Factors influencing anime-generated parasocial relationships: a systematic review

Abstract

Background

Anime has grown from Japanese art form into a global phenomenon, captivating diverse audiences. Its vivid storytelling, expressive characters, and digital accessibility have created a worldwide fandom, influencing entertainment preferences, social behaviors, identity, and emotional well-being. Parasocial relationships (PSRs) are one-sided psychological bonds that individuals form with anime characters. Despite anime's popularity, research has not fully examined the determinants that contribute to the formation and development of PSRs with anime characters. This review aims to systematically synthesize current evidence on these determinants and the underlying theories related to parasocial relationships.

Methods

The aim is to study the determinants influencing anime-generated PSRs and theoretical explanations of those determinants. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, systematic search was conducted across different databases. Inclusion criteria focused on studies that empirically examined PSRs with anime characters, excluding those related to other media forms or lacking direct PSR measures. Risk of bias was assessed using the JBI checklists, and thematic synthesis was used to extract and organize findings.

Results

This systematic review synthesized findings from nine empirical studies (quantitative and qualitative) involving participants aged 18–60 years. Thematic synthesis identified nine key determinants influencing the formation, deepening (identification & projection, personality, long-term anime consumption, sense of belonging), and psychological outcomes (social behaviour, emotional regulation, coping/stress relief, self-discovery, purchasing intention) of anime-generated parasocial relationships (PSRs).

Conclusions

The review shows that PSRs with anime characters may be associated with emotions, identity, and coping, offering support but also posing risks like overattachment. These findings may help therapists, teachers, and media creators use characters in helpful ways while encouraging balanced and healthy media use.

Introduction

Anime, originating in Japan, has become a global cultural phenomenon, captivating diverse audiences with its vivid visuals, expressive characters, and emotionally rich storytelling [40]. While rooted in Japanese culture, anime often transcends cultural boundaries, aided by its "cultural odorlessness" that makes it widely accessible to international viewers [8, 15, 27].

Online platforms have significantly expanded anime’s global reach, transforming it into a major cultural force embedded in everyday life. This increased accessibility has not only amplified audience engagement but has also translated into substantial commercial success, as reflected in the U.S. box office performance of Demon Slayer: Mugen Train [51]. Owing to its wide audience reach, anime is widely praised for its emotional depth and rich narrative complexity [48]. While streaming services offer escapism and immersive entertainment, excessive consumption may be associated with negative outcomes, paralleling patterns observed in video game addiction. Consequently, existing research on anime has largely examined its socio-political and cultural contexts, as well as its growing global popularity and influence [15, 40].

Anime has emerged as a globally influential media form, marked by sustained and intensive audience engagement across cultures. In particular, Chinese audiences, representing the largest fan base of Japanese comics and animation, suggest long-term consumption patterns, spending an average of more than 10 h per week engaging with anime over approximately a decade [15]. Beyond regional popularity, Japanese animation holds a dominant position in the global media landscape, accounting for nearly 60% of the worldwide animation broadcast market. This reach is further evidenced by a 2020 Netflix report showing that nearly one-third of users across European, American, and Asian markets viewed Japanese anime content, underscoring its global appeal [50].

According to Karhulahti and Välisalo [31], findings reveal that some of the anime viewers have developed a romantic interest in an anime character. Leshner et al. [33] finds that men tend to form sexual connections with characters, while women tend to form emotional connections, with gender being a predictor for the type of connection formed and reports that sexual connections are associated with the character’s appearance and similarity of self to the viewer, while emotional connections are associated with the character’s personality and similarity to the viewer.

Cultivation theory provides an interpretive lens for how prolonged television exposure shapes viewers' perceptions, particularly among heavy viewers who come to see the world as reflected on screen [39, 49]. Social comparison theory similarly frames how people evaluate themselves against media ideals, leading to selective worldviews. These portrayals not only cultivate such perceptions but also facilitates the formation of parasocial relationships (PSR), one-sided psychological bonds with media figures, including anime characters [7, 13, 16].

PSRs are enduring one-sided psychological relationships with perceived intimacy & lack of reciprocity that persist beyond media exposure. In contrast, parasocial interactions (PSI) refer to brief, illusory exchanges during media exposure, while parasocial experiences capture the immediate emotional responses to media figures (Tukachinsky & Sangalang 2016). These distinctions highlight how transient interactions and feelings can accumulate into lasting PSRs. These PSRs may feel emotionally deep, often mirroring real-life relationships despite their unidirectional nature [16, 28]. Their development draws on social attraction, perceived similarity, repeated exposure to characters, and shared activities like co-viewing or fandom discussions [16, 43]. Researchers outline three progressive levels of PSRs: entertainment-Social where the character is seen as a source of entertainment and casual interest, intense-Personal, viewer develops strong emotional attachments, & borderline-Pathological, the bond becomes obsessive, with viewers experiencing uncontrollable thoughts or behaviors related to the character [17].

The emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses within PSRs include sharing emotions, mimicking behaviors, and forming interpersonal expectations [9, 59]. Drawing on Social comparison theory [14], researchers have suggested that viewers compare themselves with admired anime characters, impacting self-esteem and motivating personal growth or feelings of inadequacy [60].

Theories suggest how media figures serve as models for behavior, emotional regulation, and identity formation. This is particularly significant in anime fandoms, where characters often act as emotional anchors, aiding in stress management, self-exploration, and social affiliation. PSR supports self-reflection, fulfills attachment needs, and reinforces a sense of belonging within fan communities [30, 61]. Within these communities, shared emotional investments in characters strengthen peer bonds and collective identity, making PSR a socially embedded experience rather than a solitary one. Beyond emotional fulfillment, PSRs serve as models for behavior and interpersonal expectations. Fans may imitate admired characters’ traits, speech, and moral stances, influencing how they navigate real-world social contexts [62].

Despite the expanding influence of anime culture, there remains a significant gap in research specifically addressing the unique nature, development, and impact of PSRs within the anime community. Existing studies suggest that these one-sided bonds may play a vital role in helping individuals manage stress, regulate emotions, and explore aspects of their identity, often serving as powerful tools for personal development and psychological coping. However, the literature also indicates potential risks, such as social withdrawal, blurred boundaries between fiction and reality, and overdependence, which are not yet fully understood or systematically documented in anime contexts.

Existing literature has focused narrowly on whether PSRs develop, demographic differences, and the effects of heavy anime consumption, with limited exploration of the underlying mechanisms, character traits that foster these relationships, and their long-term socioemotional effects. There is also a lack of longitudinal studies, genre-specific analyses, and cross-cultural comparisons that would provide a deeper understanding of how these relationships evolve and influence viewers over time. Furthermore, the role of fan communities, online interactions, and collective experiences in shaping and reinforcing PSRs remains underexplored.

Given these gaps, there is a clear need for a comprehensive synthesis of the available evidence to clarify the factors influencing anime-based PSRs and to assess both their positive and negative outcomes.

Research question

1. What are the factors influencing anime-generated PSRs?

2. What are the theoretical explanations of the factors influencing anime-generated PSRs?

Aim and objective

To study the factors influencing anime-generated PSRs and theoretical explanations of those factors.

Methodology

Protocol and registration

The protocol for this systematic review was prospectively registered with PROSPERO and is publicly available under registration number CRD42024590383 on 13 September 2024.

Eligibility criteria

Inclusion criteria

• Studies that specifically investigate Japanese anime as the medium for PSR formation, including PSI processes relevant to PSR development.

• Empirical studies (quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods) that directly assess PSRs with anime characters or PSI as a mechanism contributing to PSR, including their development or maintenance.

• Studies exploring psychological, social, or emotional factors contributing to PSR formation with anime characters.

• English-language empirical studies published in peer-reviewed journals or academically rigorous theses/dissertations, with full text available.

Exclusion criteria

• Studies focusing on PSRs with characters from cartoons, comics, video games, virtual influencers, or live-action media.

• Studies that address general media use, media addiction, or fandom without a specific focus on PSRs with anime characters

• Studies that only analyze creators, producers, or critics of anime, rather than the viewers

• Studies that do not directly measure or discuss PSRs, or where the relationship is inferred but not explicitly analysed

• Studies that group anime with other animation or media forms without separate analysis

• Studies published in other languages except for English, reviews, essays, conference abstracts, letters, and commentaries.

• Studies for which full text is unavailable and/or includes an ambiguous design

Operational definitions

Parasocial relationship

A PSR is a one-sided psychological bond where an individual feels connected to a media character, including an anime character, without mutual interaction or real-life communication.

Anime

Anime is a style of animated entertainment originating from Japan, characterized by diverse genres, vivid artistry, and distinctive storytelling techniques. It encompasses television series, films, and web animations that often blend fantasy, science fiction, and cultural themes, appealing to a wide range of audiences globally.

Information sources

Significant digital search engines such as ScienceDirect, PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar were searched by using appropriate keywords. To appropriately combine the search phrases, the appropriate Boolean operators that follow AND, OR, and NOT were applied. Primary Research articles in Journals such as the Journal of Social Interactions and Humanities (JSIH), the International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research (IJFMR), and The International Journal of Research into New Media Technologies were searched independently and a reference list of the selected studies was manually examined to search for additional empirical evidence. Before final analyses, searches were re-run to identify records that could be retrieved for inclusion.

Search strategy

The search strategy was developed following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, aiming to maximize sensitivity while maintaining specificity to the review topic. Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) and quotation marks were utilized to combine relevant keywords effectively. The search was limited to peer-reviewed journal articles published in the English language between January 2000 and July 2025, thereby capturing contemporary developments in the study of PSRs (PSRs) related to anime. Grey literature, including conference abstracts, dissertations, theses, and non-peer-reviewed sources, was excluded to maintain the methodological rigor of the review.

ScienceDirect

“Parasocial relationship” AND “anime” OR “Japanese Animation”

PubMed

((((Parasocial relationship[Title/Abstract] OR para-social relationship[Title/Abstract] AND anime[Title/Abstract] OR Japanese animation[Title/Abstract]) NOT (virtual media[Title/Abstract])) NOT (social media[Title/Abstract])) NOT (fictional characters[Title/Abstract])) NOT (cartoon[Title/Abstract]).

Google Scholar

“Parasocial relationship” AND “anime” OR “Japanese animation”

Scopus

“Parasocial relationship” AND “anime” OR “Japanese animation”

Selection process

After conducting comprehensive searches across relevant databases and exporting all retrieved references into Zotero, the first step is to remove duplicate records to avoid bias and redundancy. Screening was conducted in two main stages: title & abstract screening and full-text screening. In the first stage, two reviewers examined the titles and abstracts of each article to quickly eliminate studies that are clearly irrelevant to the research question or do not meet the inclusion criteria. The second stage involved retrieving and reviewing the full text of the remaining articles. Here, both reviewers assessed each study in detail to verify whether it met all eligibility criteria, such as population characteristics, intervention types, outcomes measured, and study design. Reasons for exclusion were documented for transparency and reproducibility, and these were reported in the PRISMA flow diagram. Screening was performed by the reviewers, and the disagreements were resolved through discussion.

Data collection process

Data extraction was conducted by two reviewers independently based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. The process began with the development of a data collection form or template, based on the review’s protocol and tailored to capture all information required to answer the research question. This includes fields for study characteristics (such as authors, year, country, and study design), participant details, interventions, results, and information relevant to assessing risk of bias. Reviewers used spreadsheets to facilitate data extraction. The required information was extracted from the full text of each included study. After extraction, the reviewers compared the results; any discrepancies were resolved through discussion. The extracted data were then organized as a table in the final review.

Risk of bias

The JBI (Joanna Briggs Institute) checklist assessment was used in the review to appraise the methodological quality and trustworthiness of studies. To assess study quality using the JBI checklist, reviewers first selected the checklist specific to the study design. Checklist for analytical cross-sectional studies & qualitative studies were used in this review. Each checklist includes key criteria covering study design, methodology, and reporting. Reviewers evaluate each item, marking "Yes," "No," "Unclear," or "Not applicable" based on the study’s information, and provide brief comments if needed. This ensures a systematic and transparent appraisal of methodological quality.

In order to reduce any bias during the process of quality assurance, two authors had independently applied the tool among all the included studies. Except for minor differences of opinion, no major conflicts had occurred. The disagreements were resolved through references to literature and open discussions. Once all criteria have been appraised, an overall judgment was made regarding the study’s inclusion, exclusion, or the need for further information. This overall appraisal was documented along with any comments or reasons for exclusion. The results of the JBI checklist assessments were then incorporated into the synthesis of evidence, helping reviewers judge the quality and credibility of the included studies and informing the interpretation of the review’s findings.

Synthesis methods

This systematic review employed thematic synthesis to investigate the various factors influencing anime-generated PSRs drawing on established methodological literature [63]. The process involved three clearly defined stages: (1) line-by-line coding of the extracted data; (2) development of descriptive themes through the grouping of conceptually related codes; and (3) generation of higher-order analytical themes that addressed the review objectives. After completing the data extraction phase, an extrinsic review of articles was done. Then the data was systematically coded. This involved identifying interesting features, recurring ideas, or significant statements within the extracted data. Systematic coding focused primarily on results sections of included studies to capture empirical outcomes, with discussion sections reviewed secondarily for interpretive context. Introductions were excluded from coding, as they mainly provide theoretical framing rather than empirical data. Coding was conducted inductively, allowing themes to emerge from the data, while the development of analytical themes was guided by the review questions to maintain conceptual relevance. Coding decisions were iteratively reviewed and refined across studies. Similar codes were grouped together to form potential themes & overlapping themes were merged. With respect to the inclusion of different study designs, qualitative, and quantitative studies were handled differently during synthesis. For qualitative studies, thematic synthesis was employed to capture patterns in meanings, experiences, and interpretations. For quantitative studies with clearly defined variables, findings were treated descriptively and integrated narratively to complement the thematic synthesis rather than being subjected to statistical aggregation.

The themes were then reviewed whether the themes accurately reflect the coded data and the overall dataset. Once the themes were finalized, themes were defined and named. In total, nine distinct themes were identified through this process. Throughout the process, researchers maintained transparency and rigor by documenting all coding decisions, the development and refinement of themes, and any challenges encountered, and also utilized visual tools such as coding matrices and thematic maps to support the analysis and enhance analytic transparency. Coding disagreements were resolved collaboratively through researcher discussion until full consensus was achieved.

Study selection

With the specified keywords, the initial database search turned up 710 entries. 689 articles were chosen for title and abstract reading after 21 duplicates were eliminated. Screening disagreements were resolved through discussion between reviewers until consensus was reached. Thus, out of the 689 articles, 21 were deemed eligible for inclusion based on the established criteria. Four articles' complete texts could not be found. Six papers were eliminated from the full-text search of the retrieved publications because they lacked an anime population, and two papers were removed that lacked PSR. Nine papers were included for quantitative synthesis following full-text screening. The PRISMA flowchart illustrating the process of study selection is presented in Fig. 1. Adults in the age range of 18 to 60 made up the participants. Throughout the chosen research, several questionnaires were used to measure PSR. Only nine studies, both quantitative and qualitative, conducted globally till 2025, were included, reflecting strict inclusion criteria and a focused synthesis on anime-related PSRs. This approach ensured methodological rigor and relevance within this emerging research area.

Fig. 1.

Prisma flowchart

Result

This systematic review synthesized findings from nine empirical studies exploring the development and impact of PSRs with anime characters (Table 1). Table 2 presents the study characteristics of these nine studies. Thematic synthesis revealed two primary categories: determinants of PSR formation (four key themes) and psychosocial outcomes/functions (five key themes), supported by theoretical frameworks including Parasocial Interaction Theory, Social Influence Theory, Cultivation Theory, Social Comparison Theory, and Behavior Theory.

Table 1.

Author, year, methodology, and the scores of the JBI checklist

Sl No	Author & Year	Methodology	Sample	Quality
1.	Kakarla & Aiswarya [30]	This qualitative study used semi-structured interviews, selecting participants with a Parasocial Relationships Scale (PRS) score above 100	8 participants aged 18–25	7
2.	Zafira et.al. [56]	A quantitative research approach was used, employing a Likert scale for data collection via a Google Form survey with random sampling	Gen Z individuals between 15–25 years	4
3.	Goncalves et.al., [19]	The survey targeted regular anime viewers, using a screening question to filter participants. It measured reasons for watching with a 20-item, five-option scale, assessed fandom degree via six binary questions on typical experiences, and viewing frequency by self-reported weekly episodes	568 participants	8.5
4.	Ramasubramanian & Kornfield 60	A quantitative survey investigated the types and strength of audience-heroine relationships among American anime and manga fans, evaluating parasocial interaction through items on parasocial maintenance, emotions, and direct imitation	385 adults	10
5.	Pua [41]	A web-based, self-administered survey with 36 closed-ended questions was distributed to 310 Malaysian university students using convenience, snowball, and voluntary response sampling	310 Malaysian Anime using students	8
6.	Shariffadeen et.al., [46]	This quantitative study used a cross-sectional online survey, employing purposive sampling to recruit only Netflix users, screened by Netflix access. Participants identified a favorite Netflix character or celebrity from their most binge-watched show	284 undergraduates	8.5
7.	Reysen et.al., [42]	Anime fans were recruited and answered questions on cosplay participation. Their personality was assessed using the 10-item Big Five test by Gosling et al. (2003)	3122 participants	6.5
8.	Khatami et.al., [32]	A convenience sampling method was used to collect data via a Google Forms questionnaire (Multiple-Parasocial Relationships Scale) from respondents aged 18–29 who like anime, K-pop, or both	264 early adults aged 18 to 29	6.5
9.	Reysen et.al., [43]	Self-identified anime fans identified their favorite character and sex to rate items. Parasocial relationships were evaluated using six items from Adam and Sizemore (2013)	1059 anime users	8

Table 2.

Study characteristics of studies included in the review

Sl no	Year of publication	Variables	Findings
1.	2024	Parasocial relationships, anime community	Parasocial interactions with media characters help people cope with stress, feel a sense of belonging, and engage in self-discovery. (Parasocial interaction theory, social comparison, social influence & cultivation theory)
2.	2024	Frequency of watching anime, level of social interaction, positive and Negative impacts on Gen Z, and involvement in the anime community	Anime viewers develop parasocial behaviors that influence their self-perception, social interactions, values, and beliefs, often leading them to consciously or unconsciously adopt the speech, dress, and habits of favorite characters.(Cultivation theory & Behavior theory)
3.	2020	Motivations for Anime Viewing, Anime Watching Frequency, Degree of Fandom	Anime viewers develop parasocial behaviors driven by escapist motivations and entertainment, fostering a sense of belonging within the community
4.	2012	Wishful Identification, Heroine Characteristics, Parasocial Interaction	Wishful identification with a shōjo heroine leads to greater direct imitation among viewers who develop a parasocial relationship with the character, compared to those who form such relationships without wishful identification
5.	2023	Heavy Anime Consumption, PSR	Heavy viewing of anime is associated with the formation of parasocial relationships (cultivation theory)
6.	2023	Loneliness, Parasocial Interaction, Binge-Watching Tendencies	Parasocial interaction (PSI) explains how loneliness influences binge-watching tendencies (BWT) in university students during COVID-19. Loneliness doesn't directly increase binge-watching; instead, students seek emotional connections with media characters, boosting their binge-watching habits as a substitute for real-life social interactions
7.	2018	Cosplaying Behavior, Big Five Personality Traits	Cosplaying anime fans show higher extraversion, agreeableness, openness, and neuroticism than non-cosplayers, correlating with stronger parasocial relationships and deeper character attachment. These traits highlight motivations for self-expression and enhanced social interaction
8.	2024	Idol Goods Purchase Intention, PSR, Fear of Missing Out	Parasocial interactions with celebrities or idol groups, fueled by emotional attachments and FOMO, significantly influence purchase intentions
9.	2020	Participant Sex, Sex of Character, PSR	The research shows that identification, romance, and similarity influence parasocial relationships with anime characters. Fans often connect more strongly with same-sex characters (especially males), while female fans report higher overall identification and similarity

Determinants of PSR formation

Identification and projection

The process of identification was found to deepen PSRs, as viewers projected themselves onto characters they admired. [60] showed that U.S. Audiences often identified with the moral and emotional traits of shōjo heroines (anime character), using them as role models. This finding is supported by Social Comparison Theory, which explains how viewers evaluate themselves in relation to media figures, using PSRs that are associated with their aspirations, morality, and self-concept.

Long-term anime consumption

Regular and heavy anime viewing was correlated with stronger PSRs. As Pua [41] suggested, long-term exposure leads to the internalization of character values and worldviews, particularly among female viewers. Over time, these repeated interactions build enduring psychological bonds, consistent with Cultivation Theory, where media consumption gradually is associated with perceptions, beliefs, and emotional investment in fictional figures.

Personality and cosplay

Individual personality traits also play a role in PSR strength. Reysen et al. [42] found that cosplayers displayed higher levels of extraversion, openness, and neuroticism, which correlated with deeper parasocial attachment. These traits encourage greater self-expression, creativity, and social engagement through fandom activities, strengthening the emotional salience of PSRs.

Sense of belonging

Shariffadeen et al. [46] and Gonçalves et al. [19] highlighted how PSRs foster a sense of belonging and community, especially during periods of isolation like the COVID-19 pandemic. Fans reported using anime-based PSRs to substitute real-life interactions, reinforcing Cultivation Theory’s view that repeated exposure to media narratives cultivates emotionally meaningful attachments that meet social needs. Anime fandom, therefore, functions as a substitute social space, providing a sense of shared emotional connection and a collective identity.

Psychosocial outcomes/functions

Social behavior and influence

Anime characters often act as social models, guiding viewers’ behavior and values through identification and imitation. As shown in Zafira et al. [56], Gen Z fans tend to mimic speech, dress, and social behavior of admired characters, leading to increased social participation and peer bonding. These interactions reflect Social Influence Theory, wherein fans internalize character norms and community dynamics, reinforcing shared identity and cultural expression within anime fandoms [30]

Emotional regulation and coping

Emotional support and stress management emerged as central functions of PSRs. Individuals use their emotional connections with anime characters to cope with anxiety and loneliness, gaining perspective and comfort from characters' narratives. These findings align with Parasocial Interaction Theory and Behavior Theory, which recognize the therapeutic and regulatory potential of mediated relationships, particularly for individuals with limited real-life support systems [30, 46]

Self-discovery and personal growth

Anime-based PSRs were identified as catalysts for introspection and self-improvement. According to Kakarla & Aiswarya [30], fans often engage with characters as mirrors for personal reflection, drawing life lessons and inspiration for goal-setting. These emotionally meaningful interactions promote resilience and self-awareness, particularly for those with lower self-esteem who may seek validation and guidance from fictional companions. Heavy anime viewers, especially female students were shown to align their worldviews and values with their favorite characters. These PSRs offered inspiration for personal growth and long-term behavioral modelling [41].

Purchasing intentions and consumer behavior

Parasocial bonds significantly affect consumer behavior. Khatami et al. [32] found that emotional attachment to anime characters, amplified by fear of missing out (FOMO), increased purchase intentions for related merchandise. These behaviors reflect the commercial implications of PSRs, where emotional investment translates into economic decisions associated with identity, community influence, and loyalty.

Coping mechanisms and stress relief

Beyond immediate emotional regulation, PSRs function as long-term coping strategies. Fans often revisit episodes or characters to find comfort during difficult times, using these interactions as a form of escapism and resilience-building [30, 46]. These mechanisms align with Behavior Theory and Parasocial Interaction Theory, which acknowledge how emotional routines and symbolic companionships can serve protective psychological functions.

Table 3 presents the identified themes, corresponding codes, supporting studies, and key findings. Figure 2 indicates the frequency of studies supporting each theme identified in the review, highlighting differences in empirical support across themes. Greater emphasis was observed for coping mechanisms/stress relief and sense of belonging, whereas fewer studies supported themes such as long-term anime consumption and self-discovery. Figure 3 depicts the hierarchical organization of themes. The thematic synthesis of nine empirical studies revealed a hierarchy of key factors contributing to the development of anime-based parasocial relationships (PSRs), prioritised by their frequency across studies and their functional significance within the broader theoretical framework.

Table 3.

Themes table

Theme category	Themes	Codes	Supporting Studies	Evidence/Findings
Outcomes/Functions of PSRs	Social Behavior	Social influence Peer interaction Behavior imitation Fandom belonging	Zafira et al. [56], Ramasubramanian & Kornfield [60], Pua, [41]	Anime shapes teen behavior, speech, and actions. Fans imitate admired characters and connect with others through anime communities
Determinants of PSR Formation/Deepening	Sense of Belonging	Emotional support Coping with anxiety Therapy-like benefits	Shariffadeen et al. [46], Khatami et.al., [32]	Identifying with characters helps fans manage stress, anxiety, and emotions by offering comfort and emotional insight
Outcomes/Functions of PSRs	Emotional Regulation	Community bonds Fandom identity Pandemic coping Binge-watching	Kakarla & Aiswarya [30], Zafira et al. [56], Ramasubramanian & Kornfield [60], Shariffadeen et al. [46], Reysen et al. [42]	Anime provides community and belonging, especially during loneliness; fans replace real social connections with character bonds and fandom participation
Determinants of PSR Formation/Deepening	Identification & Projection	Wishful identification Role models Moral admiration	Kakarla & Aiswarya [30], Ramasubramanian & Kornfield [60], Pua, [41], Reysen et al. [43]	Viewers admire positive character traits, leading to deep emotional connections, copying character behaviors and seeing them as role models
Determinants of PSR Formation/Deepening	Long-Term Anime Consumption	Heavy media exposure Empathy Internalized worldviews	Pua [41], Goncalves et al. [19]	Long-term anime viewers adopt character values and worldviews, building strong emotional bonds that meet personal identity needs
Determinants of PSR Formation/Deepening	Personality	Cosplay Extraversion Neuroticism Emotional attachment	Reysen et al. [42], Goncalves et al. [19]	Cosplayers form stronger parasocial ties due to higher openness and social expression; non-cosplayers tend to have weaker parasocial connections
Outcomes/Functions of PSRs	Self-Discovery	Personal growth Self-reflection Inspiration	Kakarla & Aiswarya [30], Reysen et al. [43]	Fans learn life lessons, reflect on themselves, and develop personal goals through connections with anime characters
Outcomes/Functions of PSRs	Purchasing Intention	Emotional bonding FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) Consumer behavior	Khatami et al. [32], Pua [41]	Fans’ emotional connections and fear of missing out increase their intent to buy merchandise related to anime characters
Outcomes/Functions of PSRs	Coping/Stress Relief	Escape from reality Resilience Emotional comfort	Kakarla & Aiswarya [30], Goncalves et al. [19], Pua [41], Shariffadeen et al. [46], Khatami et al. [32]	Fans use anime to manage stress and hardships, gaining comfort from characters' struggles and victories

Fig. 2.

No of studies supporting the themes identified and themes

Fig. 3.

Hierarchy of themes

Table 4 compares how five major theories, cultivation theory, parasocial interaction theory, social influence theory, social comparison theory, and social cognitive theory, explain different aspects of anime viewers’ experiences. It summarises how factors like long-term watching, emotional attachment to characters, peer influence, comparing oneself to others, and learning from characters shape fans’ feelings, identity, and behaviours.

Table 4.

Theoretical framework

Themes	Cultivation Theory	Parasocial Interaction Theory	Social Influence Theory	Social Comparison Theory	Social Cognitive Theory
Emotional Bonding	Long-term anime exposure cultivates familiarity and emotional connection to recurring themes and characters	Long-term one-sided connections deepen emotional bonds, especially after character death or series end	Fans feel emotionally validated through peer recognition and group bonding	Viewers develop emotional ties through upward comparison with idealized characters	Observing emotional expressions in characters teaches how to manage their own emotions
Identity Projection	Anime normalizes ideal traits (e.g., loyalty) that fans begin to see as part of their identity	Strong identification with characters leads to emulation and deeper PSRs	Peer groups reinforce identity markers like cosplay and behaviors modeled on anime	Characters act as aspirational figures, shaping self-image and comparison-based self-assessment	Imitate admired character traits (e.g., heroism, resilience) and apply them to self-concept
Sense of Belonging	Shared consumption builds collective values, contributing to in-group identification	Shared PSRs increase fan community closeness and emotional solidarity	Fandom peer groups encourage conformity and reinforce community norms	Belonging is enhanced when fans perceive themselves as “good enough” based on comparisons with others’ fandom involvement	Observing how characters are accepted by their groups teaches how to integrate socially
Self-Discovery	Exposure to varied narratives helps to introspect & explore their values	Fans explore hidden desires and personalities through parasocial attachment (e.g., LGBTQ +)	Community activities (e.g., fanfiction, forums) encourage expression and reflection on personal identity	Comparison with admired characters may reveal personal strengths or insecurities	Characters provide role models for behavior and identity testing
Coping/ Stress Relief	Long-term immersion offers escapism and psychological comfort during stressful periods like COVID-19	PSRs serve as emotional coping tools during isolation and stress	Using anime to cope with stress by observing peers or influencers use it for emotional relief	Seeing characters overcome adversity makes them feel hopeful and motivated	Adopting character coping strategies (e.g., breathing techniques from Demon Slayer)
Consumer Behavior	Regular exposure to merchandise, aesthetics, and fan culture cultivates buying behavior	Emotional connection makes fans want to own character posters, figures	Imitate peer consumption trends e.g., what others are buying at cons or online	Compare the collections and feel pressure to match or exceed others’ possessions	Mimic influencer purchases or character consumption (e.g., foods, clothes)
Personality	Long-term media habits shape beliefs, tolerance, openness (e.g., valuing friendship)	Integrate characters' values into their personality	Adopt admired traits like empathy through group validation and peer influence	Assess how well they reflect the traits they admire in characters, shaping personality goals	Observational learning of character behavior subtly shifts personality over time
Social Behavior	Long exposure to group dynamics in anime teaches norms like loyalty and teamwork	PSRs influence how fans model social interactions (e.g., kindness, silence)	Peer norms within fandom shape behavioral expression (e.g., cosplay)	Adjust speech, expressions, or interests to fit into anime subculture	Characters provide examples of how to act in social situations, which fans replicate in real-world contexts

Coping and stress relief emerged as key themes, with several studies showing that anime characters offer comfort during emotional distress, forming stable parasocial bonds that aid resilience. Emotional regulation was also prominent, as fans use these connections to process feelings, experience catharsis, and learn emotion management, especially when offline support is lacking. Additionally, identification and projection help viewers internalize character traits and values, influencing self-perception and goals, in line with social comparison theory.

The third tier of themes, each cited by three studies, includes sense of belonging, social behavior, personality, self-discovery, and purchasing intention. PSRs foster feelings of inclusion within fandoms, influence communication and values, and are linked with traits like openness and extraversion. They also support introspection and personal growth, while emotional bonds and FOMO drive merchandise purchases. Less common theme include long-term anime viewing, which deepens PSRs over time.

Overall, the most influential themes, coping, emotional regulation, and identification, are grounded in core interpersonal and behavioral mechanisms. Mid-tier themes extend these dynamics into social, expressive, and economic domains. These findings explain anime-generated PSRs as psychologically rich, socially embedded, and behaviorally influential constructs that closely mirror real-life relationships and emotional functions.

Risk of bias in studies

Included studies were independently assessed for methodological quality by two reviewers using Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklists tailored to study designs: 7-item checklist for analytical cross-sectional studies and a 10-item checklist for qualitative study. Among the nine studies assessed, eight followed a cross-sectional design, and one was qualitative design. This assessment tool reviewed the studies' methodologies and potential sources of bias, including participant sampling and the relationships between interventions and outcomes.

Table 1 shows the integration of JBI checklist scores across all included studies provided a structured assessment of methodological quality and risk of bias in this review. Among the nine studies evaluated, five indicated JBI scores of 6 or above, reflecting rigorous design, comprehensive methodology, and strong reporting standards. Other studies showed scores between 4 and 5, often presenting minor issues such as limited detail in sampling strategies or unclear reporting of confounding factors. Overall, the distribution of JBI scores suggests that the majority of the evidence base is of moderate to high quality, lending substantial confidence to the review’s core findings. However, the presence of a few lower-scoring studies highlights the need for cautious interpretation of themes heavily dependent on those sources, and underscores the importance of future research addressing methodological limitations to further strengthen evidence in this area.

Discussion

This systematic review examines recent evidence on anime-generated PSRs. The global rise of anime has altered patterns of media consumption, especially by fostering PSRs, the one-sided emotional bonds audiences develop with fictional characters. Unlike PSRs with real-life celebrities, anime-driven PSRs are distinctly influenced by the genre's unique cultural, aesthetic, and storytelling elements. The review investigates factors that are potentially related to these anime-based parasocial connections.

Through synthesis of current research, the review will highlight the impact of these relationships on viewers' identity, emotional well-being, and social interactions, providing insights into the psychological appeal of anime characters and their immersive worlds. Analysis of empirical evidence shows that factors including social behavior, identity, emotional regulation, sense of belonging, identification, long-term anime consumption, personality, self-discovery, purchasing intention, and coping mechanisms influence the formation of PSRs within the anime community. These factors indicate fan attachment with anime characters, offering emotional support, possibilities for exploring identity and developing values, and forms of social interaction that deeply influence fans' lives.

These findings underscore the relevance of social and behavioral factors in understanding the formation of anime-generated parasocial relationships.

Social and behavioral factors of PSRS

Social behavior

Social behavior plays a key role in shaping PSRs, especially in the context of anime [56]. These one-sided relationships often reflect how people behave in real-life social situations. PSRs with anime characters may meet emotional needs, help people feel connected, and give them a sense of belonging. As a result, they mirror many aspects of real-world relationships and significantly influence both psychological and interpersonal development.

PSRs help individuals regulate their emotions, especially during times of stress or emotional difficulty. Just like real friendships, these relationships offer comfort and support, helping people cope more effectively [30]. In addition, many anime fans strongly identify with certain characters and use these bonds as a form of escapism. This connection can provide emotional relief and are linked with better mental health by offering a safe space to explore feelings and experiences [30, 47].

PSRs also play an important role in interpersonal dynamics. According to the Social Surrogacy Hypothesis, parasocial connections can act as substitutes when real-life relationships are lacking or unfulfilling. In such cases, fans may rely on these bonds to reduce feelings of loneliness and satisfy their need for emotional closeness [20]. Moreover, the way individuals form and value PSRs often reflects how they behave in actual relationships. These behavioral patterns may influence their decision-making and the overall quality of their social interactions [21].

Attachment theory further explains how early life experiences influence the development of both parasocial and real relationships. The way people form attachments in childhood affects their communication skills and emotional needs in adulthood, which also indicates how they connect with fictional characters [29]. PSRs frequently enhance emotional regulation, reduce loneliness, and foster resilience by providing safe relational models, particularly for those with insecure attachments, leading to improved real-world social functioning over time [26, 34, 54]. However, while PSRs can offer emotional comfort and stability, they may also have negative consequences. For instance, fans may experience feelings of grief or loss when a favorite character dies or a series ends, highlighting the emotional depth and complexity of these relationships [42]. This duality underscores PSRs' therapeutic potential alongside their risks.

Emotional regulation

Emotional regulation significantly suggests links to PSRs with anime characters, acting as emotional outlets for stress management and emotional balance, particularly benefiting those facing isolation or distress. PSRs may serve as effective coping mechanisms, with viewers finding solace and regulating negative emotions through identification with characters and immersion in narratives, leading to emotional stability [30]. This emotional comfort may also influence real-life interpersonal behaviors like empathy and patience.

Attachment theory suggests that individuals with insecure attachment styles (anxious or avoidant) may rely more heavily on PSRs as a substitute for real-life emotional support, using them to fulfill unmet emotional needs and compensate for difficulties in regulating emotions within actual social interactions [36].

Interpersonal communication models explain how emotional regulation within PSRs can extend to real-life social behavior. Individuals may adopt similar emotional coping strategies, such as seeking reassurance, based on habits developed through parasocial experiences [35]. Furthermore, observing emotional exchanges in anime characters fosters emotional learning, informing viewers' own communication patterns and emotional expressions [30]. While PSRs can support emotional resilience, over-reliance may hinder the development of healthy real-life relationships. If fictional bonds become a primary source of emotional regulation, it can reduce motivation for genuine social engagement, underscoring the need to balance parasocial involvement with real-world interactions for adaptive emotional strategies.

Sense of belonging

The sense of belonging plays a crucial role in shaping PSRs with anime characters, bridging psychological needs and interpersonal experiences. These one-sided relationships often provide emotional support and foster a feeling of community, which are essential for individual well-being and social integration [25]. The sense of belonging created through these connections can also mitigate loneliness, fulfilling the innate human need for social connection [30].

PSRs often extend beyond the screen into shared fan communities. These communities foster social bonds and provide a platform for interaction, which can boost group-based self-esteem and collective identity. Online engagement, such as novel posting in anime fan groups, further strengthens virtual social ties and promotes a sense of psychological integration into these digital spaces [22]. However, while PSRs can offer meaningful emotional benefits and a sense of inclusion, there is a potential downside. Over-reliance on fictional relationships may reduce motivation or capacity to form fulfilling real-world connections. This duality underscores the complexity of belonging, which exists simultaneously in both virtual and physical social environments [3].

While social contexts and interpersonal dynamics are linked with the external environment in which parasocial relationships emerge, their formation and maintenance are also driven by internal psychological processes that influence how individuals perceive, interpret, and emotionally engage with anime characters.

Psychological factors of PSR

Identification and projection

Identification and projection are key psychological mechanisms that influence anime-generated PSRs, contributing to both emotional bonding and social learning. Through identification, viewers see aspects of themselves in anime characters and emotionally align with their narratives, which fosters deeper connection and imitation of admired traits. Projection allows individuals to place personal thoughts, desires, or emotions onto characters, making the parasocial experience more immersive and emotionally meaningful. These processes often fulfill psychological needs such as validation, emotional support, and identity exploration. For individuals with insecure attachments or limited social interaction, PSRs created through identification and projection can serve as symbolic substitutes for real-world relationships. This interplay appears to influence viewers’ communication patterns, relational expectations, and self-concept in real-life social contexts (Rammasubramanian & Kornfield, 2012) [5, 12].

Personality

Personality traits such as extraversion, agreeableness, and openness to experience significantly influence the formation of PSRs, as individuals high in these traits are more likely to develop strong emotional bonds with anime characters evident in findings by Reysen et al. [42], who observed that cosplayers, compared to non-cosplayers, scored higher on these traits, supporting their deeper attachment to media figures.

Extroverts may seek emotional connection with characters to meet social needs, while agreeable individuals empathize easily, enhancing emotional bonds. Openness to experience supports deeper engagement with anime due to curiosity and appreciation of stories [4, 44]. People with personality disorders may also turn to PSRs. Specifically, avoidant individuals may prefer fictional characters over real relationships, while narcissistic traits may lead fans to idealize powerful characters as reflections of self-image. Extraverted and agreeable individuals are more likely to engage socially and strengthen group bonds [30, 44]. The way fans talk about their PSRs also reflects personality. For example, highly neurotic fans express more emotional intensity, while agreeable individuals emphasize warmth and support [11, 44].

Social Penetration Theory suggests that relationships deepen through gradual self-disclosure and emotional vulnerability. In PSRs, fans feel close to anime characters as stories reveal their inner thoughts and struggles, creating a sense of intimacy. This mirrors real-life relationship development, showing clear parallels between parasocial and interpersonal communication patterns [11, 44]. Understanding the role of personality in PSRs is important for mental health. While these bonds can be supportive, over-reliance may limit real-life interactions, especially in individuals with certain traits or attachment styles [30].

Self-discovery

Turner [53] posits that self-esteem influences the strength and nature of PSRs, where individuals with higher self-esteem view these relationships as supplementary emotional support, while those with lower self-esteem may develop more intense connections due to a need for validation. Kakarla & Aiswarya [30] further elaborate that PSRs, particularly with anime characters, facilitate self-reflection, allowing individuals to explore their goals and values in a non-threatening environment. This engagement can enhance self-disclosure and intimacy in real-world relationships.

Higher self-esteem individuals utilize PSRs as an emotional enhancement tool, whereas lower self-esteem individuals often seek validation through intense PSRs, leading to deeper emotional attachments [10]. Engaging with anime characters can indicate increased self-disclosure and improvements in interpersonal relationships, as individuals reflect on their emotions and experiences through these fictional connections [30].

Coping mechanisms or stress relief

PSR with anime characters acts as a helpful coping strategy for anime lovers. Fans find comfort in rewatching favorite episodes and maintaining emotional support from the characters. They draw inspiration from the strength of these characters, especially from their strivings and the hope to finally be able to persevere in them [30].

Fans attribute the distraction from their concerns and emotional comfort from being drowned in the imaginary anime worlds as something that keeps them distracted from their worries and provides an emotional comfort when things get too stressful. This would complement research, which points out that not only social but also parasocial connections assist in managing stress. By relating to characters within anime offers a mental escape, reduces anxiety, and helps fans cope with daily pressures. It is, therefore, a large source of emotional comfort. By identifying with anime characters and engaging in fandom discussions, viewers practice articulating their emotions, sharing experiences, and developing empathy skills that are transferable to real-world relationships. These interactions within fan communities provide additional layers of social support, reinforcing the coping function of PSRs and fostering a sense of belonging. Blurring of boundaries between fiction and reality may indicate unrealistic expectations of relationships or emotional dependence on fictional characters.

In addition to psychological mechanisms, motivational factors further explain why individuals actively seek, sustain, and intensify parasocial relationships with anime characters over time.

Consumer/motivational factors of PSR

Purchasing intention

Research provides valuable insights into the factors influencing PSRs and their effects on purchase intention. The shared experience of fandom fosters social bonds, leading to collective purchasing behaviors, such as buying merchandise to signify group identity [30, 32]. Similarity and interactivity with influencers can enhance attachment, thereby increasing purchase intentions, as fans feel a deeper connection to the products endorsed by these figures [45]. While PSRs can drive purchase intentions, it is essential to consider that not all individuals may engage similarly. Factors such as personal attachment styles and the nature of the PSR may be associated with diverse consumer behaviors, highlighting the complexity of these relationships in real-world contexts.

Long-term anime consumption

Pua [41] shows that long-term exposure to anime has a strong impact on PSRs, which explains the relationship between media exposure and emotional bonding. Anime-generated PSRs provide a platform for emotional regulation and stress relief, serving as a coping mechanism for viewers. This is particularly relevant in the context of escapism and identification with characters, which can help individuals manage real-world stressors. The attachment to anime characters can mirror real-world attachment styles, providing a safe space for individuals to explore relationships without the risks associated with real-life interactions [30]. Despite some associations with social disconnectedness, anime consumption can enhance social joy and reduce feelings of loneliness by fostering a sense of community and shared interests among fans [23].

Anime consumption influences perceptions of social interaction, as seen in the Third-Person Effect, where individuals perceive media effects on others more than on themselves, impacting their socialization and communication skills [6]. While anime consumption can foster positive PSRs and community belonging, it also poses risks of problematic behavior, particularly among adolescents. This includes potential behavioral addiction and increased social anxiety, highlighting the need for a balanced approach to anime consumption [24].

Together, these findings indicate that the factors discussed are best understood through multiple, interacting mechanisms rather than isolated factors.

Integration of qualitative insights

The qualitative findings from the study by Kakarla and Aiswarya [30] provide rich insight into how anime-generated PSRs form and function. A key theme was character-related determinants, with participants forming the strongest PSRs when a character’s values, such as a clear sense of justice or moral integrity, mirrored their own. This value alignment emerged as a core mechanism for PSR formation, adding depth to existing quantitative findings that link character identification with bond strength. Additionally, role modeling was identified as a central dynamic, with fans describing how anime characters inspired real-life behavior change. Participants actively emulated admired qualities like resilience, determination, and kindness, underscoring how PSRs operate not just as emotional connections but also as pathways for aspirational self-development.

Another important set of findings centered on the coping and emotional regulation functions of PSRs. Fans reported rewatching specific scenes for comfort and drawing emotional strength from characters during times of stress, suggesting that PSRs serve as intentional psychological tools. Moreover, the study highlighted the role of community integration, showing how interactions within fandom spaces such as discussing favorite characters or participating in conventions enhance social connectedness and reinforce shared values. For some participants, especially those with limited offline support, anime PSRs also served compensatory functions, offering a sense of companionship and emotional validation that real-world relationships lacked. These layered findings suggest that anime-generated PSRs are not simply one-sided attachments, but rather dynamic and multifaceted psychological processes that support identity development, emotional resilience, and social belonging.

Risks and limitations of PSR

PSRs can support coping, identity formation, and emotional regulation, but they also pose significant risks. Excessive reliance on PSRs may be potentially related to escapism, where individuals avoid real-life problems, exacerbating mental health issues like anxiety and depression [58]. Emotional over-reliance on media figures can neglect real-world connections, increasing loneliness and attachment anxiety [20].

Excessive engagement in PSRs may contribute to social withdrawal, as users favor media interactions over real-life ones, reinforcing isolation [2, 37]. Identity confusion is another concern, particularly among adolescents, who may internalize unrealistic media portrayals, leading to low self-esteem and distorted self-perception [26, 37]. While PSRs offer emotional comfort, balanced media use and real-world interaction are essential to mitigate negative effects and promote healthier engagement.

Cultural variations in anime-generated PSRs

Research shows that anime enjoys widespread popularity worldwide, but the ways people form PSRs and engage in fandom vary by culture. Young people in the U.S. often see Japanese anime heroines as role models. They develop wishful identification with these characters and learn positive traits like kindness and perseverance [60]. In contrast, Malaysian youth tend to use anime as a way to escape reality and build social bonds. Their heavy anime watching often helps them relieve stress and explore their identity [41]. Similarly, studies from Indonesia find that strong PSRs increase fans’ intent to buy related merchandise. This effect is even stronger when influenced by the fear of missing out (FOMO), reflecting the importance of community and collectivist cultures in Southeast Asia [32].

Gender differences in PSRs also vary across countries. Generally, females report stronger parasocial bonds and tend to binge-watch more, while males usually identify more with characters of the same sex but feel more sexual attraction toward opposite-sex characters. Female viewers often identify with shōjo characters, deepening emotional connections [60]. Additionally, transgender character portrayals are associated with viewers' attitudes toward gender diversity, reflecting media’s influence on social perceptions [57]. Individual traits and contexts further modulate these experiences. In addition, cosplay motivations such as creativity, confidence, and social connection are quite similar across cultures like the Philippines, Taiwan, and the U.S. Yet, cosplayers tend to differ in personality traits compared to non-cosplayers [60].

These findings indicate that PSRs are a universal phenomenon but their expression depends on cultural context. Western fans often use anime for personal growth and role modeling, while Asian fans’ connections are more linked to group identity, social belonging, and consumer participation. This suggests that anime's impact varies across cultures, influenced by local values, gender roles, and social environments.

Theoretical explanations of anime-generated PSRs

Anime fandom is a multifaceted cultural phenomenon best understood through an integrated theoretical lens. Cultivation theory and parasocial interaction theory explain how repeated exposure to anime is associated with fans’ values such as justice, perseverance, and friendship, and how these values are internalized through emotional bonds with characters. These PSRs deepen fans’ engagement, as they adopt character traits and worldviews that reinforce cultivated ideals, aligning with findings that heavy media or anime consumers are more likely to develop parasocial bonds and align their attitudes with mediated characters. Malaysia and Portugal studies support this idea, studies showing increased exposure greatly heightens emotional identification, perceived similarity, and indicating PSR development, especially in media like anime [1, 38].

Social Cognitive Theory further explains how observational learning leads viewers to emulate and internalize the behaviors and values of admired media figures, observed in the tendency for some fans to adopt traits, coping mechanisms, or normative behaviors from their favorite characters [64]. Consistently, research reveals that factors such as empathy, perceived similarity, loneliness, and emotional needs act as mediators of PSR strength. Moreover, motivations like escapism, companionship, entertainment, and social interaction as primary drivers for engaging with content and forming parasocial attachments, with studies linking loneliness, stress relief, and enjoyment as direct predictors of PSR intensity and media engagement [46].

Despite broad alignment on key mechanisms, the literature exhibits notable nuances and, occasionally, contrary findings regarding moderators and mediators of PSR development. While many studies confirm that loneliness and social needs mediate the relationship between heavy media use and PSR formation, often intensified by identification with media personalities [41, 60] others highlight demographic and contextual moderators, such as gender and genre preference, which can affect the intensity and quality of PSRs [43].

For instance, some research documents that female viewers may experience stronger parasocial bonds due to greater emotional identification, while other studies report no significant differences across genders, suggesting that the interaction between individual characteristics and media type may be more complex than initially posited [19, 43]. Furthermore, while Cultivation Theory predicts that heavy media consumption leads to greater internalization of media values, certain studies in anime fandoms found that audiences often maintain a clear distinction between media fantasy and real-world social realities, demonstrating cultural or cognitive resistance to cultivation effects [55].

One major debate centers on whether PSRs are predominantly beneficial or potentially harmful. While many studies underscore PSRs’ positive roles in providing emotional support, identity development, and social comfort [60], others caution against excessive reliance on these one-sided bonds, which might exacerbate social isolation or hinder real-world relationships [18]. The relationship between PSR intensity and psychological outcomes like loneliness or depression remains inconsistent across studies, highlighting a need for nuanced, context-aware research.

Such contradictions point to the importance of considering both individual differences and sociocultural contexts as moderators of PSR development. These complex interactions underscore the value of incorporating both mediators (empathy, perceived similarity, loneliness) and moderators (gender, genre, cultural context) in future models and systematic reviews of parasocial phenomena. Future research should prioritize longitudinal, mixed-method designs, culturally diverse samples, and clear conceptual frameworks. This will build integrated knowledge linking psychological theory, digital media scholarship, and societal shifts, advancing understanding of parasocial phenomena in contemporary media landscapes.

Overall, this discussion suggests that anime-generated PSRs are complex, multidimensional phenomena linked to interacting psychological, social, behavioral, and cultural mechanisms. Acknowledging both the benefits and limitations of these relationships allows for a more comprehensive understanding of anime-generated PSRs.

Conclusion

This systematic review provides valuable insights on the importance of anime-generated PSRs in emotional regulation, fostering a sense of belonging, and enhancing viewers' empathy, identity formation, and social behaviour. This systematic review gives an in-depth understanding of how PSRs provide crucial emotional support and cope with loneliness and stress. The use of theoretical frameworks further supports this; Social Influence Theory, Cultivation Theory, and Parasocial Interaction Theory, which go on to explain in depth exactly how these connections change fan self-perception and interactions with others. In some cases, PSRs extend into real-life actions, such as role modelling to strengthen their emotional connection. Overall, anime-generated PSRs are deeply impactful, offering psychological support and social enrichment, but they also pose risks like overdependence and social withdrawal. A balanced understanding of these relationships is essential. It may provide deeper insights into anime characters, which will enable a better understanding of their role in contemporary media consumption, thus suggesting further investigation into such relationships and their long-term implications for identity and emotional well-being.

Implications

This review highlights PSRs' links to identity, social behavior, emotional regulation, stress coping, and belonging, with strong mental health implications. Therapists can use clients' anime attachments to explore self-concept, coping, and social needs; reveal hidden support or stress sources; and apply bibliotherapy, role-play, arts techniques, or anime metaphors in conversational therapy to foster emotional regulation, engagement, self-reflection, trust, and stigma reduction, especially aiding isolated youth with loneliness, depression, or anxiety. Policy-wise, mental health services can develop relatable resources like character-based stories, guided discussions, or digital experiences, explaining media's role in emotions or identity, creating non-judgmental spaces to build resilience through safe, personalized interventions.

In educational contexts, PSRs enhance motivation, comprehension, and retention through emotional connections with on-screen educators or characters. CASTLE theory shows how parasocial mechanisms like attention, imitation, and motivation aid digital learning. With personalization, gestures, and character-driven narratives that boost engagement and intrinsic motivation, will support both therapeutic growth and educational success. Anime-based PSRs are related to consumer behavior, especially fandom purchases. Marketers and creators can recognize fans' emotional investments and can develop merchandise, relatable characters, healthy storylines, and reflective prompts. These enhance positive fandom without exploiting vulnerability. They can also partner with educators and mental health experts, which supports campaigns for balanced media use and preserves real-world well-being.

Limitations

This review is very rich in valuable insights; however, it may have several limitations. Existing literature has focused on only the positive aspects of PSR, and those results could not be generalized to all populations irrespective of culture, age, or sex. Research on the influence of personality traits on PSR is limited. Cultural differences might be influencing the PSR, but empirical evidence is lacking in this aspect. Additionally, the review is narrowly focused on mainly quantitative studies rather than qualitative ones, which may help to explore deeper understanding of the emotional, psychological, or cultural experiences of anime viewers. All included studies are cross-sectional, which limits understanding of how these effects may change over time. Moreover, the majority of research centers on young age groups, mainly adolescents and young adults, with limited understanding of various age demographics.

Recommendations for further studies

Research on PSR with anime characters is limited and often emphasizes positive effects, overlooking risks like unhealthy attachments that may affect social skills and resilience. Future studies should include diverse age groups and cultures, examine links with identity, belonging, and attachment, and explore the global influence of anime on fan communities and consumer behaviors. Longitudinal designs are needed to track whether PSRs strengthen, weaken, or change across life stages and how they differ by genre, since most existing work is cross-sectional. Cross-disciplinary collaboration between psychology, education, and media studies can build frameworks that maximize benefits while reducing potential harms, guiding healthier ways for people to manage media attachments. It is also important that future studies use validated and appropriate tools to assess parasocial relationships more accurately.

Authors’ contributions

AV conducted the entire systematic review process, including data collection, analysis, and manuscript preparation. AA provided supervision and corrections throughout the work. PKR contributed through supervision and critical corrections. VP offered overall supervision and guidance. JSG assisted with writing, editing, and refining the final manuscript.

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.