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. 2026 May 15;123(10):275–280. doi: 10.3238/arztebl.m2026.0032

ADHD in Children, Adolescents, and Adults: Incidence, Prevalence, and Treatment

Analysis of Routine Health Insurance Data

Felix Betzler 1,✉, Jana Knop 2, Martina Grönig 2, Patrick Timpel 3, Vukašin Višković 4, Daniel Schöttle 5
PMCID: PMC13288002  PMID: 41867063

Summary

Background:

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common mental disorders in children and adolescents, with symptoms often persisting into adulthood. We studied epidemiology and health care provision for ADHD in Germany by analyzing recent billing data.

Methods:

Anonymized billing data from 2017 to 2023 were examined. Patients with ≥ 2 outpatient or one inpatient ADHD diagnosis were included. Application of the inclusion and exclusion criteria yielded 78 919 ADHD cases for analysis.

Results:

The administrative prevalence of ADHD in 2023 was 3.6% in children/adolescents and 0.6% in adults. In 2023, 40.9% of children and adolescents with ADHD received no treatment, 47.8% were treated with drugs alone, 4.2% were treated with psychotherapy alone, and 7.1% received multimodal therapy. 44.4% of adults with ADHD received no treatment, 38% were treated with drugs alone, 7.6% were treated with psychotherapy alone, and 10% received multimodal therapy. Over the period of observation, the prevalence of ADHD and the frequency of drug treatment, psychotherapy, and multimodal therapy rose slightly.

Conclusion:

This secondary data analysis characterizes the care of ADHD in Germany. In 2023, the administrative prevalence was much lower in adults than in children and adolescents. Over the period of observation, there was a continuous rise in the provision of psychotherapeutic services—especially behavioral therapy—while the percentage of patients treated with neither drugs nor psychotherapy fell; yet overall rates of treatment are still low, particularly for psychotherapy.

A ttention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders. It begins in childhood or adolescence and persists into adulthood in a significant proportion of cases (1, 2).

Epidemiological studies report prevalence estimates of approximately 3–7% for children and adolescents (3–5). ADHD follows a heterogeneous course across the lifespan. Longitudinal studies show that the core symptoms persist into adolescence and adulthood in a proportion of those affected, while others experience partial remission or a change in clinical manifestations. Approximately 15–20% of children with ADHD continue to meet all diagnostic criteria in adulthood, while 40–60% exhibit partial remission with persistent functional impairments (6). The reported prevalence in adulthood varies between approximately 1 and 3%, with the range in prevalence estimates reflecting methodological differences, regional variability, and different diagnostic criteria (1, 2, 7–9). Diagnostic criteria also differ, for example, with regard to the age at which initial symptom onset must have occurred. While the “International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems” (ICD-10) and the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) stipulated symptom onset before age 7, the threshold in the DSM-5 has been raised to 12 years and adopted in the ICD-11. The ICD-11 also permits later symptom onset, thereby lowering the diagnostic threshold.

ADHD is characterized by persistent patterns of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity that can lead to functional impairments in multiple areas of life (8). In addition to psychoeducation and drug treatment, the evidence-based, guideline-compliant treatment of ADHD is also based on a multimodal approach that comprises psychotherapy—in particular behavioral therapy (BT)—and psychosocial measures (10–12). While the American Academy of Pediatrics guideline recommends behavioral therapy as the first-line treatment in preschool children, a combination of stimulant medication (for example, methylphenidate; effect size: standardized mean difference [SMD] = –0.77; 95% confidence interval [CI], −0.90 to −0.64, based on teacher ratings) (13), behavioral therapy (effect size: SMD = 0.42; 95% CI, 0.33 to 0.51, based on parent ratings) (14), and school-based interventions is recommended from school age onward (15). The NICE guideline and the German clinical practice guideline confirm this approach and emphasize the importance of psychoeducation and parental training (10, 16, 17).

In adults, initial psychoeducation followed by drug treatment represents the standard approach. The effect sizes for drug treatments in adults with ADHD range between SMD = −0.35 and −0.66 [−0.94; −0.21] (18). These treatment options are supplemented by cognitive behavioral therapy, the effect size of which is SMD = −0.45. Treatment is tailored to symptom severity, comorbidities, and patient preference (17, 19, 20). Occupational therapy interventions, in particular structured programs such as the Cognitive-Functional (Cog-Fun) intervention in children with ADHD, show moderate to large improvements in executive and everyday functioning (21). In addition, international analyses and consensus statements suggest that occupational therapy in adults with ADHD, by focusing on everyday functioning, represents a useful component in the multimodal care context, the aim of which is to improve self-organization skills and participation in everyday life (22).

In light of this, the present study aims to use health insurance billing data to present administrative prevalence, incidence, and care indicators for ADHD among children, adolescents, and adults in Germany and to describe trends over time. The study focuses on the descriptive analysis of diagnosed cases and treatment services utilized within the statutory health insurance system.

Materials and methods

This retrospective cohort study was based on anonymized routine data from the statutory health insurance (SHI) obtained from the InGef Research Database (approximately 10 million insured individuals) for the period 2017–2023 (eMethods). The data are representative of the SHI population with regard to morbidity, mortality, and drug prescriptions and could be evaluated in the present secondary analysis in compliance with data protection regulations without additional ethics approval.

Insured individuals with at least one inpatient or two confirmed outpatient ADHD diagnoses (ICD-10-GM F90.0) in different quarters were included. Prevalence (2017–2023) and incidence cohorts (2018–2023, without a diagnosis in the previous year) were defined separately for children/adolescents (< 18 years) and adults (≥18 years).

The analysis was conducted on a yearly basis and descriptively. Treatment modalities, hospitalizations, and medical specialist groups were identified based on standardized billing and specialist group codes. To assess robustness, multiple sensitivity analyses were performed (eBox). Reporting was based on the STROSA-2-/STROBE recommendations (eChecklist).

eBox. Sensitivity analyses.

  • Methods
    • –
      To assess robustness, various sensitivity analyses were conducted, including:
      1. Expanded ICD-10 diagnostic criteria (i.e., F90.0 only in the main analysis vs. F90.0, F90.1, F90.8, F98.8, and F90.9 in the sensitivity analysis). F90. includes hyperkinetic disorders: F90.0 (disturbance of activity and attention), F90.1 (hyperkinetic conduct disorder), F90.8 (other hyperkinetic disorders), and F90.9 (hyperkinetic disorder, unspecified). F98.8 covers other specified behavioral and emotional disorders with onset usually occurring in childhood and adolescence.
      2. Less restrictive inclusion criteria in the form of ≥ 1 inpatient or outpatient diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
      3. Adjustment of the diagnosis-free period for incident ADHD cases (1 year versus up to a maximum of 6 years).
  • Results
    • –
      The sensitivity analyses conducted showed decreasing (2017: 38.5%; 2023: 19.7%) relative deviations of the expanded codes (ICD-10 F90.0, F90.1, F90.8, F90.9, F98.8) over the observation period compared with the specific definition (ICD-10 F90.0 only) used in the primary analysis.
    • –
      The less restrictive inclusion criterion of ≥ 1 outpatient ADHD diagnosis resulted in an average deviation of 4.6% between 2017 and 2022. In 2023, the deviation was 15%, owing to the lack of availability of 2024 data, which were required for the inclusion criterion of an additional diagnosis in the following year.
    • –
      The sensitivity analysis applying a longer diagnosis-free period for patients classified as incident cases in 2023 showed that a look-back period of up to 6 years reduced the proportion of incident cases by only 9%.

Results

Description of the population

Of 7 758 093 patients in the database for 2023, 7 278 205 met the inclusion criteria of continuous insurance coverage throughout the entire observation year or of birth or death during this period. A further selection, based on continuous insurance coverage in the SHI during the observation year and the preceding year, reduced the sample to 6 941 858 insured individuals. The application of clinical inclusion criteria relating to the F90.0 diagnosis yielded a final study population of 78 919 insured individuals.

Prevalence and incidence

In 2023, the administrative prevalence of ADHD in Germany was 1.1% (children/adolescents and adults combined), corresponding to approximately 918 000 cases. In the under-18 age group, the prevalence was significantly higher at 3.6% compared to adult patients with ADHD (0.6%). Since 2017, the prevalence in the overall population has risen from 0.8% to 1.1%, which equates to a relative increase of more than 30%. This rise occurred alongside the growing prevalence among adults (+ 89.7%; Figure).

Figure. Trends in prevalence and incidence.

Figure

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in patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), both overall and in the age categories < 18 years and ≥ 18 years for the period from 2017/2018 to 2023.

The decline in prevalence and incidence in 2023 is due to methodological factors, since a second outpatient diagnosis was required in the following year.

Data for 2024 were not available at the time of the analysis.

The incidence of ADHD remained largely stable during the study period and was 0.26% in 2023 (Figure). This corresponds to 217 000 cases in Germany. Since 2018, however, a slight increase in the overall incidence from 0.22% to 0.26% has been observed. This rise was observed primarily in adults, in whom the incidence steadily rose from 0.07% to 0.13% over the same period. In contrast, incidence rates among children and adolescents (< 18 years) fluctuated.

The decline in prevalence and incidence in 2023 can be attributed to methodological reasons, since a second outpatient diagnosis in the following calendar year served as an inclusion criterion. At the time of the analysis, the data for 2024 were not yet available (Figure).

Utilization of healthcare services

Hospitalization

In 2023, 42.7% of children/adolescents and 35.2% of adults with prevalent ADHD had at least one hospitalization (Table 1), regardless of the reason for treatment; cases did not need to be coded for ADHD, either as a main or as a secondary diagnosis, in order to be included. The hospitalization rate among patients with incident ADHD was higher: 53.4% among children/adolescents and 49.9% among adults. Overall hospitalization rates, as well as the rates of hospitalization due to somatic or psychiatric disorders, were also higher among patients with incident ADHD. The greatest difference was seen in hospitalizations for psychiatric disorders (22% versus 38% in 2023 among adults). The hospitalization rate increased slightly over time, while the length of hospital stay remained stable (Table 1).

Table 1. Hospitalizations and length of stay of patients with prevalent ADHD in 2023.
Prevalence Patients with ≥ 1 hospitalization (%) Number of hospitalizations per patient (only patients with ≥ 1 hospitalization) Length of hospital stay (in days) for patients with ≥ 1 hospitalization M (SD)
Children/adolescents (< 18 years)
Psychiatric hospitalization 19.77 2.49 21.03 (30.97)
Somatic hospitalization 26.60 2.07 6.07 (16.22)
Total hospitalizations 42.72 2.47 13.75 (26.13)
Adults (≥ 18 years)
Psychiatric hospitalization 21.97 2.45 25.32 (31.04)
Somatic hospitalization 17.20 1.73 9.79 (19.91)
Total hospitalizations 35.2 2.43 20.69 (29.27)
Total
Psychiatric hospitalization 20.79 2.47 23.13 (31.08)
Somatic hospitalization 22.21 1.95 7.26 (17.58)
Total hospitalizations 39.22 2.45 16.64 (27.69)
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ADHS, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; M, mean; SD, standard deviation

Outpatient specialist visits

Most pediatric and adolescent ADHD patients had at least one visit to a pediatric and adolescent medicine specialist (79%), with the average being six visits. The number of visits to specialists in pediatric and adolescent psychiatry, psychosomatics, psychotherapy, and neurology was somewhat lower (57%, 12 visits). In adult ADHD patients, visits were primarily to specialists in general medicine/internal medicine (96%, nine visits), as well as to specialists in adult psychiatry, psychotherapy, and neurology (57%, 10 visits). eTable 8 provides a detailed analysis of visits to medical specialists in 2023.

Pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment

The proportion of ADHD patients who received no treatment within an observation year increased with age—from 40.9% among children and adolescents to 44.4% among adults (Table 2). Pharmacological therapy was the most commonly utilized treatment modality across all age groups, accounting for 47.8% of children/adolescents and 38.0% of adults. Multimodal treatment (combined pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy), on the other hand, was more common in adults (10.0%) than in children/adolescents (7.1%). Psychotherapy alone was utilized more frequently in adults (7.6%) than in younger patients (4.2%). The proportion of patients who received psychotherapy alone was 5.8% across all ages. More than one in five children/adolescents received occupational therapy (22.4%) (Table 2). A breakdown of treatment groups (no therapy, pharmacotherapy, psychotherapy, multimodal therapy) across the observation period is shown in eFigure 1.

Table 2. Proportions of the various pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments in patients with prevalent ADHD in 2023.

Children/adolescents (< 18 years) Adults (≥ 18 years) Total
No treatment (no pharmacotherapy, no psychotherapy) 40.9% 44.4% 42.5%
Pharmacotherapy only (no psychotherapy) 47.8% 38.0% 43.2%
Psychotherapy only (no pharmacotherapy) 4.2% 7.6% 5.8%
Behavioral therapy only (subcategory of “Psychotherapy only → no pharmacotherapy”) 2.1% 4.7% 3.3%
Multimodal treatment (pharmacotherapy + psychotherapy) 7.1% 10.0% 8.4%
Occupational therapy (regardless of other treatment modalities) 22.4% 3.5% 13.5%
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Only the treatment patterns shown here apply; other treatment modalities not listed here are not included.

ADHD, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

eFigure 1. Proportion of patients with prevalent ADHD.

eFigure 1

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without treatment (no pharmacotherapy, no psychotherapy), with pharmacotherapy only (no psychotherapy), with multimodal therapy (*pharmacotherapy + psychotherapy), or with psychotherapy only (no pharmacotherapy).

ADHD, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

In 2023, 11% of children/adolescents with prevalent ADHD received at least one session of psychotherapy, whereas approximately 18% of adults with prevalent ADHD received psychotherapy (annual utilization of psychotherapy; eTable 7). Children/adolescents received an average of 14.8 psychotherapy sessions per year, while adults attended 13.8 sessions. A similar pattern was observed particularly for BT: approximately 6% of children/adolescents with prevalent ADHD attended at least one BT session, while this figure was 11% among prevalent adults. The average number of BT sessions in the two groups was 14.5 and 13.4, respectively. Overall, approximately 90% of all BT sessions were accounted for by individual therapy sessions, whereas only around 10% were conducted as group therapy (eTable 6).

eTable 7. Proportion of patients with prevalent ADHD receiving treatment, as well as the mean annual number of sessions for PSY or BT by age group.

Year Total Adults (≥ 18 years) Children/adolescents (< 18 years) Total Adults (≥ 18 years) Children/adolescents (< 18 years)
Patients with ≥ 1 PSY prescription (%) Patients with ≥ 1 BT prescription (%)
2017 12.02 14.80 10.78 5.68 7.10 5.05
2018 11.13 13.76 9.82 5.90 7.44 5.14
2019 11.34 13.55 10.14 6.24 7.64 5.49
2020 11.59 13.51 10.44 6.47 7.82 5.67
2021 11.93 13.90 10.61 6.88 8.08 6.08
2022 12.66 15.24 10.64 7.26 8.99 5.91
2023 14.26 17.64 11.28 8.40 10.80 6.30
Sessions per patient (mean) Sessions per patient (mean)
2017 13.11 11.73 13.95 13.74 12.39 14.59
2018 14.12 12.63 15.16 13.52 12.09 14.55
2019 14.12 12.76 15.10 13.25 12.15 14.08
2020 14.23 13.05 15.14 13.33 12.28 14.20
2021 14.52 13.01 15.83 13.60 12.39 14.69
2022 13.72 12.94 14.59 13.06 12.54 13.68
2023 14.23 13.81 14.80 13.85 13.42 14.49
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BT as a proportion of PSY; data refer to utilization per observation year.

ADHD, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; PSY, psychotherapy; BT, behavioral therapy

eTable 6. Comparison of psychotherapy and behavioral therapy utilization by treatment context (individual vs. group) and age group (2023).

Context With ≥ 1 prescription (%)
Children/adolescents (< 18 years) Adults (≥ 18 years)
Prevalent
≥ 1 PSY I 8.97 14.70
G 0.64 1.46
≥ 1 BT I 6.20 10.59
G 0.48 0.92
Incident
≥ 1 PSY I 7.92 20.70
G 0.65 2.29
≥ 1 BT I 5.36 15.13
G 0.48 1.55
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BT as a proportion of PSY; data refer to utilization per observation year.

G, group therapy; I, individual therapy; PSY, psychotherapy; BT, behavioral therapy

In the period from 2017 to 2023, there was a continuous rise in the proportion of ADHD patients receiving BT. Among children/adolescents, the proportion was still 5.1% in 2017, and among adults, 7.1% (eTable 7).

The proportion of pediatric/adolescent patients treated with psychotherapy (or BT) in the group of incident cases (11.2% psychotherapy [5.5% for BT]) was slightly lower than in the group of prevalent cases (11.3% [6.3%]). Among adults, in contrast, a higher proportion of incident cases received psychotherapy (26% for psychotherapy and 15% for BT, with an average of 14.0 and 14.2 sessions, respectively).

Discussion

This secondary data analysis studied the epidemiology and care of patients with ADHD in Germany based on billing data.

The administrative prevalence of ADHD in 2023 was 0.6% for adults and 3.6% for children/adolescents. The overall recorded administrative prevalence of 1.1% was lower than the 1.5% prevalence reported by Bachmann et al. (3) for 2014, but higher than the 0.68% prevalence reported by Libutzki et al. (23). These discrepancies can be explained by methodological factors, in particular differences in the ICD codes used. The stringent case definition (M2Q principle) increases specificity, but can lead to lower prevalence estimates. Sensitivity analyses show moderate robustness with consistent directionality compared to alternative case definitions (eBox).

While epidemiological studies report prevalence estimates of approximately 3–7% for children and adolescents (3–5), meta-analyses in adults in the general population point to a pooled prevalence of around 3.1% [2.60; 3.60] (I2 = 98.9%), whereby, depending on the case definition, higher symptomatic prevalence rates have been described (for example, 2.58% [1.51; 4.45] for persistent ADHD versus 6.76% [4.31; 10.61] for symptomatic ADHD) (9, 24). A persistence rate into adulthood of 47% has also been reported (25). The administrative prevalence rates observed in the present analysis are within this spectrum for children but below it for adults. Administrative SHI billing data typically show lower ADHD prevalence rates (approximately 1–2%) than population-based survey and measurement studies (often around 2.5–5% or higher) (4, 9). This is partly due to the fact that register studies include the entire population as the reference group and therefore report systematically lower prevalence rates (approximately 1.6% [0.9; 3.0]) than survey studies (approximately 5.0% [2.9; 8.6]) or clinical studies (around 4.2–4.8%) (4). Moreover, differences may arise from differing data collection methods, given that billing data capture coded care cases, while population-based surveys include clinical or patient-reported measurements as well as individuals without a documented diagnosis (4, 26, 27). Results of the INTEGRATE-ADHD project also show that only 71.6% of parents report the administrative ADHD diagnosis of their child in surveys (28). Administrative ADHD prevalence rates derived from routine data can reflect the reality of diagnosis and care, but due to selective documentation and reporting effects, they can only be interpreted to a limited extent as direct epidemiological prevalence estimates (28, 29).

An analysis of nationwide outpatient billing data for adult SHI-insured individuals showed an increase in the cumulative incidence of AD(H)D diagnoses by 199% (from 8.6 to 25.7 per 10 000) between 2015 and 2024, particularly among younger individuals and even more so since 2021 (30). Therefore, the increase in incidence and prevalence observed in this analysis may be influenced by increased awareness of ADHD, changes in diagnostic practice, cohort effects, and structural changes in health care provision (31–34). At the same time, potential upcoding needs to be taken into consideration in the context of administrative data, as the increase in documented diagnoses may also occur as a result of financial incentives and changes in the coding system, without necessarily reflecting an actual increase in the disorder (35). A clear distinction between real epidemiological changes and coding or system effects is not possible with billing data (36, 37).

The inpatient psychiatric treatment rate of 22% indicates that routine data tend to reflect patients with greater disease severity, comorbidities, and significant psychological distress.

In the present analysis, 42.5% of ADHD patients received no treatment in 2023 (adults, 44.4% and children/ adolescents, 40.9%), with this proportion steadily declining since 2017. The increasing shares of pharmacologically treated children and adolescents are consistent with national (38–40) and international (31, e1) trends. European comparisons show marked inter-country variability in the utilization of behavioral therapy services (for example, 23–77% in the CAPPA survey), suggesting strongly contextdependent care pathways (e2–e4). Possible explanations for this include clinical heterogeneity (1), lack of desire for treatment, completed or intermittent treatment courses, interventions not relevant for billing purposes (e5, e6), as well as age-related differences in access (2, 3).

For 2018, it was reported that 7.3% of children and adolescents with ADHD received psychotherapy (e7). Our study shows that in 2023, a total of 14.3% of patients received psychotherapy, with adults more likely to utilize psychotherapeutic services than children and adolescents. Riedel et al. (e8) report less than 14% multimodal or purely psychotherapeutic treatment among children, which is consistent with our results for 2023 (11.3% of children/adolescents receiving psychotherapy, 7.1% receiving multimodal therapy). In addition, the share of children and adolescents with at least one occupational therapy session (22.4%) was also higher than that among children without ADHD, confirming previous findings (17).

Strengths and limitations

This analysis is based on billing data, thereby enabling the analysis of data from almost 79 000 patients for 2023. The InGef research database is considered representative of the German population covered by statutory health insurance with regard to morbidity, mortality, and drug prescribing (e9, e10); however, it does not contain information on disease severity or indications for pharmacological or psychotherapeutic treatments. The inclusion of ADHD patients based, among other criteria, on the presence of a total of two outpatient diagnoses in two quarters of an observation year may have led to a slight underestimation of patient numbers. At the same time, case projections for 2023 are underestimated due to right-censoring (cases diagnosed in 2024 fell outside the observation period).

Summary

The administrative prevalence of ADHD was lower among adults in 2023 than among children and adolescents. Over the 2017–2023 period, changes were observed in the documented forms of care, including a declining share of individuals without billed pharmacological or psychotherapeutic treatment, as well as an increase in psychotherapeutic services. Behavioral therapy, in particular, became more important. Overall, however, almost half of patients with ADHD in adulthood received no treatment, and only one in five received psychotherapy.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Roman Spelsberg for his critical review of the manuscript and his valuable comments on the interpretation of the results.

Footnotes

Funding: The study was funded by Takeda Pharma Vertrieb GmbH & Co. KG.

Conflict of interest statement: FB has received speaker’s and/or consultancy fees and/or study funding from Takeda, Medice, and MiNDNET. He is a member of the Advisory Board and has received brochures and other materials from Takeda and Medice.

JK and MG are employed by Takeda.

PT has received speaker’s and/or consultancy honoraria from Takeda.

VV is employed by the InGef Institute, which conducted the data analysis for Takeda.

DS has received speaker’s and/or consultancy fees and/or reimbursement of travel expenses/conference fees and/or study support (third-party funding) and/or is a member of the Steering Boards of Otsuka, Lundbeck, Boehringer Ingelheim, Roche, Janssen Cilag, ROVI, Recordati, Medice, Takeda, and Mindnet. He has received author’s fees from Elsevier, Thieme, Kohlhammer, and Penguin Books.

Supplementary material

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eMETHODS

Materials and Methods

Study design and data sources

This retrospective cohort study was based on anonymized routine data from the statutory health insurance (SHI) obtained from the InGef Research Database. The database includes approximately 10 million insured individuals and, at the time of the analysis, covered the period from 01.01.2017 to 31.12.2023. It is representative of SHI-insured individuals with regard to morbidity, mortality, and drug usage (e9, e10). The claims data used comply with strict German data protection regulations and could be evaluated in this secondary analysis without additional ethics approval.

Study population

Patients with at least one inpatient diagnosis or at least one confirmed outpatient diagnosis of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (F90.0, ICD-10-GM) in two different quarters of two calendar years were included. Cohorts were formed separately according to age group (< 18 years and ≥ 18 years), as well as prevalence (2017–2023) and incidence (2018–2023, no ADHD diagnosis in the preceding year). The exclusion criterion was lack of continuous SHI coverage in the respective observation year, except in cases of birth or death (eFigure 2).

eFigure 2.

eFigure 2

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Selection of the study population

Variables

All variables were evaluated on a yearly basis. Hospitalizations that spanned calendar years were assigned to the year of discharge. Psychiatric hospitalizations were defined as inpatient cases in psychiatric, child and adolescent psychiatric, or psychosomatic specialist departments (specialist department codes 29–31), provided they were not billed as DRG (diagnosis-related groups) cases. The underlying diagnoses were not considered here. Combination treatments, such as multimodal therapies, were classified without regard to the order in which they were provided. To analyze the proportion of patients receiving pharmacotherapy or psychotherapy, the corresponding codes (eTables 1–4) were used. The treating specialist groups were systematically aggregated into four ADHDrelevant categories based on LANR (“lifelong physician number”) specialist group codes (I, general medicine/- internal medicine; II, adult psychiatry/psychotherapy/ neurology; III, pediatric and adolescent medicine; IV, pediatric and adolescent psychiatry and psychotherapy) and evaluated according to their discipline-specific classification (eTable 5).

Annex-Tabelle 1. ATC-Codes zum Aufgriff ADHS-bezogener pharmakologischer Versorgung.

ATC AnatomischTherapeutisch-Chemisches Klassifikationssystem

Substanz ATC
Psychostimulanzien
Methylphenidat
…sofortfreisetzend
…verzögerte Freisetzung		 N06BA04
Dexamfetamin N06BA02
Lisdexamfetamin N06BA12
Andere (SNRI, Alpha-2-Rezeptoragonist)
Atomoxetin N06BA09
Guanfacin C02AC02
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Annex-Tabelle 4. Codes zur Identifikation von Ergotherapie.
Abrechenbare Leistung Code*
Befunderhebung X4001&X4002
Einzelbehandlung X4101 – X4112
Gruppenbehandlung X4201 – X4213
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*

Heilmittel unter Verwendung von Kodierungen aus dem Bundeseinheitlichen Positionsnummernverzeichnis für Heilmittelleistungen

Annex-Tabelle 5. Definition der ADHS-relevanten ärztlichen Facharztgruppen (LANR).
LANR Disziplin # Kategorie
1 Allgemeinmedizin I Allgemeinmedizin/Innere Medizin
2 hausärztlicher Praktischer Arzt/Arzt ohne Facharzt-Weiterbildung I Allgemeinmedizin/Innere Medizin
3 hausärztliche Innere Medizin I Allgemeinmedizin/Innere Medizin
23 fachärztliche Innere Medizin I Allgemeinmedizin/Innere Medizin
34 hausärztliche Kinder- und Jugendmedizin III Kinder- und Jugendmedizin
38 hausärztliche Neuropädiatrie/ Kinderneuropsychiatrie IV Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und - psychotherapie
40 fachärztliche Kinder- und Jugendmedizin III Kinder- und Jugendmedizin
44 fachärztliche Neuropädiatrie/Kinderneuropsychiatr ie IV Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und-psychotherapie
46 Kinder- und Jugendmedizin mit Schwerpunkt u. Teilnahme an der HA/FA-Versorgung III Kinder- und Jugendmedizin
47 Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und - psychotherapie IV Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und-psychotherapie
51 Nervenheilkunde/Neurologie und Psychiatrie II Erwachsenenpsychotherapie/- psychiatrie/Neuro
53 Neurologie II Erwachsenenpsychotherapie/- psychiatrie/Neuro
58 Psychiatrie/Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie II Erwachsenenpsychotherapie/-psychiatrie/Neuro
60 Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie II Erwachsenenpsychotherapie/- psychiatrie/Neuro
61 Psychotherapeutisch tätiger Arzt II Erwachsenenpsychotherapie/- psychiatrie/Neuro
68 Psychologischer Psychotherapeut II Erwachsenenpsychotherapie/- psychiatrie/Neuro
69 Kinder- und JugendlichenPsychotherapeut IV Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und-psychotherapie
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Statistical analysis

The data were analyzed descriptively and by age group. All statistical analyses were performed using R (version 4.0.2). No imputation of missing values was carried out.

To test robustness, sensitivity analyses were conducted using expanded ICD-10 diagnostic criteria (F90.0 in the main analysis versus F90.0/F90.1/F90.8/F90.9/F98.8), less restrictive inclusion criteria (≥ 1 inpatient or outpatient ADHD diagnosis), and varying diagnosis-free periods for the definition of incident cases (1 year versus up to 6 years) (eBox).

Reporting followed the list of criteria for a consensus German reporting standard for secondary data analyses (STROSA 2) (eChecklist) (e11), an extension of the STROBE (Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology) statement (e12).

STROSA 2 Checklist

Item STROSA 2 Kriterium Seite
Titel, Abstract, Schlagworte
1 Titel und Abstract 1,3
2 Schlagworte 4
Einleitung
3 Hintergrund und Rationale 5
4 Zielsetzungen 5
Methoden
5 Studiendesign 6
6 Datenquelle 6
7 Rechtsgrundlage 6
8 Datenschutz 6
9 Datenfluss 6
10 Auswahlkriterien 6
11 Analyseeinheit 6
12 Variablen 6
13 Studiengröße 7
14 Statistische Methoden 6–7
Ergebnisse
15 Selektion der Studienpopulation 7
16 Deskriptive Ergebnisse 7–12
17 Hauptergebnisse 7–12
18 Weitere Ergebnisse 12
Diskussion
19 Hauptergebnisse 13
20 Interne Validität und Risiko von Verzerrungen 12
21 Stärken und Schwächen 14
22 Interpretation 13–14
23 Übertragbarkeit 14
Schlussfolgerungen
24 Fazit 15
Interessenkonflikte
25 Finanzierung #
26 Rolle der Dateneigner 6
27 sonstige Interessenkonflikte 1
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Annex-Tabelle 1 STROSA 2 Checklist

Annex-Tabelle 1. Anteil prävalenter ADHS Patienten mit Facharztkontakt stratifiziert nach Fachdisziplin (LANR).

Altersgruppe LANR Facharztgruppe %
Erwachsene (>18 Jahre) alle Mindestens ein Kontakt zu einer der präspezifizierten Facharztgruppe 99,79
1 Allgemeinmedizin 80,26
2 hausärztlicher Praktischer Arzt/Arzt ohne FacharztWeiterbildung 9,11
3 hausärztliche Innere Medizin 46,60
23 fachärztliche Innere Medizin 3,73
34 hausärztliche Kinder- und Jugendmedizin 2,97
38 hausärztliche Neuropädiatrie/Kinderneuropsychiatrie 0,08
40 fachärztliche Kinder- und Jugendmedizin 0,14
44 fachärztliche Neuropädiatrie/Kinderneuropsychiatrie 0,11
46 Kinder- und Jugendmedizin mit Schwerpunkt u. Teilnahme an der HA/FA Versorgung 0,68
47 Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und -psychotherapie 7,10
51 Nervenheilkunde/Neurologie und Psychiatrie 16,15
53 Neurologie 14,17
58 Psychiatrie/Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie 29,68
60 Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie 1,90
61 Psychotherapeutisch tätiger Arzt 3,31
68 Psychologischer Psychotherapeut 19,09
69 Kinder- und Jugendlichen-Psychotherapeut 3,19
andere 84,99
Kinder/ Jugendliche (<18 Jahre) alle Mindestens ein Kontakt zu einer der präspezifizierten Facharztgruppe 99,75
1 Allgemeinmedizin 32,32
2 hausärztlicher Praktischer Arzt/Arzt ohne FacharztWeiterbildung 3,66
3 hausärztliche Innere Medizin 11,68
23 fachärztliche Innere Medizin 0,38
34 hausärztliche Kinder- und Jugendmedizin 73,92
38 hausärztliche Neuropädiatrie/Kinderneuropsychiatrie 2,04
40 fachärztliche Kinder- und Jugendmedizin 3,00
44 fachärztliche Neuropädiatrie/Kinderneuropsychiatrie 2,81
46 Kinder- und Jugendmedizin mit Schwerpunkt u. Teilnahme an der HA/FA Versorgung 13,95
47 Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und -psychotherapie 47,34
51 Nervenheilkunde/Neurologie und Psychiatrie 0,31
53 Neurologie 0,44
58 Psychiatrie/Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie 0,25
60 Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie 0,05
61 Psychotherapeutisch tätiger Arzt 0,42
68 Psychologischer Psychotherapeut 1,03
69 Kinder- und Jugendlichen-Psychotherapeut 15,37
andere 78,77
Insgesamt alle At least 1 of the pre-defined FGs (Protocol, Table 5) 99,76
1 Allgemeinmedizin 54,74
2 hausärztlicher Praktischer Arzt/Arzt ohne FacharztWeiterbildung 6,21
3 hausärztliche Innere Medizin 28,01
23 fachärztliche Innere Medizin 1,95
34 hausärztliche Kinder- und Jugendmedizin 40,74
38 hausärztliche Neuropädiatrie/Kinderneuropsychiatrie 1,13
40 fachärztliche Kinder- und Jugendmedizin 1,66
44 fachärztliche Neuropädiatrie/Kinderneuropsychiatrie 1,55
46 Kinder- und Jugendmedizin mit Schwerpunkt u. Teilnahme an der HA/FA Versorgung 7,75
47 Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und -psychotherapie 28,52
51 Nervenheilkunde/Neurologie und Psychiatrie 7,72
53 Neurologie 6,86
58 Psychiatrie/Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie 14,01
60 Psychosomatische Medizin und Psychotherapie 0,91
61 Psychotherapeutisch tätiger Arzt 1,77
68 Psychologischer Psychotherapeut 9,48
69 Kinder- und Jugendlichen-Psychotherapeut 9,67
andere 81,68
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Appendix. Liste verwendeter Codes und Operationalisierungen

Annex-Tabelle 2. Codes zur Unterscheidung zwischen Einzel- und Gruppenpsychotherapie.

Einzeltherapie Gruppentherapie
Psychotherapie Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Einzelbehandlung)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Einzelbehandlung)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit 1, Einzelbehandlung)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit 2, Einzelbehandlung)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Einzelbehandlung)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Einzelbehandlung)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit 1, Einzelbehandlung)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit 2, Einzelbehandlung)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Einzelbehandlung)		 Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, große Gruppe)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, große Gruppe)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, kleine Gruppe)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, kleine Gruppe)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 3 Teilnehmern)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 4 Teilnehmern)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 5 Teilnehmern)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 6 Teilnehmern)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 7 Teilnehmern)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 8 Teilnehmern)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 9 Teilnehmern)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 3 Teilnehmern)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 4 Teilnehmern)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 5 Teilnehmern)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 6 Teilnehmern)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 7 Teilnehmern)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 8 Teilnehmern)
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 9 Teilnehmern)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Gruppenbehandlung)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 4 Teilnehmern)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 5 Teilnehmern)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 6 Teilnehmern)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 7 Teilnehmern)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 8 Teilnehmern
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 9 Teilnehmern)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 3 Teilnehmern)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 4 Teilnehmern)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 5 Teilnehmern)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 6 Teilnehmern)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 7 Teilnehmern)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 8 Teilnehmern)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 9 Teilnehmern)
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 3 Teilnehmern)
Verhaltenstherapie Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Einzelbehandlung)
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Einzelbehandlung)
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit 1, Einzelbehandlung)
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit 2, Einzelbehandlung)
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Einzelbehandlung)		 Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, kleine Gruppe)
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, kleine Gruppe)
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, große Gruppe)
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, große Gruppe)
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 3 Teilnehmern)
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 4 Teilnehmern)
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 5 Teilnehmern)
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 6 Teilnehmern)
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 7 Teilnehmern)
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 8 Teilnehmern)
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 9 Teilnehmern)
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 3 Teilnehmern)
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 4 Teilnehmern)
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 5 Teilnehmern)
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 6 Teilnehmern)
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 7 Teilnehmern)
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 8 Teilnehmern)
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 9 Teilnehmern)
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Annex-Tabelle 3. Codes für die Identifikation von Psychotherapie und Verhaltenstherapie anhand des einheitlichen Bewertungsmaßstabs, [EBM].

Abrechenbare Leistung Code*
Entspannungsverfahren (Einzelbehandlung) 35111
Entspannungsverfahren (Gruppenbehandlung) 35113
Probatorische Sitzung 35150
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Einzelbehandlung)” 35200
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Einzelbehandlung)” 35201
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, große Gruppe)” 35202
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, große Gruppe) 35203
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, kleine Gruppe) 35205
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, kleine Gruppe) 35208
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit 1, Einzelbehandlung) 35401
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit 2, Einzelbehandlung) 35402
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Einzelbehandlung) 35405
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 3 Teilnehmern) 35503
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 4 Teilnehmern) 35504
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 5 Teilnehmern) 35505
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 6 Teilnehmern) 35506
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 7 Teilnehmern) 35507
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 8 Teilnehmern) 35508
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 9 Teilnehmern) 35509
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 3 Teilnehmern)” 35513
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 4 Teilnehmern) 35514
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 5 Teilnehmern) 35515
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 6 Teilnehmern) 35516
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 7 Teilnehmern) 35517
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 8 Teilnehmern) 35518
Tiefenpsychologisch fundierte Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 9 Teilnehmern) 35519
Analytische Psychotherapie (Einzelbehandlung) 35210
Analytische Psychotherapie (Gruppenbehandlung) 35211
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit 1, Einzelbehandlung) 35411
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit 2, Einzelbehandlung) 35412
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Einzelbehandlung) 35415
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 3 Teilnehmern) 35523
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 4 Teilnehmern) 35524
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 5 Teilnehmern) 35525
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 6 Teilnehmern) 35526
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 7 Teilnehmern) 35527
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 8 Teilnehmern” 35528
Analytische Psychotherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 9 Teilnehmern) 35529
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 3 Teilnehmern) 35533
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 4 Teilnehmern) 35534
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 5 Teilnehmern) 35535
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 6 Teilnehmern) 35536
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 7 Teilnehmern) 35537
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 8 Teilnehmern) 35538
Analytische Psychotherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 9 Teilnehmern) 35539
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Einzelbehandlung) 35220
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Einzelbehandlung) 35221
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, kleine Gruppe) 35222
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, kleine Gruppe) 35223
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, große Gruppe) 35224
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, große Gruppe) 35225
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit 1, Einzelbehandlung) 35421
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit 2, Einzelbehandlung) 35422
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Einzelbehandlung) 35425
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 3 Teilnehmern) 35543
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 4 Teilnehmern) 35544
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 5 Teilnehmern) 35545
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 6 Teilnehmern) 35546
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 7 Teilnehmern) 35547
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 8 Teilnehmern) 35548
Verhaltenstherapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppe mit 9 Teilnehmern) 35549
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 3 Teilnehmern) 35553
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 4 Teilnehmern) 35554
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 5 Teilnehmern) 35555
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 6 Teilnehmern) 35556
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 7 Teilnehmern) 35557
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 8 Teilnehmern) 35558
Verhaltenstherapie (Langzeit, Gruppe mit 9 Teilnehmern) 35559
Systemische Therapie (Kurzzeit, Einzelbehandlung) 35431
Systemische Therapie (Langzeit, Einzelbehandlung) 35435
Systemische Therapie (Kurzzeit, Gruppenbehandlung) 35703 bis
35709
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