoot branching. Nature. 2008;455:189–194. doi: 10.1038/nature07271. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 36.Gu P., Tao W., Tao J., Sun H., Hu R., Wang D., Zong G., Xie X., Ruan W., Xu G., et al. The D14-SDEL1-SPX4 cascade integrates the strigolactone and phosphate signalling networks in rice. New Phytol. 2023;239:673–686. doi: 10.1111/nph.18963. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 37.Wang L., Wang B., Yu H., Guo H., Lin T., Kou L., Wang A., Shao N., Ma H., Xiong G., et al. Transcriptional regulation of strigolactone signalling in Arabidopsis. Nature. 2020;583:277–281. doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2382-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 38.Zhang J., Wang B., Xu H., Liu W., Yu J., Wang Q., Yu H., Wei J.-W., Dai R., Zhou J., et al. Root microbiota regulates tiller number in rice. Cell. 2025;188:3152–3166.e16. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.03.033. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39.Morffy N., Faure L., Nelson D.C. Smoke and Hormone Mirrors: Action and Evolution of Karrikin and Strigolactone Signaling. Trends Genet. 2016;32:176–188. doi: 10.1016/j.tig.2016.01.002. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 40.Ueno K., Nomura S., Muranaka S., Mizutani M., Takikawa H., Sugimoto Y. Ent-2′-epi-Orobanchol and Its Acetate, As Germination Stimulants for Striga gesnerioides Seeds Isolated from Cowpea and Red Clover. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011;59:10485–10490. doi: 10.1021/jf2024193. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 41.Besserer A., Bécard G., Jauneau A., Roux C., Séjalon-Delmas N. GR24, a Synthetic Analog of Strigolactones, Stimulates the Mitosis and Growth of the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal FungusGigaspora roseaby Boosting Its Energy Metabolism. Plant Physiol. 2008;148:402–413. doi: 10.1104/pp.108.121400. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 42.Ueno K., Ishiwa S., Nakashima H., Mizutani M., Takikawa H., Sugimoto Y. Regioselective and stereospecific hydroxylation of GR24 by Sorghum bicolor and evaluation of germination inducing activities of hydroxylated GR24 stereoisomers toward seeds of Striga species. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2015;23:6100–6110. doi: 10.1016/j.bmc.2015.08.003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 43.Moya-León M.A., Mattus-Araya E., Herrera R. Molecular Events Occurring During Softening of Strawberry Fruit. Front. Plant Sci. 2019;10:615. doi: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00615. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 44.Akiyama K., Hayashi H. Strigolactones: Chemical Signals for Fungal Symbionts and Parasitic Weeds in Plant Roots. Ann. Bot. 2006;97:925–931. doi: 10.1093/aob/mcl063. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 45.García-Garrido J.M., Lendzemo V., Castellanos-Morales V., Steinkellner S., Vierheilig H. Strigolactones, signals for parasitic plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhiza. 2009;19:449–459. doi: 10.1007/s00572-009-0265-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 46.Yoneyama K., Xie X., Sekimoto H., Takeuchi Y., Ogasawara S., Akiyama K., Hayashi H., Yoneyama K. Strigolactones, host recognition signals for root parasitic plants and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, from Fabaceae plants. New Phytol. 2008;179:484–494. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02462.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 47.Besserer A., Becard G., Roux C., Séjalon-Delmas N. Role of mitochondria in the response of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi to strigolactones. Plant Signal. Behav. 2014;4:75–77. doi: 10.4161/psb.4.1.7419. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 48.Dor E., Joel D.M., Kapulnik Y., Koltai H., Hershenhorn J. The synthetic strigolactone GR24 influences the growth pattern of phytopathogenic fungi. Planta. 2011;234:419–427. doi: 10.1007/s00425-011-1452-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 49.Nakamura H., Xue Y.-L., Miyakawa T., Hou F., Qin H.-M., Fukui K., Shi X., Ito E., Ito S., Park S.-H., et al. Molecular mechanism of strigolactone perception by DWARF14. Nat. Commun. 2013;4:2613. doi: 10.1038/ncomms3613. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 50.Yao R., Ming Z., Yan L., Li S., Wang F., Ma S., Yu C., Yang M., Chen L., Chen L., et al. DWARF14 is a non-canonical hormone receptor for strigolactone. Nature. 2016;536:469–473. doi: 10.1038/nature19073. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 51.Zhao L.-H., Zhou X.E., Wu Z.-S., Yi W., Xu Y., Li S., Xu T.-H., Liu Y., Chen R.-Z., Kovach A., et al. Crystal structures of two phytohormone signal-transducing α/β hydrolases: Karrikin-signaling KAI2 and strigolactone-signaling DWARF14. Cell Res. 2013;23:436–439. doi: 10.1038/cr.2013.19. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 52.Thuring J.W.J.F., Nefkens G.H.L., Zwanenburg B. Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of the Strigol Analogue Carba-GR24. J. Agric. Food Chem. 1997;45:1409–1414. doi: 10.1021/jf960443f. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 53.Chen K., Li G.J., Bressan R.A., Song C.P., Zhu J.K., Zhao Y. Abscisic acid dynamics, signaling, and functions in plants. J. Integr. Plant Biol. 2020;62:25–54. doi: 10.1111/jipb.12899. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 54.Korasick D.A., Enders T.A., Strader L.C. Auxin biosynthesis and storage forms. J. Exp. Bot. 2013;64:2541–2555. doi: 10.1093/jxb/ert080. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 55.Flematti G.R., Scaffidi A., Waters M.T., Smith S.M. Stereospecificity in strigolactone biosynthesis and perception. Planta. 2016;243:1361–1373. doi: 10.1007/s00425-016-2523-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 56.Yoda A., Xie X., Yoneyama K., Miura K., McErlean C.S.P., Nomura T. A Stereoselective Strigolactone Biosynthesis Catalyzed by a 2-Oxoglutarate-Dependent Dioxygenase in Sorghum. Plant Cell Physiol. 2023;64:1034–1045. doi: 10.1093/pcp/pcad060. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 57.Scaffidi A., Waters M.T., Sun Y.K., Skelton B.W., Dixon K.W., Ghisalberti E.L., Flematti G.R., Smith S.M. Strigolactone Hormones and Their Stereoisomers Signal through Two Related Receptor Proteins to Induce Different Physiological Responses in Arabidopsis. Plant Physiol. 2014;165:1221–1232. doi: 10.1104/pp.114.240036. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 58.Bradley J.M., Bunsick M., Ly G., Aquino B., Wang F.Z., Holbrook-Smith D., Suginoo S., Bradizza D., Kato N., As’sadiq O., et al. Modulation of fungal phosphate homeostasis by the plant hormone strigolactone. Mol. Cell. 2024;84:4031–4047.e11. doi: 10.1016/j.molcel.2024.09.004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 59.Belmondo S., Marschall R., Tudzynski P., López Ráez J.A., Artuso E., Prandi C., Lanfranco L. Identification of genes involved in fungal responses to strigolactones using mutants from fungal pathogens. Curr. Genet. 2016;63:201–213. doi: 10.1007/s00294-016-0626-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 60.Hu Q., Liu H., He Y., Hao Y., Yan J., Liu S., Huang X., Yan Z., Zhang D., Ban X., et al. Regulatory mechanisms of strigolactone perception in rice. Cell. 2024;187:7551–7567.e17. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2024.10.009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 61.Jiang L., Liu X., Xiong G., Liu H., Chen F., Wang L., Meng X., Liu G., Yu H., Yuan Y., et al. DWARF 53 acts as a repressor of strigolactone signalling in rice. Nature. 2013;504:401–405. doi: 10.1038/nature12870. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 62.Yang G., Wu M., Zhang S., Huang Y., Liu Y., Yu X., Hu J., Mi L., Gan P., Wu Y., et al. Editing strigolactone hormone receptor for robust antiviral silencing in rice. Cell. 2026;189:2054–2072.e25. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2026.01.013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 63.Waters M.T., Nelson D.C., Scaffidi A., Flematti G.R., Sun Y.K., Dixon K.W., Smith S.M. Specialisation within the DWARF14 protein family confers distinct responses to karrikins and strigolactones in Arabidopsis. Development. 2012;139:1285–1295. doi: 10.1242/dev.074567. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 64.Zhou F., Lin Q., Zhu L., Ren Y., Zhou K., Shabek N., Wu F., Mao H., Dong W., Gan L., et al. D14–SCFD3-dependent degradation of D53 regulates strigolactone signalling. Nature. 2013;504:406–410. doi: 10.1038/nature12878. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

jof-12-00359-s001.zip (759.5KB, zip)

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article/Supplementary Material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Articles from Journal of Fungi are provided here courtesy of Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI)

RESOURCES