Revolutionizing Solid Waste Management in India through Recycled and Repurposed Products: A Highlight of Pioneering Cutting-Edge Solutions for a Sustainable Future – A Narrative Review

Abstract

Solid waste management (SWM) is a significant problem on a global scale, and India faces similar difficulties. The main causes of waste production are the growing population and the altered lifestyle brought on by the rising per capita income. As a result, solid waste is constantly expanding in both amount and variety. However, over time, India’s approaches to managing solid waste have changed. This narrative review highlights the most innovative SWM solutions from an Indian perspective. The review highlights important barriers to scaling recycled and repurposed products, such as perceptions of inferiority, quality inconsistency, and cost challenges and reasons associated. It advocates for enhancing community awareness, stringent waste segregation laws, and government incentives to promote recycling and improve SWM practices in India. The review also describes the urgent need for infrastructure improvements, regulatory modifications, and more funding for waste management techniques. These will consequently promote the use of recycled and repurposed products, lower pollution, conserve resources, minimize climate change, and consequently safeguard public health and pave the way for a healthier and more sustainable future for India.

INTRODUCTION

With cities generating approximately 68.8 million tonnes of municipal waste each year, India faces an enormous problem in handling its solid trash.[1] In addition to being a main hazard to the environment and human health, the waste produced in India represents a neglected possibility to get better assets and generate revenue. Since traditional waste disposal techniques like open dumping and landfilling are now not desirable or sustainable, there may be a pressing want for progressive ways to manipulate solid waste in the country.[2]

The absence of proper infrastructure and sources is one of the major issues in handling solid waste in India. The contemporary systems for collection, transportation, and disposal are unable to address the country’s daily production of a large amount of waste. Similarly, most Indian cities and towns lack proper waste control infrastructure, and those that do are obsolete.[3]

Additionally, due to a lack of public participation and understanding, it is challenging to put waste management solutions’ stated goals into effect.[4,5] As a result, there are now unregulated landfills, environmental contamination, and health risks for residents.

Investigating and implementing innovative solid waste management (SWM) technologies may contribute to the circular economy. Implementing these solutions will assist in achieving “RRR” aims, which stand for Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle. This will save natural resources and protect the earth’s ecosystems. This will also provide employment opportunities and generate revenue through the sale of energy and repurposed goods. Therefore, there is an immediate need to support and expand creative approaches for SWM in India.[6,7]

Overall, this narrative review highlights the pioneer solutions for managing solid waste and is crucial for resolving issues faced by Indian cities and establishing a sustainable and circular economy. To scale up these strategies and develop a reliable and equitable waste management system for the nation, it demands greater funds, collaboration, and legislative support.

METHODOLOGY

A thorough search of literature was conducted in 2023–24 to identify relevant information. The authors searched online databases like PubMed, Google Scholar, relevant academic journals, and Google. Keywords such as “Innovative OR Innovation,” “Practice*,” “solid waste management,” “waste recycling,” and “sustainable waste solutions” were utilized to identify pertinent studies or information. Boolean operators were used to yield relevant search results. Given the unique challenges and context of SWM in India, specific emphasis was placed on sourcing literature pertaining to the region. Additional searches were performed using keywords tailored to the Indian context, such as “waste management in India,” “urban sanitation,” and “waste segregation practices.” Due to the scarcity of available literature and scientific case reports, we also considered various online posts, newspaper clippings, reference books, industry reports, and policy documents. These sources provided insights into various innovative solutions for SWM in India for a sustainable future.

THE CURRENT STATE OF SWM IN INDIA

SWM including plastic waste, sanitary waste, and e-waste management is a significant challenge faced by India today. Even while the country has made great strides, much more needs to be done in this area.

The current treatment capability of solid waste in India is concerning. As per the annual report (2020–21) from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) Delhi, India currently generates approximately 160038.9 TPD of solid waste. Out of this total, 95.4% is collected, with only 50% undergoing treatment and 18.4% being disposed of in landfills. Alarmingly, a significant portion, accounting for 31.7% of the total waste generated, remains unaccounted for.[8]

Plastic waste is also now a major issue that India is currently dealing with. According to a Central Pollution Control Board report, every year, India generates approximately 3,469,780 tons of plastic waste, but only 15.62 lakh tons and 1.67 lakh tons are recycled and coprocessed, respectively. This results in the uncollected massive volume of plastic waste contaminating the air, soil, and water.[9]

E-waste is another major concern in India. According to Biswas A and Singh SG 2020, out of 3.23 million tons of e-waste created in India each year, only 10% is recycled by official channels and the rest is recycled by the informal waste management sector. By releasing hazardous chemicals and heavy metals into the environment, this informal management of e-waste endangers the earth’s ecosystems and human health.[10] This is not the only place where this occurs; a CPCB report shows that the pharmaceutical and electronics industries produce staggering amounts of hazardous waste, with 8.78 million tons produced annually, only 5.26 million tons of which are properly processed, recycled, or used.[11]

IMPACT OF IMPROPER SWM

Inadequate handling of solid waste poses substantial, enduring repercussions on the environment and the global circular economy, not only in India but also worldwide. Despite India’s rise to the 7^th position in 2024 from 8^th in 2023 in the Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions and Energy Use categories, indicating a relatively favorable rank, significant strides are necessary in SWM to curtail the emission of potent greenhouse gases. This is essential to make a substantial impact on global warming and contribute effectively to mitigating climate. India has been consistently ranking well in the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI). This showcases the ability to recognize waste not as a mere discard but as a valuable resource with the potential for recovery and recycling through appropriate management.[12,13]

The country’s quick economic expansion has increased production and consumption, which has significantly increased waste generation. In addition, processing waste can be expensive in the absence of a treatment facility. This underscores the significance of transforming waste into an asset. In the absence of Material Recovery Facilities, waste is disposed off in landfills which can pollute soil, water, and air. In addition, processing waste can be expensive, especially when it must be moved across great distances to a landfill or treatment facility.[14,15]

Without adequate management, this waste may have detrimental effects on the earth, such as land, air, and water pollution, as well as on the local community’s wellbeing.[16,17]

VARIOUS INNOVATIVE SOLUTIONS FOR SWM IN INDIA

India’s rapid surge in urbanization and population growth has led to a mounting challenge in SWM. In response, a spectrum of inventive and advanced solutions has surfaced, signaling a promising shift toward sustainable practices.

BIOGAS PRODUCTION FROM VEGETABLE WASTE

Vegetable waste is produced in large quantities in India, and the creation of biogas from this waste has become a viable method of waste management. Here are a few instances of initiatives designed to produce biogas in India using vegetable waste.

Bowenpally market initiative is a project in Hyderabad that uses market-discarded vegetables to create biogas in a biogas plant. This facility was built in 2014 to manage the issue of market waste and generate sustainable energy from it. Daily, the biogas facility can efficiently handle and convert up to five tons of vegetable waste, yielding approximately 200 cubic meters of valuable biogas. This waste is sourced from the market and then carefully transported to the plant, where it undergoes anaerobic processing to yield the desired biogas output. The biogas is first cleaned and stored in gas holders before being given to market sellers for use in cooking and other uses. Numerous social and environmental advantages of this plant exist, like the market produces less waste, which would otherwise fill landfills and cause environmental degradation. Due to its capacity to produce renewable energy from waste, it lessens reliance on non-renewable energy reservoirs. Additionally, employing biogas for various applications, including cooking, provides a healthier option than conventional fuels like wood, charcoal, and LPG. These traditional sources are associated with indoor and outdoor air pollution, which is detrimental to human health. This biogas project at Bowenpally market can be used as a model for similar initiatives in other markets and cities in India because it has successfully decreased waste and provided renewable energy.[18] Implementation of such projects faces various challenges. While they serve as isolated examples of innovation, the ground reality presents hurdles. Lack of proper waste segregation leads to widely varying substrate quality and characteristics, causing deficiencies in the anaerobic digestion process, which is the cornerstone of the biogas mechanism. Additionally, challenges arise from the transportation of waste and the resultant foul odors, which create nuisances. These factors collectively impede the scaling up of this initiative across the country.[19]

Biogas Development and Training Centre (BDTC) initiative is a Uttarakhand-based biogas and organic fertilizer producing project and is a government effort that promotes using biogas as a substitute for traditional energy sources. The center facilitates farmers and households to build up biogas plants using vegetable waste, cow manure, and other organic waste by providing training and support. These facilities can create organic fertilizers for farming as well as biogas for lighting and cooking.[20]

Nilgiri District Cooperative Milk Producer’s Union initiative is a Tamil Nadu’s Nilgiri district-based union that has developed a one cubic meter capacity prototype portable biogas plant that can turn vegetable waste into biogas for lighting and cooking sufficient for three hours of cooking per day. Households and small enterprises can run the plant because it is simple, cost-effective, and easy to operate.[21] Overall, the dual problem of waste management and energy access could be solved in India by producing biogas from vegetable waste, especially in rural regions. These programs show rising support and investment in this environment-friendly method of waste management.

UTILIZATION OF SOLID WASTE TO FABRICATE RECYCLED OR REPURPOSED PRODUCTS

Manufacturing of shoes

A few small-scale businesses have researched the use of waste materials in footwear manufacture, but there are not many operations in India that make shoes from solid trash. Here are the following examples:

Doodlage is a fashion brand established in Delhi that creates eco-friendly clothing and accessories from waste materials. The initiative has just recently begun experimenting with utilizing waste resources in its shoe production, like rubber from old tires and recovered fabrics. Each pair of handmade shoes is exceptional.[22]

Green Sole is an Indian social venture collecting used footwear from urban and rural communities. The shoes are then restored and brand-new shoes are made for youngsters from disadvantaged groups. Additionally, the initiative began making eco-friendly shoes from recycled materials like jute and rubber from old tires.[23]

Thaely, a footwear brand, uses “ThaelyTex” to create its footwear. According to them, ThaelyTex is a specialized recycled plastic substance that resembles leather but is made entirely from used plastic bags. No additional chemicals are needed throughout the production process, and no hazardous byproducts are created. It is intended to be affordable and sustainable with minimal emissions. ThaelyTex is produced in association with TrioTap Technologies in Gurugram, India. The waste management facility of TrioTap Technologies receives the plastic bags from various sites in and around Gurugram and then cleans, sorts, and converts those bags into ThaelyTex. This process of manufacturing reduces carbon emissions while ensuring that waste management workers receive appropriate compensation, secure working environments, and housing options. Their website highlighted the brand’s commitment to safe environmental practices and waste reduction, which is consistent with India’s overall effort for sustainability. While Thaely’s utilization of recycled plastic waste in their footwear represents a commendable step toward sustainability, alternative approaches are essential to fully address the plastic waste dilemma. Prioritizing initiatives that minimize plastic consumption, improve waste management systems, and develop biodegradable or compostable materials is imperative. Despite being in their nascent stages, these endeavors hold significant promise for fostering a circular economy within the Indian footwear industry.[24]

MANUFACTURING OF TILES, FURNITURE, PANELS, MODULES, AND UNITS

Several initiatives in India are underway to produce floor tiles from solid waste, mainly plastic waste.

Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi devised a technology to create floor tiles out of mixed plastic waste. The leftover plastic is first shredded and melted before being combined with quarry dust and a small amount of binder to create a paste-like material. The floor tiles are then made by pressing this mixture into molds. According to experts at IIT Delhi, the tiles produced by this procedure have qualities similar to those of regular ceramic tiles and may be utilized for indoor and outdoor flooring.[25]

Shayna EcoUnified India is another initiative that creates plastic waste floor tiles and designer furniture. The company asserts that its tiles exhibit enhanced durability and endure high levels of foot traffic and even harsh weather elements [Figure 1].[26]

Figure 1.

Tiles and types of furniture from plastic waste. [Source: Shayna EcoUnified][27]

Alternative firms and emerging ventures in India are actively engaged in the development of other diverse range of products from discarded solid waste materials. These programs are a component of India’s larger effort to promote a circular economy and sustainable waste management practices.[28,29]

MANUFACTURING INCENSE STICKS

Incense sticks made from discarded flowers are a historical practice in India, and several businesses and organizations are investigating the commercial possibilities of this eco-friendly method of trash management.[30] Here are a few instances of projects in India that employ wasted flowers to create incense sticks:

HelpUsGreen, a Kanpur-based venture, recycles floral waste from mosques, temples, and other religious buildings into a variety of eco-friendly goods, such as incense sticks, organic vermicompost, organic fertilizers, dyes, and festive goods such as herbal Holi colors.[31] To handcraft these products, the company hires women from underprivileged neighborhoods, and to date, it has given over 200 women job possibilities.

Green Wave, a Bengaluru-based humanitarian venture, transforms floral waste into fragrant incense sticks. To produce the incense sticks by hand, the company hires women from low-income households and purchases flowers from various temples and wedding locations. To help these women learn new skills and secure a living, Green Wave also offers them training and support.[32]

Phool, a start-up from Uttar Pradesh, is a social venture that creates sustainable goods like incense sticks and natural colors using leftover temple flowers. To handcraft these products, the company hires women from neglected neighborhoods, and to date, it has given over 300 women job opportunities. Phool also attempts to empower these women by offering them skills and education to help them enhance their standard of living [Figure 2].[33]

Figure 2.

Incense sticks from discarded floral waste.[Souce: Phool][34]

Overall, these programs not only contribute to lowering the amount of garbage produced by temples and other places of worship but also give women from underrepresented groups a chance to work and support environmentally friendly and sustainable practices in the incense sector.

MANUFACTURING PACKAGING PRODUCTS

Another initiative known as “PAKKA,” which stands for “Packaging with A Soul,” gives an example of effective sustainable waste management to develop ecologically responsible and sustainable packaging solutions. This initiative creates food transport materials, flexible packaging, molded food service ware, and agricultural pulp.[35]

These paper goods are made entirely from agricultural waste, including wheat straw and sugarcane bagasse. Offering an environmentally friendly substitute for conventional paper goods lessens the quantity of agricultural waste that is produced and ensures that everything returns to the earth. The initiative has also taken steps to lessen waste production during the manufacturing process and has embraced lean manufacturing practices, which maximize resource utilization and reduce waste. The initiative also encourages customers to return their used paper products for recycling through an active recycling program and create some of their products using recycled paper as well.[35]

MANUFACTURING STUFFED TOYS, MINI PILLOWS, AND CUSHIONS

A Noida, India-based initiative is recycling wasted cigarette butts and turning them into useful goods. One of the most dangerous regularly found pollutants is the plastic “cellulose acetate” found in cigarette butts, which typically takes hundreds of years to break down and release microplastics into the environment.[36]

The start-up thought of capturing and reusing these wasted cigarette butts and the slight environmental impact they cause. This complex process involves cleaning and sterilizing the butts before using the material to create fluffy soft toys, mini pillows, and cushions. The tobacco that was recovered is sold to local resellers and used in the production of alternate goods [Figure 3].[36]

Figure 3.

Stuffed toys, mini pillows, and cushions from cigarette butts. [Source: Code Effort][37]

BIOINSECTICIDE PRODUCTION FROM CIGARETTE WASTES

Nicotine is an alkaloid found in tobacco. Nicotine is frequently viewed as a viable substitute for conventional pesticides for crop protection due to its short environmental persistence and target pest selectivity. The process involves the collection of cigarette waste in the form of cigarette butts, and the extraction of nicotine filtering and evaporating the extract under vacuum. After careful analysis, it is mixed with palm oil and surfactants to create an emulsion. This emulsion is further subjected to the study of various other parameters before distribution as a bioinsecticide.[36]

ECO-FRIENDLY PAINT FROM COW DUNG

Prakritik Paint, a natural paint made from cow dung, is one instance. The venture was started by Kamdhenu Natural Paints, and its primary ingredient is cow dung. It was developed by Khadi and Village Industries Commission. This paint has antibacterial and antifungal properties in addition to being nontoxic and environmentally safe. Both can be used on interior and exterior walls because of their availability in both distemper and emulsion forms. It profits the farmers and gaushalas as it generates revenue from cow dung [Figure 4].[38]

Figure 4.

Prakritik paint prepared from cow dung

ECO-FRIENDLY DIYA’S, NURSERY POTS, NAME PLATES, AND KEY CHAINS FROM COW DUNG

This is a project of the Chhattisgarh government in association with Self-Help-Group (SHG) women of rural villages in Chhattisgarh. This project is an innovation made possible by the “Narva-Garuva-Ghuruva-Badi” scheme’s novel vision. The word “Garuva” in this name refers to the production of items made from cow dung and cow urine in Gauthans as well as breed enhancement, protection, and promotion.[39] This program’s primary goal is to revitalize the rural economy’s structural foundation. Following this scheme, the old, abandoned cattle kept in gauthans contribute to the villagers’ income. Numerous practical everyday objects, like Diyas, Nursery Pots, Name Plates, Key Chains, and other decorative items, are created from cow dung. These materials can be used for the intended purpose and then disposed off as organic manure in the soil without leaving any toxic residue [Figure 5].[40]

Figure 5.

Various decorative and festive items prepared from cow dung

INSULATING MATERIALS FROM WASTE

Another innovative method of waste recycling is repurposing agricultural byproducts and transforming discarded materials into high-quality insulating panels. Imagine insulating panels crafted from abandoned rice or wheat husks, seamlessly blended with discarded paper waste or recycled polyurethane. These may help India recycle discarded agricultural waste in an eco-friendly and cost-effective way for a sustainable future, thus contributing to both environmental conservation and resource optimization.[41,42]

IMPACT OF USING RECYCLED PRODUCTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Recycled products are the need of the hour due to being environment-friendly in both short and long terms. In the near future, there will be a reduction in the emission of harmful substances and the generation of job opportunities in the waste management sector as well.[41] The long-term impacts are resource conservation, minimizing global warming, and reduced landfilling of waste. Resource conservation is a key component of this since it reduces reliance on raw materials, protecting natural resources like wood, water, and oil. Additionally, handling waste and extracting raw materials both utilize a lot of fuel and energy, which contributes to the production of greenhouse gases and global warming. On the other hand, producing and reusing recycled goods lessens this burden and slows down global warming. Thus, recycling extends the life of the materials, generating less waste to reach landfills and playing a major role in preventing environmental degradation by avoiding waste and land pollution.[43,44]

BARRIERS TO SCALING UP RECYCLED OR REPURPOSED PRODUCTS

Perception of inferiority

Due to generation-old dependence on newer raw materials to utilize virgin material for day-to-day use products, it is a perception that recycled products are inferior in quality as compared to virgin material.[45] Hence, better quality products with awareness creation can overcome this barrier.

Quality inconsistency and contamination

Although India has made significant progress in waste management in recent years after the launch of the Swacchh Bharat Mission in 2016, still, much of the waste is collected un-segregated. This mixed waste not only contaminates the virgin material but also changes its biological and chemical properties such as bacterial load and product quality. This makes the recycled product to be manufactured with fluctuant and variable quality.[45] Appropriate waste segregation and stringent filtering of the waste into designated types can help overcome this problem of quality inconsistency and contamination to yield better-quality recycled products.

Cost parity challenges

Technical difficulties in segregating mixed waste in respective categories and processing it further make recycled products price-competitive with virgin products. This problem can also be overcome by appropriate waste segregation at the source, which will reduce additional processing costs involved in recycling.[45]

Unrecyclable composites

In modern times, many plastic products come in Multi-Layer Packing (MLP), such as tetra packs, chip packets, and different containers to increase the shelf life of the products. These MLPs are difficult to separate and involve high energy costs in recycling them. Hence, manufacturers prefer to make virgin products as compared to recycling these MLPs, leading to many of these MLPs landing in landfills.[45] Problems such as these can only be overcome if these MLPs are replaced by single-item products like glass bottles, metal cans, and paper rappers used in earlier times, which could easily be reused by simply washing, sterilizing, or remolding them.

Regarding scaling up and promoting the use of recycled or repurposed products

From the perspective of policy and practice, community awareness initiatives ought to be put in conjunction with the source segregation education and the usage of recycled materials from the curriculum itself. Enforcing strict segregation laws is necessary to further increase recycling’s efficiency and quality. To make sure that only segregated garbage is collected and processed, it is also necessary to implement capacity-building programs for waste handlers and local authorities. The government may provide tax reductions or rebates to manufacturers who support recycling initiatives, as well as subsidies for recycled goods. Finally, as waste is not waste but rather a resource that must be preserved, investment should be made for infrastructure improvements, regulatory modifications, and more funding for waste management techniques.

Limitations

This review endeavors to provide a thorough overview of the challenges and innovative solutions for SWM in India. It is important to note that this review does not follow a systematic literature review approach, which could have provided a more rigorous and scientific representation of the findings, rendering it more comprehensive. Although we used specific keywords to identify the information from various sources, many possible improvements and answers may have gone unnoticed in the absence of a systematic literature search. Furthermore, this raises the possibility of biases like information bias, selection bias, and publishing bias. Newspapers, reports, and blog clippings are some examples of data sources used in this review that might not be reliable sources of information. Furthermore, the review lacks an in-depth exploration of the socioeconomic, cultural, and policy-related factors that directly or indirectly impact SWM practices across different regions of the country.

Moreover, while the review adopts a narrative structure to explore various initiatives addressing the solid waste issue in India, it acknowledges the absence of concrete evidence or studies to substantiate these claims. Unfortunately, the authors were unable to retrieve published studies regarding these initiatives. As such, the review relies on available information and reports to shed light on the diverse efforts underway to address solid waste challenges in the country.

CONCLUSION

This narrative review focuses on innovative efforts to recycle or repurpose products made from discarded solid waste, including the production of biogas, biopesticide, shoes, floor tiles, incense sticks, packaging products, soft toys, mini pillows, cushions, eco-friendly paint and diyas, nursery pots, nameplates, key chains, and insulating materials. Despite their infancy, these projects and startups have the potential to make a significant contribution to the circular economy. While there are several obstacles to increasing production and community adoption, these sustainable approaches to SWM nevertheless have many benefits. One of these is reducing the amount of waste produced by enhancing SWM, creating sufficient SWM infrastructure, and implementing strategies that support the idea of “Waste to Wealth,” thus creating a cleaner and safer environment. Therefore, incorporating these innovative SWM solutions will help reduce waste in novel manners and cater to Sustainable Development Goals 6 (clean water and sanitation), 7 (affordable and clean energy), 11 (sustainable cities and five communities), 12 (responsible consumption and production), 13 (climate action), 14 (life below water), and 15 (life on land).

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest.

Funding Statement

Nil.