Experimental investigation on the effect of real environmental factors on photovoltaic module power output in Southern Algeria

Abstract

Photovoltaic (PV) panels currently available on the market have a maximum efficiency of about 22%, despite continuous development and considerable efforts to improve their performance. Since they are strongly affected by changing and uncontrollable environmental conditions; this paper therefore, aims to increase the reliability and utility of solar PV systems by examining the impact of these factors on their performance. The novelty of the present work lies in the investigation of a combination of real environmental factors and their impact on the power output of the solar modules in a hot, arid desert region. In addition, the study takes into account the formation period of some of these factors, which is relatively long (nearing a year in the case of rainwater infiltration and the accumulation of bird droppings). To achieve this objective, different outdoor experiments were carried out under arid climatic conditions in Ouargla region, southeast Algeria, where the performance of a number of PV panels was evaluated under the influence of rainwater infiltration, real partial shading, and bird droppings. Subsequently, the power output of each panel was compared to determine the impact of these factors on the energy conversion efficiency. The obtained results show that the daily power loss percentage reached 63.5%, 27.6%, and 20.53% for rainwater infiltration, real partial shading, and bird droppings, respectively. The findings could provide valuable insights for researchers to propose cost-effective solutions to mitigate the impact of these factors on PV system performance.

Introduction

Current environmental and economic challenges are among the main drivers for the development and improvement of scientific research in the fields of environment and energy. Maintaining environmental sustainability and efficient management of natural resources are fundamental pillars of sustainable development, as energy production and consumption patterns have a direct impact on the achievement of these development goals. Fossil fuels account for 74% of global electricity production. It is worth noting that the increasing reliance on traditional energy sources to meet growing global demand has exacerbated major problems, including the depletion of fossil fuels, increased environmental pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions^1,2. In 2022, studies indicated an increase in carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions of 1.8%³. These statistics lead to giving priority to renewable energy sources in electricity production, considered as one of the forms of alternative, sustainable, and clean energy⁴, since there are several renewable energy sources such as wind energy, solar energy, hydroelectricity, thermal energy, and others^5,6. Therefore, the diversification of energy sources by relying on renewable energy is considered a promising option to achieve these ambitious plans and objectives.

Therefore, photovoltaic (PV) systems can contribute significantly to global electricity generation; its efficiency is influenced by numerous factors, including internal system components and external environmental parameters^7,8. At the internal component level, the quality of materials and the internal design of solar cells are critical factors in the manufacturing of solar modules. On the other hand, at the external level, the performance of solar panels is affected by factors, such as solar radiation intensity and weather conditions (dust accumulation, wind speed, solar irradiance, ambient temperature, humidity, bird droppings, partial shade, precipitation, etc…)^9–12. Finding solutions to these challenges is a crucial step in improving the performance of solar panels. This has triggered initiatives to search for ways of understanding the impact of these factors and developing strategies to mitigate their effects. Lately, solar PV systems have taken much attention from many researchers. A review of these works reveals that their studies could be broadly categorized into several groups. Some focused on investigating the effect of a single factor, such as dust accumulation^13–17, bird droppings^18–21, partial shading^22–32, or corrosion junction box^33–36. Others expanded their investigations to include two, three, or even four environmental factors simultaneously.

For example, Shen et al.³⁷, research has focused on improving the efficiency of PV systems by analyzing the effect of dust deposition and high temperatures on their performance. They proposed a mathematical model based on stochastic modelling to determine the optimal number of cleaning frequencies for solar panels to obtain maximum energy while minimizing the costs associated with maintenance operations. They proposed a cleaning policy based on the state of degradation, determining the optimal thresholds for preventive cleaning and the number of cleaning frequencies (non-periodic and periodic) to minimize the average maintenance cost. Their results showed that the percentage improvement in the performance of PV energy systems obtained by non-periodic cleaning operations ranged between 3.83% and 9.37%, compared to periodic cleaning operations.

In another study, Shaik et al.³⁸, analyzed the effects of bird droppings and soil accumulation on the thermal performance of PV modules in Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India. Seven distinct samples were chosen and spread across the PV panel surface at different weights of 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 grammes. Coal dust has shown to exert the minimal influence among all soil natures, as it is rapidly dispersed and does not adhere to surfaces. Bird droppings contributed around 46.42% to 89.18% of the efficiency loss, indicating a significant impact, while coal dust was responsible for less than 13% of the efficiency decline.

As for dust accumulation and bird droppings factors, Kabir et al.³⁹, developed an intelligent automatic detection system to monitor these factors on PV panels, using a simple optical sensor, machine learning algorithms, and image processing to accurately monitor bird droppings and dust accumulation. The system relied on measuring the amount of visible light (VSL) blocked by debris, enabling early detection and immediate cleaning to improve energy efficiency. Their experiments in Bangladesh indicated that dust could block up to 55% of visible light, resulting in a 55% loss in energy production, while regular cleaning could recover about 3% of energy per week. On the other hand, Yadav et al.⁴⁰, investigated the effects of partial shading and dust accumulation on PV module performance. A self-designed Series-Parallel (SP) PV module with mono-crystalline solar cells was fabricated for performance testing under partial shadowing and dust collection factors. For their research, two shifting shade patterns and four dust samples with different particle characteristics were used at three irradiation intensities. The results demonstrated ash dust sample and that diagonal partial shading pattern had the most considerable effect on the PV panel efficiency amongst all the studied dust samples and shading patterns.

Osman et al.⁴¹, have subsequently studied the effect of solar irradiance, ambient temperature, and wind speed. They explored the effect of these environmental factors on the efficiency of household PV panels. An experimental study was conducted during the winter in a single building located in Minqin County, China. According to the experimental findings, the temperature of the PV module significantly influences the performance of household PV panels, resulting in the detection of many levels of energy. They detected a variation in efficiency of approximately 3% due to the impact of the environmental parameters.

The study most closely resembling the work presented in this research is that conducted by Mustafa et al.⁴², in which they investigated the combined effect of four environmental factors on the performance of PV panels: partial shading, bird droppings, dust accumulation, and water droplets. Their results indicated that partial shading had the greatest impact; with shading 1/4, 1/2, and 3/4 of the panel reduced power by 33.7%, 45.1%, and 92.6%, respectively. Conversely, they found that water droplets contributed positively, reducing panel temperature and augmenting voltage, resulting in a 5.6% improvement in power output. Dust accumulation, on the other hand, decreased power output by 8.8% and efficiency by 11.86%, while bird droppings diminished performance by about 7.4%.

Since the current and power output of a PV cell depend on several factors, numerous research studies focused on external or environmental factors. Results indicated that regular panel maintenance, optimal system design, and weather-appropriate energy management strategies are essential to improve solar energy productivity. However, the internal structural factors of a PV system are no less important than external factors. It is common knowledge that traditional solar cell manufacturing technology relies on semiconductor materials such as silicon, but this technology has a power generation efficiency of up to 20% and has difficulties in absorbing solar energy at long wavelengths. To improve the efficiency of PV solar cells, they have been equipped, in addition to silicon or alone, with so-called perovskite cells, made up of layers in the form of very thin films of metal oxides⁴³. These are characterized by their absorption of solar rays at long wavelengths, their great abundance in nature, and their low manufacturing cost, which allows them to increase their efficiency and electricity production capacity by 28%⁴⁴.

The renewable energy program of Algeria aims to strengthen the national renewable energy development strategy by 2030 to harness the high potential of solar energy (average annual irradiance of 22,000 kWh/m²), broaden the energy portfolio and encourage private sector participation in power generation. Algeria aims adding 13.5 GW of solar energy capacity up to 2030⁴⁵. In this context, Algeria has paid close attention to investing in the renewable energy sector, seeking to diversify national revenue sources and reduce dependence on hydrocarbons. Algeria is making intensive efforts to develop and promote these energy sources, given its enormous potential in this field, particularly in solar energy, which makes it a major player in the regional energy transition.

To achieve Algeria’s future strategies and ambitions, many factors must be further controlled, including external and environmental ones related to the installation of solar panels. The utmost objective of this work was to study three external environmental factors on the performance of solar panels in electricity production: rainwater infiltration on the junction box, accumulation of dirt (especially bird droppings), and real partial shading. These factors were evaluated during different experimental days in a desert environment (Ouargla region, southeast Algeria)⁴⁶.

Research gaps, novelty, and contributions

Although many researchers have investigated environmental factors on PV panel power output and others have studied how to mitigate the negative effects of environmental factors^47,48, some of them have suffered from simultaneous real-examination of many environmental parameters. Therefore, the novelty of the present work was to incorporate more realistic conditions; particularly with respect to the accumulation of bird droppings (as this has a transition effects on PV panel electrical performances if the panels are cleaned promptly and on a regular basis; otherwise, hot spots may lead to permanent damage), which covered almost the entire surface of the PV panel in a non-uniform pattern, making the scenario more representative of real-world conditions compared to⁴². Additionally, it investigates the permanent effect of rainwater infiltration into a poor insulate PV panel’s junction box and the subsequent negative impact this mixture may have on its electrical output. Moreover, the study area (Ouargla, located in southern Algeria) has not previously been the subject of any research examining this specific combination of factors in such an integrated manner. It is notable that this investigation excludes the dust accumulation factor, as rainfall occurred promptly before the experimental tests, completely removing the dust that had accumulated over a period of six months.

This study presents a comprehensive experimental investigation of the impact of real-world environmental factors on the performance of photovoltaic systems under arid climatic conditions. Unlike conventional laboratory or short-term studies, this work examines the long-term cumulative effect of rainwater infiltration, natural partial shading, and bird dropping accumulation on the energy yield of PV modules, with an observation period extending to nearly one year. Experiments under real-world conditions were conducted in the Ouargla desert region (southeastern Algeria), characterized by a hot and arid climate, to precisely quantify the electrical power output losses induced by these environmental factors. The contributions of this study are as follows:

• Long-term quantitative assessment of the performance of photovoltaic panels under real-world environmental factors-rainwater infiltration, partial natural shading, and bird droppings-during arid climatic conditions with observation periods extended to up to one year.

• In-situ experimental characterization of daily power losses provoked by each degradation factor in a real desert environment, showing that rainwater infiltration, partial shading, and bird droppings are responsible for 63.5%, 27.6% and 20.53% of production losses respectively.

• A systematic comparison of several PV units simultaneously subjected to diverse environmental degradation conditions allows for a quantitative classification of each factor’s impact on PV panel power output. This provides crucial empirical data for developing predictive maintenance strategies and cost-effective technical solutions aimed at mitigating the impact of environmental factors on the reliability and productivity of photovoltaic installations in arid regions.

Geography of the study area (Ouargla)

The experiments were carried out during November and December 2024. They were conducted in a real outdoor environment of Ouargla city, Algeria, from 8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. local time. The values of the various raw data were recorded at regular hourly intervals throughout the duration of the run. Ouargla is located in the Algerian oasis region, approximately 800 km southeast of Algeria (see Fig. 1), at coordinates 31°58’ North and 5°15’ East, at 164 m above sea level. It is characterized by significant temperature fluctuations during the day and at night. Its climate is dry and desert-like, hot in summer and cold in winter. It is characterized by elevated solar irradiation intensity, a significant number of bright sunny days, and prolonged daily sunlight length, making it suitable for photovoltaic power production. Temperatures vary between 5° and 44 °C throughout the year, and humidity ranges between 24% and 62%, with most days of the year being sunny, making it a region rich in solar energy⁴⁶.

Fig. 1.

Case study location.

The Ouargla oasis region has many advantageous attributes for solar photovoltaic systems, most notably:

• Elevated average ambient temperature,

• Intense solar radiation,

• Prolonged daily sunlight duration,

• Abundant clear and somewhat clear days annually.

Consequently, investigation into solar PV systems in this location warrants more examination. A solar PV system was established by a research group at the LENREZA Laboratory at Ouargla University, Algeria, to enhance the performance of these systems in dry regions.

Experiments day’s climatic conditions

The PV panels used in the experiments were exposed to different environmental factors for about 9 to 11 months. The field tests were then set for November 25, 2024, and December 12, 2024. These dates were chosen because the skies were very clear and the solar irradiance was at its highest at noon, reaching 957 W/m² on November 25, 2024, and 936 W/m² on December 12, 2024. Additionally, the ambient temperatures on these days were moderate, as illustrated in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.

Climatic conditions of the test days.

Experimental procedures

As displayed in Fig. 3, the tests were conducted on the roof of the École normale supérieure from 01/11/2024 until 20/12/2024, where four identical polycrystalline PV panels were mounted on a steel frame. One of the panels was cleaned and set aside as a reference (witness), the second was damaged by rainwater seeping into its junction box, the third was soiled by bird droppings, and the fourth was partially shaded. The second and third panels were exposed to various environmental conditions for nearly one year (from 12/10/2023 to 01/11/2024), with the second panel having a defect in the insulation of its junction box. All panels were regularly cleaned at the commencement of each measurement except the bird droppings soiled one. For the latter panel, in order to remove the accumulated dust from its surface, it was cleaned with water, without affecting the dried bird droppings that were firmly adhered to the surface. Each panel was orientated due south, tilted at a 32° angle, and had a 55 W power output. Table 1 lists the electrical properties of the solar panels utilized in these tests.

Fig. 3.

PV panels used in the experiments.

Table 1.

Electrical characteristics of PV solar panels.

Parameter	Value
Maximum power Pmax	55 W
Maximum voltage Vmp	17.5 V
Maximum current Imp	3.14 A
Short-circuit current Isc	3.5 A
Open-circuit voltage Voc	22.2 V

The experimental setup consisted of a variable resistor (PHYWE, accuracy ±10%), rated at 3.1 A, with a resistance range of 0 to 33 Ω, considered as a load, its value was manually adjusted at each measurement in order to obtain the maximum power output of the panel. Two digital multi-meters (GDM- 356, accuracy: voltage ±0.8% and current ±0.5%, uncertainty: voltage ±0.5%, current ±1%) and watt-meter (WATTAVI, accuracy ±5% and uncertainty ±1.5%) for measuring current, voltage, and power output of PV panels, respectively, as shown in Fig. 4.

Fig. 4.

Electrical circuit measurement.

For solar irradiation measurement, a digital solari-meter (FREDERIKSEN, accuracy ±5% and uncertainty ±5%) was placed on the PV module surface for each structure, as displayed in Fig. 5a. The ambient temperature and that of the PV module were measured using K type thermocouples (accuracy ±2%), as shown in Fig. 5b. The solar irradiation, ambient temperature, and electrical characteristics of all modules were monitored and recorded hourly under outdoor climatic conditions from 08:00 to 17:00 local time during a sunny day (November 25, 2024 for rainwater leakage effects and December 12, 2024 for the other studied climatic conditions).

Fig. 5.

Apparatus used in temperature and solar irradiation intensity measurements.

Results and discussions

In this section, we will focus on effects of real environmental factors on both electrical power and daily energy produced by the used PV modules.

Partial shading impact

Solar irradiance is a key factor in PV energy production, with studies confirming that energy generation follows daily variations, peaking at midday. However, partial shading caused by residential structures, vegetations, or environmental obstacles such as dust or cloud cover could lead to substantial power losses in PV cells. In this context, a real partial shading experiment was conducted on 12/12/2024. Figure 3 shows that the PV panel chosen for the partial shading study was placed close to the fence surrounding the roof. This placement made it so that its shadow covered different parts of the panel at different ratios in the morning only, from 8:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. (see Fig. 6). After noon, the shadow completely moved away and did not return until sunset. It is worth noting that this study is different from earlier ones on partial shading, where some parts of the panel were completely blocked from solar irradiance.

Fig. 6.

PV panels used in partial shading experiments.

As displayed in Fig. 6, the partially shaded cells still received small amounts of solar irradiance. This explains why the power output values were minimal but did not vanish under these conditions. However, after noon, when shading disappeared, the recorded power values for both panels were identical, with a value of 29.845 W at 13:00 local time as shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7.

Daily electrical power output of reference and partially shaded panels.

Figure 7 represents time versus electrical power for the reference (witness) and the partially shaded panels. As shown, in the first half of the day (before 12.00), the depression of the power values of the partially shaded panel is clearly observed. This illustrates one of the most important negative parameters influencing the well-functioning of solar panels. Over time, the shadow expands, making solar irradiance unevenly distributed across the panel surface, thus, reducing the amount of energy it produces. This phenomenon is known as the string effect in photovoltaic systems. It happens when one shaded unit in a series-connected string of cells could harm the performance of the entire string. Instead of producing electricity, the shaded unit may act as a resistor, which could cause temperatures to rise in certain areas and hot spots. In addition, shading causes current mismatches in the same string and voltage mismatches between parallel strings, which worsens energy losses even more. The alignment of maximum power values from 12:00 onwards could be attributed to that both panels receiving equal intensity of incident solar radiation, thereby minimizing the effects of partial shading during this period and resulting in comparable performance between the two panels (see Fig. 7).

Effect of dirt (bird droppings)

Dirt accumulation, such as bird droppings contributes significantly to the reduction of solar panel efficiency by decreasing solar irradiation incident on the surface of PV panels. To examine its effect on power output of the PV module, a field experiment was conducted on December 12, 2024. Two solar panels were designated for the test: the first panel, kept clean, served as the reference panel, while the second one was covered with a layer of bird droppings to simulate natural soiling conditions, as displayed in Fig. 8. It is worth noting that droppings typically accumulate during nighttime periods as birds settle on the panel’s surface, thereby augmenting the build-up of organic residues over time. In order to compare the performance of both panels under outdoor conditions, the used PV modules were connected to an equivalent electrical circuit for recording electrical parameters.

Fig. 8.

Bird types and Soiled PV panels.

It is worth mentioning that two types of pigeons are commonly found in the study area of Ouargla: domesticated birds (Feral Pigeon) and wild ones (Laughing Dove), as illustrated in Fig. 8. The experimental site (École normale supérieure) is located in a quiet area somewhat isolated from residential zones, making it an ideal roosting site for flocks of wild pigeons during the night. This is due to the absence of students at that time, as well as the presence of agricultural plots used by biology students for experimental purposes.

Figure 8 shows the PV panel soiled with bird droppings. Although the panel surface was almost entirely covered with droppings, they do not entirely block solar irradiance, as highlighted in the zoom (see Fig. 8). Instead, they partially reduced incident sunlight, which consequently resulted in lower electrical power output compared to the conventional one, as illustrated in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9.

Daily electrical power output of panel covered with droppings and reference one.

The electrical power output variation of the two panels is presented in Fig. 9. Both curves follow the same pattern, rising in the morning to their peak values at around 13 h.00, and then falling down in the late morning. This is plainly caused by the fact that solar incident radiation is highest in the morning and lowest in the afternoon. The data show that power readings for the witness panel (reference) were always higher than the dirty panel during the whole measurement period. The clean panel’s power output rose steadily from 8:00 a.m. to 13:00, when it reached its highest point of 29.845 W. The dirty panel, on the other hand, never exceeded 25.8 W. A comparison between the two curves shows that bird droppings have a noticeable negative effect on the well-functioning of solar panels. This is because they block some of the solar irradiance, which makes the glass cover less transparent and limits the amount of photovoltaic energy that could be absorbed. This decrease in energy absorption means that less electricity could be produced.

Impact of corrosion in the junction box due to rainwater penetration

The test exploring the effect of rainwater ingress on the junction box of the PV panel was conducted on 25/11/2024. One the four panels mentioned above in (Sect. 4, Fig. 3), was the damaged junction box panel, due to rainwater penetration, as shown in Fig. 10. Subsequently, the electrical circuit was connected to monitor the required measurements throughout the day.

Fig. 10.

The damaged junction box of the panel.

Figure 11 illustrates the variation of the maximum power for both used panels, as a function of local time. The results reveal a significant difference in power values between the healthy and the damaged panels, in which the first one reached a peak power of approximately 32.5 W at noon, whereas the second one did not exceed a peak value of 11 W, which is relatively low. This reduction is attributed to the deterioration of some internal connections within the junction box. Consequently, rainwater infiltrated the junction box, resulting in damage and a substantial loss of the damaged panel’s electrical efficiency.

Fig. 11.

Daily electrical power output of panel with damaged junction box and reference one.

It was found that the daily power output loss from the damaged panel attained some 63.5% compared to the conventional one (see Table 2), a remarkably high value that underscores the importance of investigating such types of factors.

Table 2.

Average daily power output.

Solar panels	Healthy	Damaged
Average daily power output (W)	20.6	7.52

Daily electrical power losses in PV modules output

In order to assess the effect of these environmental factors on the output of PV modules, it was necessary to calculate the ratios of energy loss for each case and compare them with the reference.

As illustrated in Fig. 12, the most significant impact was caused by rainwater leakage into the junction box, with a loss ratio of 63.5%, which represents a permanent effect that requires urgent attention and corrective action. In contrast, the other two factors produced comparable losses, with partial shading showing a slightly higher impact (27.64%) compared to bird droppings (20.53%).

Fig. 12.

Average percentage drop in electrical power output of PV panels.

According to recent studies, bird droppings were considered a form of partial shading, as they prevent solar radiation from reaching active cells and cause localized temperature rises that result in the formation of hot spots, which over time may cause permanent damage to the cell or the entire system. These findings are in good concurrence with those displayed in references exposed in Table 3.

Table 3.

Comparison between the obtained results and other similar studies.

Ref.	Drop in power output due to environmental factors
	Bird droppings	Partial shading	Damaged Junction Box
Sisodia et al.19	22.1%	−	−
Fodah et al.21	26%	−	−
Sarkar et al.27	−	For 75% of shaded surface result losses of about 92.6%	−
Swart and Hertzog30	−	For 63% of shaded surface result losses of about 82.1%	−
Shaik et al.38	35%	−	−
Yadav et al.49	20 − 30%	−	⁓18%
This study	20.53%	For 56% of shaded surface result losses of about 91.85%	63.5%

The greater loss under partial shading is mainly due to the pronounced reduction in power generation during the morning hours (see Fig. 7), which increased the overall percentage. However, this effect is transient, as its influence disappears completely after midday; nonetheless, it should be mitigated through careful assessment of surrounding shadows and avoidance whenever possible. On the other hand, bird droppings has a permanent detrimental effect, highlighting the need for practical mitigation strategies, such as installing deterrent systems to prevent birds from roosting on panel surfaces and ensuring regular cleaning and maintenance.

What could be observed from the percentages presented in Table 3 is the relative variation between the values obtained in this study and those reported in previous works, particularly with respect to partial shading and junction box failure. This discrepancy could be explicated by the distribution pattern of partial shading across the PV module surface, as well as by the degree of corrosion resulting from prolonged rainwater leakage into the junction box.

Conclusions

This study highlights the significant impact of external environmental factors on the performance of PV module, emphasizing the importance of understanding these factors to develop effective strategies aimed at improving PV performance and ensuring high and stable energy production. The experimental results demonstrated that each environmental factor has a distinct and different influence on solar panel power output. Under real weather conditions characterizing the city of Ouargla, based on the obtained results, the following conclusions are derived:

• Damaged junction box caused by long-term rainwater ingress highly reduces the power output of PV module (63.5%) due to corrosion of metallic connections, which is a permanent effect. Since the negative impact in this case is both significant and lasting, it is recommended to repair the affected connections and properly seal the junction box with high-quality insulation to prevent such issues from occurring in the future,

• Bird droppings prevent solar panels from effectively absorbing sunlight, hence lowering their power output with an average of 20.53%. In this case, the impact is not permanent if the panels are cleaned promptly and on a regular basis; otherwise, the formation of hot spots may lead to constant damage of the panel,

• Since partial shading is transient, nevertheless is one of the main causes of power output loss in PV systems (27.64%). To minimize this effect, the following actions ought to be implemented: use sophisticated control systems (MPPT), adding extra modules to compensate losses, and evaluate the site before installation to avoid permanent shading sources.

• Although the PV solar energy sector has been extensively studied, there appears to be a lack of published research examining the interplay of real environmental parameters and their impact on the power output of solar panels in hot, arid desert regions. It is suggested that additional research on this subject warrants further exploration.

Limitations and future work

• The present study focused only on three real environmental factors; however, incorporating additional factors, particularly dust accumulation would make the work more comprehensive and provide a broader perspective.

• The results presented in this paper are based on measurements taken on a single day, which represents a limitation of the study. Therefore, extending the study period and incorporating multiple measurements would enhance the reliability and credibility of the findings.

• It is worth mentioning that some of the obtained results are specifically related to areas with a high presence of birds, and these cannot be generalized to other regions.

• Again, the impact of rainwater leakage into the solar panel junction box is mainly specific to panels with poor insulation. This issue typically occurs in relatively older manufactured panels rather than in modern ones.

• Future studies should take into account the study area specific environmental factors, particularly those with long-term effects.

Finally, the authors of this study hope that these findings will aid researchers in the PV solar energy sector in formulating cost-effective strategies to mitigate the detrimental effects of environmental factors on the performance of PV modules. Permanent effects should be given special attention, as they often require urgent and expensive fixes. Therefore, to keep maintenance costs low and make the system more reliable, it is highly recommended to anticipate and predict such failures before their occurrence.

Author contributions

Mohamed Yacine Rachedi : Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Visualization, Writing-original draft, Dris Slymani : Methodology, Investigation, Visualization & Validation, Abdelaziz Rabehi : Visualization, Methodology, Validation, Writing- Review & Editing, Ali Amiar : Resources, Visualization, Validation, Writing-review & editing, Djamel Bechki : Supervision, Project administration, Validation, Writing-review & editing, Hamza Bouguettaia : Visualization, Validation, Writing-review & editing, Yousef A. Alsabah : Supervision, Visualization, Methodology, Reviewing & Editing. Noureddine Bessous : Visualization, Methodology, Validation, Reviewing & Editing. Ahmed Chennana : Visualization, Methodology, Reviewing & Editing.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from co-author Pr. Abdelaziz Rabehi (rab_ehi@hotmail.fr) on reasonable request.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.