Abstract
Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) are bioactive compounds from Astragalus membranaceus with reported immunomodulatory and antioxidant properties, and they have attracted interest as natural alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters in poultry. This study evaluated the effects of dietary APS supplementation on growth performance, carcass traits, and meat quality in Taihu geese. A total of 432 one-day-old goslings were randomly allocated to 3 dietary treatments (0, 100, or 200 mg/kg APS), with 6 replicates per treatment (24 birds per replicate; 12 males and 12 females). Growth performance was recorded during 1–90 d, and two birds (1 male and 1 female) per replicate were sampled at 30, 60, and 90 d for carcass measurements, meat quality assessment, and amino acid analysis of breast and leg muscles. Compared with the control, 200 mg/kg APS increased body weight at 60 and 90 d and improved average daily gain during 31–60 d and across 1–90 d, accompanied by a reduced feed-to-gain ratio (P < 0.05). At 60 d, geese fed 200 mg/kg APS exhibited higher dressing percentage and semi-eviscerated percentage than controls (P < 0.05). APS supplementation induced limited changes in meat quality, with a decreased breast muscle b* value at 30 d in the 200 mg/kg APS group (P < 0.05). In addition, 200 mg/kg APS increased glycine in breast muscle at 30 d and elevated methionine in breast muscle at 90 d as well as in leg muscle at 30 and 60 d (P < 0.05). Overall, APS supplementation at 200 mg/kg showed greater efficacy than 100 mg/kg in improving growth efficiency and selected carcass traits in Taihu geese, with stage-dependent changes in selected muscle amino acid contents.
Keywords: Taihu goose, Astragalus polysaccharide, Feed efficiency, Dressing percentage, Amino acid profile
Introduction
Goose meat is considered a high-quality source of animal protein because of its desirable nutritional characteristics, including low fat content, high protein content, and abundant unsaturated fatty acids (Liu et al., 2011). It is especially popular in southern China (Sun et al., 2016). In 2016, China produced 2.4 million tons of goose meat, accounting for 94.9% of global production (Yu et al., 2020). With the development of intensive rearing technologies, the goose industry has gradually shifted toward more specialized and large-scale production systems (Kim et al., 2019). However, intensive farming conditions, particularly high stocking density and long-term environmental stress, can negatively affect animal health and welfare (Eugen et al., 2019; Dai et al., 2022). These conditions may also lead to metabolic disorders and muscle damage, thereby reducing growth performance and impairing meat quality traits such as texture, color, and water-holding capacity (Ma et al., 2025; Thema et al., 2022; Son et al., 2022). In China, the ban on antibiotic growth promoters has further increased interest in safe and natural feed additives that may help maintain animal performance and support the sustainable development of the goose industry (Cheng et al., 2014; Lillehoj et al., 2018).
Astragalus polysaccharide (APS) is a water-soluble polysaccharide extracted from the dried root of Astragalus membranaceus, and it is one of the most important natural active components of Astragalus (Jiao et al., 2016; Zheng et al., 2020). APS exhibits multiple biological functions in animals, particularly in promoting growth and improving intestinal health through various pathways (Shi et al., 2024; Zhao et al., 2023; Liao et al., 2021). Over the years, numerous studies have demonstrated that APS can promote animal growth (Ma et al., 2025; Shi et al., 2024; Li et al., 2019; Zahran et al., 2014, 2023; Yang et al., 2019; Ren et al., 2025; Liu et al., 2025), enhance intestinal development (Wang et al., 2022), improve carcass quality (Ma et al., 2025; Ren et al., 2025), increase antioxidant capacity (Shi et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2025), and modulate the intestinal microbial ecosystem (Ren et al., 2025; Liu et al., 2025). These findings have been validated in various animals, including finishing pigs (Ma et al., 2025), weaned piglets (Yang et al., 2019), domestic ducks (Zheng et al., 2016), broilers (Ren et al., 2025), tilapia (Zahran et al., 2014), and crucian carp (Li et al., 2023). Previous studies have shown that APS supplementation can improve growth performance, feed efficiency, carcass traits, and meat quality in multiple animal species. In broilers, APS supplementation has been associated with increased body weight gain and average daily gain, together with reduced feed conversion ratio (Wu et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2014; Duan et al., 2021; Qiao et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2025). Improvements in gastrointestinal development and feed utilization have also been suggested as potential contributing factors (Wu et al., 2018). In addition to growth-related responses, APS supplementation has been reported to improve selected carcass and meat quality traits, including dressing percentage, intramuscular fat, drip loss, shear force, and cooking yield, in broilers, sheep, and pigs (Ma et al., 2025; Liu et al., 2025).
Studies in ducks, which are closely related waterfowl species, have also reported beneficial effects of APS supplementation. Dietary APS supplementation improved growth performance, feed efficiency, and several meat quality traits, including pH, drip loss, cooking loss, and shear force, in mule ducks and Cherry Valley ducks (Zheng et al., 2016; Zhao et al., 2024). In geese, several studies have investigated Astragalus-containing herbal preparations rather than purified APS. For example, Zheng et al. (2022) reported that a compound Chinese herbal medicine additive containing Astragalus improved growth performance, carcass traits, and cecal microbiota composition in Zi geese. More recently, Qu et al. (2025) showed that an Astragalus, Epimedium, and Fructus Ligustri Lucidi extract improved antioxidant capacity, immune status, meat quality, and intestinal health in goslings under oxidative stress. However, these studies used compound herbal preparations and mainly focused on gut microbiota, immune response, or stress resistance, rather than purified APS supplementation.
Therefore, published information regarding dietary purified APS supplementation in geese remains relatively limited, particularly for systematic evaluations across different growth stages. Because geese differ from chickens and ducks in genetic background, digestive physiology, growth pattern, and rearing duration, direct evaluation in geese is necessary. Therefore, the present study investigated the effects of dietary APS supplementation at 100 and 200 mg/kg on growth performance and feed efficiency from 1 to 90 d of age, and further evaluated carcass traits and meat quality, including amino acid profiles of breast and leg muscles, at 30, 60, and 90 d in Taihu geese. We hypothesized that APS would improve growth efficiency and selected carcass and meat quality traits, and that these responses might vary with age.
Materials and methods
Ethics statement
All procedures in this study were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Jiangsu Agri-animal Husbandry Vocational College (ethical protocol code: jsahvc-2024-23).
Animal and Housing
The experiment was conducted from March to July 2024 at the National Waterfowl Germplasm Resource Pool (Taizhou, China). Astragalus polysaccharides (polysaccharide content ≥70.00%) were purchased from Shanghai Klin Biochemical Technology Co., Ltd. Taihu goslings were reared in a single-layer cage system under standard management conditions. Each replicate consisted of 24 birds distributed across multiple cages, and cages belonging to the same replicate were managed as a single experimental unit. Feed offered and refusals were recorded at the replicate level to calculate feed intake and feed efficiency. Stocking density was adjusted with age: 3 birds per cage during 1–30 d, 2 birds per cage during 31–60 d, and 1 bird per cage during 61–90 d. Feed and water were provided ad libitum throughout the experiment. The room temperature was maintained at 27–29°C during the first week, 22–27°C during the second week, and 18–22°C thereafter. Lighting was provided for 23 h/day during the first week and 18 h/day thereafter.
Experimental diets and design
A total of 432 healthy one-day-old goslings with similar body weight, all from the same flock, were randomly allocated to three dietary treatments, each consisting of six replicate with twenty-four geese (12 males and 12 females). Three experimental diets were formulated by first mixing APS with the premix, followed by incorporation with the other ingredients. The experimental diets were supplemented with APS at three levels: 0 mg/kg (control group), 100 mg/kg (100 mg/kg APS group), and 200 mg/kg (200 mg/kg APS group). The nutritional level of the diets was based on recommendations for goslings (NRC, 1994). Mash feed was used in the experiment. Diet and nutrient composition levels are shown in Table 1.
Table 1.
Basic diet composition and nutrient levels (air-dry basis).
| Items | 1-30 d | 31-90 d |
|---|---|---|
| Ingredients, % | ||
| Corn | 60.00 | 61.00 |
| Soybean meal | 22.00 | 17.00 |
| Wheat bran | 7.5 | 0 |
| Rice bran | 2.71 | 14.00 |
| Limestone | 1.90 | 3.00 |
| Calcium hydrogen phosphate | 0.80 | 0 |
| DL-Methionine | 0.09 | 0 |
| Premix 1 | 5.00 | 5.00 |
| Total | 100 | 100 |
| Nutrient level2) | ||
| ME/(MJ/kg) | 11.01 | 11.48 |
| Crude protein, % | 16.15 | 14.65 |
| Crude fiber, % | 2.72 | 2.72 |
| Calcium, % | 1.05 | 1.22 |
| Total phosphorus (TP), % | 0.68 | 0.66 |
| Methionine, % | 0.42 | 0.35 |
| Lysine, % | 0.80 | 0.71 |
Premix provided the following per kilogram of diet: VA 195000 IU, VD 60000 IU, VE 600 IU, VK 30 mg, VB1 20 mg, VB2 100 mg, VB6 50 mg, VB12 300 μg, Nicotinic acid 400 mg, Pantothenic acid 130 mg, Folic acids 15 mg, Fe 2000 mg, Zn 2000 mg, Cu 2000 mg, I 15 mg, Se 6 mg, DL-Methionine 0.07%, NaCl 0.35%.
2) All are calculated values.
Data and sample collection, chemical analyses, calculations
Growth Performance, Carcass Traits, and Sample Collection
During the experiment, feed supply and residual feed were recorded. All geese were weighed after fasting at 1, 30, 60, and 90 days of age, and body weight was documented. Average body weight (ABW), ADG, average daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed-to-gain ratio (F/G) were calculated based on body weight and feed intake data. At 30, 60, and 90 days, two geese (1 male and 1 female) were selected from the eligible birds with body weight closest to the replicate mean. The geese were humanely slaughtered by electrical stunning and exsanguination. Approximately 1 g of tissue from the left pectoral and leg muscles was placed in 1.5 mL enzyme-free centrifuge tubes, rapidly frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at −80°C. The remaining portions of the left pectoral and leg muscles were used for meat quality assessment.
After slaughter, carcass, semi-eviscerated carcass, eviscerated carcass, breast muscle, leg muscle, and abdominal fat weights were recorded. Dressing percentage (DP), semi-eviscerated percentage (SEP), and eviscerated percentage (EP) were calculated relative to live weight, whereas breast muscle percentage (BMP), leg muscle percentage (LMP), and abdominal fat percentage (AFP) were expressed relative to eviscerated carcass weight.
Meat quality
Meat color was measured using a colorimeter (CR-400, Konica Minolta, Osaka, Japan), and the L* (lightness), a* (redness), and b* (yellowness) values were recorded. Muscle pH was measured at 45 min postmortem using a portable pH meter (pH STAR, Matthaus, Berlin, Germany). Drip loss was determined using a standardized suspension method: a pectoral muscle sample (approximately 3 × 2 × 1 cm) was weighed (W1), suspended in a sealed container at 4°C for 24 h without contact with the container wall, and reweighed (W2). Drip loss (%) was calculated as (W1 − W2)/W1 × 100. Shear force was measured according to the instrument manual using a digital tenderness meter (C-LM3B, Tenovo, Beijing, China).
Frozen muscle samples were thawed on ice, and 100 mg of each sample was placed in a hydrolysis tube. Then, 10 mL of 6 mol/L HCl was added, and the samples were hydrolyzed at 110°C under anoxic conditions for 23 hours. After cooling, the hydrolysates were transferred to a 100 mL volumetric flask and diluted to volume with ultrapure water. A 1 mL aliquot of the solution was vacuum-dried and reconstituted in 1 mL of 0.2 mol/L HCl. The solution was filtered through a 0.22 µm membrane, and total amino acids (TAA) were quantified using an amino acid analyzer (Hitachi l-8080, Japan) with reference to an amino acid standard solution (Wako, Japan). The amino acid content was calculated as follows: X=(A × V1 × V2 × 10^(−9))/W × 100%. Where, X is the muscle amino acid content; A (ng/μL) and V₁ (μL) are the concentration and volume of the analyzed solution, respectively; V₂ (mL) is the volume of the volumetric flask; and W is the weight of the hydrolyzed muscle sample.
Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses were performed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) in SPSS (version 20.0; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA), with dietary treatment as the fixed effect. Data at each sampling age (30, 60, and 90 d) were analyzed separately. For growth performance, the replicate was considered the experimental unit (n = 6 replicates per treatment). For carcass traits, meat quality parameters, and muscle amino acid composition, two birds (1 male and 1 female) were sampled per replicate at each age, and values were averaged within replicate prior to analysis; therefore, the replicate was also treated as the experimental unit (n = 6 replicates per treatment per age). Results are presented as mean ± SEM. Multiple comparisons among treatments were conducted using Tukey’s test, and differences were considered significant at P < 0.05.
Results
Growth performance
The present study revealed that dietary APS supplementation significantly improved the growth performance of Taihu geese (P < 0.05; Table 2). In the 200 mg/kg APS group, final body weight (FBW) at 60 and 90 days and ADG from days 31–60 and 1–90 were higher than in the control group, while the F/G from days 31–60, 61–90, and 1–90 was lower. In the 100 mg/kg APS group, FBW at 90 days and ADG from 1 to 90 days increased, whereas F/G from days 61–90 and 1–90 decreased (P < 0.05). No significant differences were observed in the other growth performance parameters (P > 0.05).
Table 2.
Effect of dietary Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) on the growth performance of Taihu geese.
| Items | Control group | 100 mg/kg APS Group |
200 mg/kg APS group |
P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1-30 d | ||||
| IBW (g) | 90.26±0.31 | 90.74±10.22 | 90.15±8.79 | 0.994 |
| FBW (g) | 1261.8 ± 217.6 | 1367.8 ± 148.9 | 1393.3 ± 162.2 | 0.565 |
| ADG (g) | 39.05±7.25 | 42.57±4.69 | 43.44±5.20 | 0.551 |
| ADFI (g) | 101.64±12.29 | 112.65±5.11 | 110.60±6.69 | 0.212 |
| F/G | 2.63±0.31 | 2.67±0.37 | 2.58±0.41 | 0.937 |
| 31-60 d | ||||
| FBW (g) | 2887.8 ± 196.98b | 3087.0 ± 149.6ab | 3274.8 ± 196.0a | 0.009 |
| ADG (g) | 50.67±8.84b | 56.46±5.62ab | 67.10±5.75a | 0.024 |
| ADFI (g) | 211.83±19.55 | 211.88±11.03 | 216.00±17.38 | 0.919 |
| F/G | 4.24±0.47a | 3.80±0.59ab | 3.25±0.49b | 0.048 |
| 61-90 d | ||||
| FBW (g) | 3478.5 ± 178.0c | 3715.0 ± 99.44b | 3976.8 ± 102.1a | 0.002 |
| ADG (g) | 20.36±1.20 | 20.93±2.30 | 23.40±1.34 | 0.068 |
| ADFI (g) | 164.37±7.95 | 138.06±9.26 | 150.08±1.99 | 0.075 |
| F/G | 8.07±0.76a | 6.60±0.49b | 6.41±0.54b | 0.035 |
| 1-90 d | ||||
| IBW (g) | 90.26±0.31 | 90.74±10.22 | 90.15±8.79 | 0.994 |
| FBW (g) | 3478.5 ± 178.0c | 3715.0 ± 99.4b | 3976.8 ± 102.1a | 0.002 |
| ADG (g) | 37.87±1.98c | 40.27±1.10b | 43.18±1.13a | 0.002 |
| ADFI (g) | 172.69±6.24 | 162.18±5.79 | 163.12±12.21 | 0.215 |
| F/G | 4.57±0.12a | 4.03±0.15b | 3.78±0.22b | 0.001 |
Note: a,b, c Means with different superscripts within the same row differ significantly (P < 0.05).
Carcass traits
The effects of dietary APS supplementation on the carcass traits of Taihu geese are presented in Table 3. At 60 days of age, the dressing percentage and semi-eviscerated percentage were significantly higher in the 200 mg/kg APS group than in the control group (P < 0.05). However, eviscerated percentage, breast muscle percentage, leg muscle percentage, and abdominal fat percentage were not significantly affected by APS supplementation at any sampling age (P > 0.05).
Table 3.
Effect of dietary Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) on the carcass traits of Taihu geese.
| Items | Control group | 100 mg/kg APS Group |
200 mg/kg APS group |
P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 30 d | ||||
| Dressing percentage | 87.60±3.81 | 87.91±4.81 | 88.96±5.21 | 0.911 |
| Semi-eviscerated percentage | 80.20±5.51 | 79.96±5.35 | 80.55±2.97 | 0.984 |
| Eviscerated percentage | 72.91±7.28 | 73.16±9.16 | 73.96±7.39 | 0.982 |
| Breast muscle percentage | 5.06±1.69 | 5.56±1.04 | 5.15±1.25 | 0.861 |
| Leg muscle percentage | 6.18±2.22 | 6.81±1.62 | 7.10±1.63 | 0.778 |
| 60 d | ||||
| Dressing percentage | 87.56±2.03b | 89.13±2.26ab | 90.95±1.75a | 0.048 |
| Semi-eviscerated percentage | 79.19±1.30b | 81.17±1.47ab | 82.32±1.29a | 0.028 |
| Eviscerated percentage | 71.68±4.00 | 72.40±5.18 | 72.93±4.83 | 0.932 |
| Breast muscle percentage | 10.41±1.67 | 10.05±1.56 | 10.29±2.33 | 0.962 |
| Leg muscle percentage | 17.49±3.43 | 17.22±2.85 | 17.02±3.64 | 0.980 |
| Abdominal fat percentage | 2.15±0.50 | 2.07±0.91 | 2.03±0.80 | 0.974 |
| 90 d | ||||
| Dressing percentage | 87.49±2.00 | 89.17±1.80 | 90.81±1.79 | 0.091 |
| Semi-eviscerated percentage | 79.61±2.63 | 81.14±1.20 | 79.50±3.29 | 0.609 |
| Eviscerated percentage | 71.21±3.26 | 74.83±1.78 | 71.72±4.74 | 0.327 |
| Breast muscle percentage | 11.60±1.38 | 12.66±0.45 | 11.04±1.51 | 0.213 |
| Leg muscle percentage | 17.11±1.25 | 16.55±0.86 | 17.31±1.66 | 0.700 |
| Abdominal fat percentage | 3.03±0.31 | 3.20±0.20 | 3.21±0.69 | 0.827 |
Note: a, b Means with different superscripts within the same row differ significantly (P < 0.05).
Meat quality
The effects of APS supplementation on meat quality are presented in Table 4, Table 5. At 30 days of age, the b value of the breast muscle was significantly lower in the 200 mg/kg APS group than in the control group (P < 0.05), whereas no significant differences were observed in other meat quality parameters (P > 0.05).
Table 4.
Effect of dietary Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) on the breast muscle quality of Taihu geese.
| Items | Control group | 100 mg/kg APS group | 200 mg/kg APS group | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 30d | ||||
| pH | 6.03±0.32 | 5.72±0.23 | 5.97±0.24 | 0.266 |
| Breast L* value | 60.48±7.40 | 59.3 ± 2.48 | 58.78±3.28 | 0.882 |
| Breast a* value | 12.53±1.63 | 13.59±4.29 | 14.93±2.57 | 0.555 |
| Breast b* value | 10.10±1.31a | 9.43±1.12ab | 7.53±1.82b | 0.028 |
| Drip Loss (%) | 4.92±2.22 | 4.79±0.87 | 4.17±0.25 | 0.725 |
| 60d | ||||
| pH | 6.09±0.18 | 5.96±0.06 | 5.98±0.04 | 0.221 |
| Breast L* value | 43.54±3.08 | 44.43±6.36 | 46.55±8.15 | 0.788 |
| Breast a* value | 16.57±2.97 | 12.49±3.61 | 13.63±5.79 | 0.419 |
| Breast b* value | 4.84±1.77 | 3.28±2.36 | 4.68±4.45 | 0.740 |
| Drip Loss (%) | 1.11±0.34 | 1.03±0.23 | 1.05±0.28 | 0.813 |
| shear force (N) | 28.54±9.56 | 30.58±9.16 | 23.9 ± 3.67 | 0.502 |
| 90d | ||||
| pH | 6.26±0.09 | 6.19±0.12 | 6.22±0.11 | 0.623 |
| Breast L* value | 30.17±4.13 | 28.33±2.15 | 31.91±2.21 | 0.285 |
| Breast a* value | 16.55±0.84 | 18.08±1.29 | 17.91±0.90 | 0.124 |
| Breast b* value | 6.85±1.69 | 7.52±1.23 | 7.23±1.52 | 0.819 |
| Drip Loss (%) | 1.06±0.54 | 1.07±0.44 | 1.00±0.18 | 0.963 |
| shear force (N) | 25.36±8.94 | 24.13±9.58 | 22.05±8.30 | 0.872 |
Note: L*, a*, and b* values are CIE color space coordinates and are dimensionless. a, b Means with different superscripts within the same row differ significantly (P < 0.05).
Table 5.
Effect of dietary Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) on the leg muscle quality of Taihu geese.
| Items | Control group | 100 mg/kg APS group | 200 mg/kg APS group | P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 30d | ||||
| pH | 6.03±0.19 | 6.03±0.10 | 6.18±0.33 | 0.591 |
| Leg L* value | 39.21±5.59 | 35.16±5.06 | 38.93±4.01 | 0.462 |
| Leg a* value | 16.23±4.82 | 18.14±1.66 | 18.45±1.07 | 0.550 |
| Leg b* value | 8.01±1.57 | 7.57±1.78 | 6.60±2.09 | 0.557 |
| Drip Loss (%) | 1.27±0.95 | 1.94±1.27 | 0.72±0.41 | 0.240 |
| 60d | ||||
| pH | 6.49±0.18 | 6.40±0.15 | 6.49±0.18 | 0.720 |
| Leg L* value | 36.17±9.19 | 36.21±9.11 | 48.87±14.73 | 0.241 |
| Leg a* value | 15.40±2.21 | 11.75±1.88 | 14.00±2.71 | 0.130 |
| Leg b* value | 4.50±1.03 | 2.85±1.80 | 4.89±2.51 | 0.313 |
| Drip Loss (%) | 1.02±0.18 | 1.45±1.06 | 1.37±0.81 | 0.725 |
| shear force (N) | 22.65±9.91 | 21.14±6.01 | 14.64±3.53 | 0.278 |
| 90d | ||||
| pH | 6.43±0.14 | 6.19±0.10 | 6.44±0.29 | 0.191 |
| Leg L* value | 29.39±4.08 | 32.21±1.86 | 32.09±2.30 | 0.345 |
| Leg a* value | 17.97±3.10 | 19.05±1.95 | 17.86±1.32 | 0.718 |
| Leg b* value | 6.68±2.48 | 7.63±1.38 | 6.72±0.51 | 0.671 |
| Drip Loss (%) | 0.69±0.28 | 0.59±0.1 | 0.84±0.09 | 0.197 |
| shear force (N) | 23.19±13.03 | 19.18±4.62 | 20.64±1.86 | 0.781 |
As shown in Table 6, dietary supplementation with 200 mg/kg APS significantly increased the Gly content in the breast muscle of Taihu geese at 30 days of age compared with the control group (P < 0.05), while no significant differences were observed in the contents of other amino acids (P > 0.05). At 60 days of age, no significant differences in breast muscle amino acid contents were detected among the groups (P > 0.05, Table 7).
Table 6.
Effect of dietary Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) on the amino acid composition of breast muscle in Taihu geese at 30 days of age.
| Items1 | Control group | 100 mg/kg APS Group |
200 mg/kg APS group |
P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Asp | 1.28±0.32 | 1.20±0.22 | 1.39±0.06 | 0.500 |
| Glu | 1.90±0.50 | 1.57±0.30 | 2.03±0.20 | 0.226 |
| Gly | 0.80±0.05b | 0.99±0.24ab | 1.11±0.13a | 0.043 |
| Ala | 0.98±0.24 | 0.88±0.14 | 1.07±0.03 | 0.300 |
| Thr | 0.64±0.16 | 0.61±0.11 | 0.70±0.04 | 0.595 |
| Val | 0.76±0.19 | 0.71±0.13 | 0.82±0.05 | 0.521 |
| Ile | 0.76±0.21 | 0.71±0.13 | 0.81±0.04 | 0.609 |
| Leu | 1.19±0.31 | 1.14±0.21 | 1.29±0.05 | 0.612 |
| Lys | 1.32±0.34 | 1.27±0.25 | 1.43±0.07 | 0.653 |
| Met | 0.11±0.07 | 0.10±0.07 | 0.11±0.05 | 0.966 |
| Tyr | 0.49±0.14 | 0.49±0.09 | 0.55±0.04 | 0.667 |
| Phe | 0.73±0.15 | 0.71±0.11 | 0.79±0.02 | 0.551 |
| His | 0.34±0.09 | 0.35±0.07 | 0.39±0.02 | 0.633 |
| Arg | 0.98±0.26 | 0.89±0.15 | 1.08±0.03 | 0.359 |
| Ser | 0.54±0.12 | 0.50±0.08 | 0.59±0.03 | 0.360 |
| Cys | 0.12±0.02 | 0.13±0.01 | 0.14±0.01 | 0.514 |
| TAA | 12.94±3.08 | 12.25±1.86 | 14.30±0.29 | 0.404 |
| EAA | 6.13±1.59 | 5.86±1.09 | 6.64±0.24 | 0.621 |
| FAA | 4.96±1.03 | 4.64±0.49 | 5.60±0.14 | 0.168 |
| EAA/TAA | 0.47±0.01 | 0.48±0.02 | 0.46±0.01 | 0.316 |
| FAA/TAA | 0.39±0.02 | 0.38±0.02 | 0.39±0.01 | 0.571 |
Note: Asp, aspartic acid; Glu, glutamic acid; Gly, glycine; Ala, alanine; Thr, threonine; Val, valine; Ile, isoleucine; Leu, leucine; Lys, lysine; Met, methionine; Tyr, tyrosine; Phe, phenylalanine; His, histidine; Arg, arginine; Ser, serine; Cys, cysteine. TAA, total amino acids; EAA, essential amino acids (Thr, Val, Met, Ile, Leu, Phe, Lys, His, Arg); FAA, flavor amino acids (Asp, Glu, Gly, Ala). Amino acid contents are expressed as % of the hydrolyzed muscle sample weight. a, b Means with different superscripts within the same row differ significantly (P < 0.05).
Table 7.
Effect of dietary Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) on the amino acid composition of breast muscle in Taihu geese at 60 days of age.
| Items1 | Control group | 100 mg/kg APS Group |
200 mg/kg APS group |
P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Asp | 1.35±0.11 | 1.33±0.06 | 1.36±0.12 | 0.923 |
| Glu | 2.20±0.18 | 2.16±0.08 | 2.20±0.13 | 0.909 |
| Gly | 0.68±0.08 | 0.69±0.06 | 0.67±0.06 | 0.946 |
| Ala | 0.88±0.08 | 0.87±0.03 | 0.89±0.08 | 0.946 |
| Thr | 0.68±0.06 | 0.67±0.03 | 0.69±0.05 | 0.918 |
| Val | 0.73±0.08 | 0.74±0.05 | 0.73±0.05 | 0.877 |
| Ile | 0.78±0.08 | 0.77±0.05 | 0.79±0.08 | 0.890 |
| Leu | 1.26±0.11 | 1.24±0.05 | 1.29±0.11 | 0.834 |
| Lys | 1.32±0.11 | 1.31±0.07 | 1.39±0.13 | 0.786 |
| Met | 0.14±0.10 | 0.14±0.09 | 0.13±0.09 | 0.522 |
| Tyr | 0.60±0.07 | 0.59±0.03 | 0.60±0.04 | 0.988 |
| Phe | 0.77±0.05 | 0.75±0.04 | 0.81±0.09 | 0.913 |
| His | 0.43±0.03 | 0.42±0.03 | 0.23±0.27 | 0.468 |
| Arg | 0.99±0.09 | 0.99±0.04 | 1.01±0.09 | 0.179 |
| Ser | 0.58±0.05 | 0.57±0.02 | 0.58±0.03 | 0.875 |
| Cys | 0.17±0.03 | 0.16±0.02 | 0.16±0.02 | 0.899 |
| TAA | 14.32±1.34 | 14.14±0.63 | 14.31±1.13 | 0.949 |
| EAA | 6.49±0.67 | 6.38±0.40 | 6.66±0.58 | 0.777 |
| FAA | 5.84±0.51 | 5.79±0.18 | 5.84±0.40 | 0.983 |
| EAA/TAA | 0.46±0.01 | 0.45±0.01 | 0.47±0.01 | 0.150 |
| FAA/TAA | 0.41±0.01 | 0.41±0.01 | 0.41±0.01 | 0.916 |
Note: 1Abbreviations are as defined in Table 6.
At 90 days of age, dietary supplementation with APS significantly affected the Methionine (Met) content in the breast muscle, with the 200 mg/kg APS group exhibiting the highest level and the control group the lowest (P < 0.05). In contrast, no significant differences were detected in the contents of other amino acids among the groups (P > 0.05, Table 8).
Table 8.
Effect of dietary Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) on the amino acid composition of breast muscle in Taihu geese at 90 days of age.
| Items1 | Control group | 100 mg/kg APS Group |
200 mg/kg APS group |
P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Asp | 1.38±0.13 | 1.35±0.19 | 1.39±0.17 | 0.952 |
| Glu | 2.32±0.19 | 2.30±0.33 | 2.32±0.27 | 0.992 |
| Gly | 0.74±0.09 | 0.74±0.09 | 0.76±0.08 | 0.886 |
| Ala | 0.78±0.10 | 0.77±0.08 | 0.80±0.08 | 0.839 |
| Thr | 0.68±0.07 | 0.67±0.09 | 0.69±0.08 | 0.936 |
| Val | 0.78±0.09 | 0.78±0.10 | 0.80±0.09 | 0.949 |
| Ile | 0.78±0.08 | 0.76±0.10 | 0.80±0.09 | 0.879 |
| Leu | 1.26±0.13 | 1.25±0.17 | 1.29±0.15 | 0.923 |
| Lys | 1.35±0.13 | 1.38±0.18 | 1.41±0.18 | 0.860 |
| Met | 0.06±0.01c | 0.11±0.02b | 0.15±0.02a | 0.001 |
| Tyr | 0.57±0.05 | 0.55±0.07 | 0.55±0.07 | 0.921 |
| Phe | 0.74±0.09 | 0.78±0.10 | 0.79±0.11 | 0.767 |
| His | 0.34±0.22 | 0.35±0.24 | 0.46±0.06 | 0.641 |
| Arg | 0.98±0.10 | 0.98±0.13 | 1.01±0.12 | 0.930 |
| Ser | 0.58±0.05 | 0.56±0.08 | 0.58±0.07 | 0.901 |
| Cys | 0.12±0.02 | 0.12±0.01 | 0.12±0.02 | 0.969 |
| TAA | 13.43±1.48 | 13.42±1.93 | 13.89±1.57 | 0.913 |
| EAA | 6.32±0.62 | 6.39±0.82 | 6.58±0.75 | 0.879 |
| FAA | 5.21±0.51 | 5.14±0.68 | 5.27±0.59 | 0.961 |
| EAA/TAA | 0.47±0.01 | 0.48±0.01 | 0.48±0.01 | 0.625 |
| FAA/TAA | 0.39±0.01 | 0.39±0.01 | 0.39±0.01 | 0.301 |
Note: 1Abbreviations are as defined in Table 6. a, b, c Means with different superscripts within the same row differ significantly (P < 0.05).
Regarding the leg muscle, the Met content was significantly higher in the 200 mg/kg APS group than in the control group at both 30 and 60 days of age (P < 0.05; Table 9, Table 10), whereas the contents of other amino acids did not differ significantly among the groups (P > 0.05). At 90 days of age, no significant differences in leg muscle amino acid contents were observed across the groups (P > 0.05; Table 11).
Table 9.
Effect of dietary Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) on the amino acid composition of leg muscle in Taihu geese at 30 days of age.
| Items1 | Control group | 100 mg/kg APS Group |
200 mg/kg APS group |
P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Asp | 1.28±0.17 | 1.39±0.02 | 1.32±0.17 | 0.519 |
| Glu | 1.69±0.22 | 1.97±0.13 | 1.70±0.30 | 0.194 |
| Gly | 0.70±0.04 | 0.74±0.03 | 0.78±0.06 | 0.089 |
| Ala | 0.89±0.11 | 0.97±0.01 | 0.93±0.10 | 0.461 |
| Thr | 0.66±0.09 | 0.72±0.01 | 0.68±0.09 | 0.551 |
| Val | 0.74±0.09 | 0.79±0.02 | 0.76±0.11 | 0.688 |
| Ile | 0.74±0.11 | 0.79±0.02 | 0.76±0.10 | 0.722 |
| Leu | 1.22±0.17 | 1.30±0.03 | 1.25±0.17 | 0.736 |
| Lys | 1.36±0.20 | 1.48±0.04 | 1.40±0.19 | 0.560 |
| Met | 0.10±0.04b | 0.10±0.01b | 0.17±0.02a | 0.002 |
| Tyr | 0.56±0.08 | 0.61±0.03 | 0.59±0.10 | 0.678 |
| Phe | 0.78±0.08 | 0.83±0.02 | 0.81±0.10 | 0.615 |
| His | 0.44±0.07 | 0.45±0.02 | 0.37±0.24 | 0.712 |
| Arg | 0.98±0.13 | 1.06±0.02 | 1.01±0.12 | 0.551 |
| Ser | 0.54±0.06 | 0.59±0.01 | 0.54±0.07 | 0.396 |
| Cys | 0.13±0.01 | 0.13±0.03 | 0.14±0.02 | 0.959 |
| TAA | 12.79±1.48 | 13.91±0.08 | 13.19±1.84 | 0.527 |
| EAA | 6.28±0.81 | 6.75±0.09 | 6.55±0.88 | 0.653 |
| FAA | 4.55±0.46 | 5.07±0.10 | 4.72±0.56 | 0.258 |
| EAA/TAA | 0.49±0.02 | 0.49±0.01 | 0.50±0.01 | 0.392 |
| FAA/TAA | 0.36±0.02 | 0.37±0.01 | 0.36±0.01 | 0.631 |
Note: 1Abbreviations are as defined in Table 6. a, b Means with different superscripts within the same row differ significantly (P < 0.05).
Table 10.
Effect of dietary Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) on the amino acid composition of leg muscle in Taihu geese at 60 days of age.
| Items1 | Control group | 100 mg/kg APS Group |
200 mg/kg APS group |
P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Asp | 1.48±0.07 | 1.62±0.21 | 1.57±0.12 | 0.424 |
| Glu | 2.57±0.11 | 2.74±0.30 | 2.66±0.20 | 0.350 |
| Gly | 0.68±0.03 | 0.76±0.09 | 0.73±0.08 | 0.349 |
| Ala | 0.93±0.04 | 1.03±0.13 | 1.01±0.08 | 0.355 |
| Thr | 0.75±0.03 | 0.81±0.10 | 0.79±0.06 | 0.561 |
| Val | 0.82±0.05 | 0.92±0.13 | 0.90±0.07 | 0.260 |
| Ile | 0.83±0.05 | 0.91±0.12 | 0.90±0.07 | 0.366 |
| Leu | 1.36±0.07 | 1.48±0.19 | 1.46±0.12 | 0.418 |
| Lys | 1.49±0.05 | 1.59±0.18 | 1.59±0.14 | 0.534 |
| Met | 0.11±0.03b | 0.12±0.03ab | 0.16±0.12a | 0.045 |
| Tyr | 0.64±0.08 | 0.69±0.08 | 0.67±0.05 | 0.626 |
| Phe | 0.86±0.03 | 0.91±0.12 | 0.92±0.07 | 0.580 |
| His | 0.50±0.03 | 0.52±0.08 | 0.53±0.03 | 0.710 |
| Arg | 1.07±0.06 | 1.17±0.14 | 1.14±0.10 | 0.457 |
| Ser | 0.65±0.02 | 0.69±0.08 | 0.67±0.06 | 0.572 |
| Cys | 0.17±0.02 | 0.17±0.03 | 0.15±0.01 | 0.398 |
| TAA | 15.65±0.74 | 16.91±2.00 | 16.63±1.33 | 0.465 |
| EAA | 7.03±0.37 | 7.60±0.92 | 7.54±0.59 | 0.442 |
| FAA | 6.41±0.27 | 6.93±0.80 | 6.75±0.57 | 0.466 |
| EAA/TAA | 0.45±0.01 | 0.45±0.00 | 0.45±0.00 | 0.274 |
| FAA/TAA | 0.41±0.00 | 0.41±0.00 | 0.41±0.01 | 0.409 |
Note: 1Abbreviations are as defined in Table 6. a,bMeans with different superscripts within the same row differ significantly (P < 0.05).
Table 11.
Effect of dietary Astragalus polysaccharides (APS) on the amino acid composition of leg muscle in Taihu geese at 90 days of age.
| Items1 | Control group | 100 mg/kg APS Group |
200 mg/kg APS group |
P-value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Asp | 1.57±0.18 | 1.51±0.13 | 1.41±0.11 | 0.313 |
| Glu | 2.46±0.32 | 2.37±0.19 | 2.21±0.24 | 0.410 |
| Gly | 0.88±0.09 | 0.86±0.10 | 0.81±0.08 | 0.553 |
| Ala | 0.94±0.15 | 0.92±0.13 | 0.85±0.12 | 0.590 |
| Thr | 0.80±0.07 | 0.76±0.07 | 0.73±0.05 | 0.371 |
| Val | 0.90±0.09 | 0.89±0.10 | 0.83±0.06 | 0.482 |
| Ile | 0.88±0.09 | 0.87±0.09 | 0.81±0.07 | 0.488 |
| Leu | 1.47±0.13 | 1.43±0.15 | 1.35±0.10 | 0.417 |
| Lys | 1.59±0.14 | 1.52±0.17 | 1.45±0.14 | 0.439 |
| Met | 0.12±0.06 | 0.11±0.03 | 0.15±0.02 | 0.364 |
| Tyr | 0.64±0.06 | 0.63±0.06 | 0.62±0.06 | 0.884 |
| Phe | 0.93±0.08 | 0.90±0.12 | 0.86±0.08 | 0.587 |
| His | 0.37±0.04 | 0.35±0.04 | 0.36±0.07 | 0.892 |
| Arg | 1.15±0.13 | 1.12±0.11 | 1.05±0.09 | 0.452 |
| Ser | 0.66±0.06 | 0.63±0.06 | 0.59±0.05 | 0.285 |
| Cys | 0.14±0.02 | 0.13±0.02 | 0.13±0.02 | 0.784 |
| TAA | 15.47±1.64 | 15.00±1.48 | 14.18±1.17 | 0.475 |
| EAA | 7.44±0.72 | 7.23±0.77 | 6.91±0.55 | 0.564 |
| FAA | 5.85±0.73 | 5.67±0.53 | 5.27±0.52 | 0.423 |
| EAA/TAA | 0.48±0.00 | 0.48±0.01 | 0.49±0.01 | 0.191 |
| FAA/TAA | 0.38±0.01 | 0.38±0.01 | 0.37±0.01 | 0.628 |
Note: 1Abbreviations are as defined in Table 6.
Discussion
APS, a major bioactive component extracted from Astragalus membranaceus, has been widely investigated as a functional feed additive in livestock and poultry production. A growing body of evidence suggests that APS supplementation is associated with improved growth performance, enhanced intestinal development, better carcass traits, increased antioxidant capacity, and modulation of the intestinal microbial ecosystem across multiple species, including pigs, ducks, broilers, and fish (Ma et al., 2025; Shi et al., 2024; Li et al., 2019; Zahran et al., 2014, 2023; Yang et al., 2019; Ren et al., 2025; Liu et al., 2025; Wang et al., 2022; Zheng et al., 2016).
For example, in ovo injection of Lactobacillus plantarum (1 × 10⁶ CFU/egg) combined with APS (2 mg/egg) at 18.5 days of incubation did not affect hatchability or overall growth performance in chicks; however, it increased feed intake (FI) and body weight gain (BWG) during days 15–21, indicating a potential improvement in feed efficiency during the early post-hatch period (Duan et al., 2021). In broilers, Liu et al. (2025) reported that dietary APS (0.4%–0.6%) improved growth and selected carcass traits, whereas Ma et al. (2025) and Abedin et al. (2020) reported beneficial effects on meat quality–related traits in pigs and sheep, respectively. In quails, Guo et al. (2019) observed that dietary inclusion of 3% A. membranaceus stem and leaf (AMSL) increased average daily gain (ADG) and feed intake; notably, AMSL at 3%–5% was also associated with shifts in intestinal microbiota, including increased lactic acid bacteria and decreased coliform bacteria (Guo et al., 2019). Under disease-challenge conditions, Song et al. (2022) found that 200 ppm APS alleviated the adverse impacts of necrotic enteritis, leading to higher body weight at day 31 and improved feed efficiency in specific growth phases. Along the same lines, Yang et al. (2024) reported increased body weight and ADG at day 21 in broilers supplemented with APS (5 and 30 g/kg) compared with a polysaccharide-deprived diet, and Wu et al. (2018) observed improved ADG and FCR in 42-day-old broilers receiving APS (0.5 and 1 g/kg). Beyond poultry, Duan et al. (2024) showed that APS (0.12%) improved growth performance, survival, and digestive efficiency in fish. In addition, Qiao et al. (2022) reported that APS (150 mg/kg), combined with glycyrrhiza polysaccharide (75 mg/kg), increased body weight and ADG and reduced FCR in 42-day-old male broilers. Taken together, although APS source, formulation, dose range, and feeding duration vary considerably among studies, the overall literature supports the growth- and efficiency-promoting potential of Astragalus-derived polysaccharides in animal production.
In the present study, APS supplementation, particularly at 200 mg/kg, increased body weight and average daily gain while reducing the feed-to-gain ratio, indicating an improvement in growth efficiency. Notably, these responses occurred without a significant increase in feed intake, suggesting that APS may enhance nutrient utilization rather than acting primarily through appetite stimulation. Similar performance benefits of Astragalus-derived polysaccharides have been reported in other poultry and livestock species; however, the magnitude of response is influenced by APS source, inclusion level, and feeding duration. Because intermediate phenotypes such as intestinal morphology, digestive enzyme activity, and nutrient digestibility were not evaluated here, the mechanisms underlying improved feed efficiency remain speculative and should be clarified in future experiments incorporating gut development and nutrient utilization indices.
In addition to growth performance, APS has been reported to influence carcass traits and certain aspects of meat quality in different animal models. For instance, Ma et al. (2025) found that dietary APS (0.1%–0.3%) improved carcass traits and meat quality indices in pigs, including dressing percentage, pH₄₂h, color parameters, cooking yield, marbling score, and intramuscular fat (IMF). In aquatic species, Li et al. (2023) reported that APS (0.05%) improved texture-related parameters (elasticity, adhesiveness, and chewiness) in crucian carp, whereas Ren et al. (2025) observed that APS (0.8%) increased meat redness and reduced pH, implying potential effects on postmortem biochemical processes. In waterfowl, Zheng et al. (2016) showed that APS (300 mg/kg) increased the 24 h pH value and decreased drip loss, cooking loss, shear force, and b* value in mule ducks, suggesting possible benefits for water-holding capacity and color stability. Moreover, Guan et al. (2023) reported that selenium yeast Astragalus polysaccharide concentrated feed (SACF) improved carcass yield and muscle yields, with reduced abdominal fat at specific inclusion levels. Similar trends have also been described in sheep fed Astragalus by-products (Yin et al., 2021), and Abedin et al. (2020) reported improved meat fat content, color (L* and a*), drip loss, and sensory attributes following dietary ABP supplementation. Collectively, these findings suggest that APS and Astragalus-derived products may contribute to improved carcass traits and selected meat quality parameters; however, the magnitude and direction of responses likely depend on species, basal diet composition, the form of Astragalus supplementation (purified APS vs. plant by-products), and dose level.
Despite these advances in pigs (Ma et al., 2025; Yang et al., 2019), sheep (Yin et al., 2021), and broilers (Wang et al., 2014), evidence regarding dietary APS supplementation in geese remains limited. In the present study, APS supplementation, particularly at 200 mg/kg, improved growth performance and selected carcass traits in Taihu geese, as reflected by higher body weight and ADG, lower feed-to-gain ratios, and increased dressing percentage and semi-eviscerated percentage at 60 d. Although 200 mg/kg APS increased dressing percentage and semi-eviscerated percentage at 60 d, breast muscle percentage and leg muscle percentage were not significantly affected, indicating that APS mainly improved overall growth efficiency rather than the proportional yields of major economic cuts. Thus, its potential economic benefit may be more closely related to higher body weight and improved feed efficiency.
The stage-specific increases in glycine and methionine should also be interpreted cautiously. As amino acid composition was measured after acid hydrolysis, these results reflect the total muscle amino acid profile rather than direct regulation of protein synthesis. Therefore, the significant changes in glycine and methionine are best considered stage-dependent variation in selected amino acids, and their biological relevance requires further investigation.
APS has also been widely reported to influence intestinal microbiota composition and immune function (Qiao et al., 2022; Dong et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2015; Liang et al., 2024). Previous studies suggest that APS supplementation can increase beneficial taxa (e.g., Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium) while reducing potential pathogens, thereby potentially improving gut health and nutrient absorption (Dong et al., 2019). In addition, APS has been linked to attenuated oxidative stress and inflammation, possibly involving enhanced short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production and improved intestinal barrier function (Wei et al., 2023). APS has further been proposed to modulate innate and adaptive immunity through effects on macrophage activity (Feng et al., 2021), cytokine secretion (Deng et al., 2024), and antioxidant defenses (Hao et al., 2024). Although these pathways were not directly assessed in the present study, they provide plausible explanations for APS-associated improvements in performance and feed efficiency. Future work integrating gut microbiota profiling, SCFA quantification, and host antioxidant/inflammatory markers will be essential to determine whether a host–microbiota–immune axis contributes to APS-mediated benefits in geese.
Conclusion
Dietary APS supplementation, particularly at 200 mg/kg, improved growth performance and feed efficiency in Taihu geese and increased dressing percentage and semi-eviscerated percentage at 60 d. However, APS did not significantly affect breast muscle percentage or leg muscle percentage. Although percentage-based carcass traits were generally similar between 60 and 90 d, geese at 90 d achieved greater final body weight, which may contribute to higher absolute carcass output. Similar carcass yield percentages between 60 and 90 d therefore do not necessarily indicate equivalent carcass output because final body weight continued to increase with age. Overall, APS may serve as a promising natural feed additive for improving production efficiency in geese, although further studies are still needed to clarify its underlying mechanisms and practical economic value.
Declaration of AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process
During the preparation of this work, the authors used Grammarly and ChatGPT to improve readability and language. After using these tools, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the publication.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Xiangying Zhang: Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition. Xiaoming Li: Writing – original draft, Resources, Methodology, Investigation. Mengli Zhao: Software, Methodology. Lei Zhang: Methodology, Formal analysis. Youqing Bian: Investigation.
Disclosures
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the Academy-level Scientific Research Project (NSF2025ZR12), the JBGS Project of Seed Industry Revi-talization in Jiangsu Province (JBGS(2021)030), the Taizhou Science and technology support plan (social development) project (TS202437), the Lanzhou Talent Innovation and Entrepreneurship Project(23-3-110) and Key Research and Development Program of Gansu Province(23YFNA002). The funding bodies did not play direct roles in the design of the study and collection, analysis, and interpretation of data and in writing the manuscript.
Footnotes
Scientific Section: Poultry Nutrition and Metabolism
Data availability
The datasets supporting the conclusions of this article are included within the article.
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Data Availability Statement
The datasets supporting the conclusions of this article are included within the article.