Skip to main content
Chinese Journal of Hepatology logoLink to Chinese Journal of Hepatology
. 2026 Jun 20;34(6):589–594. [Article in Chinese] doi: 10.3760/cma.j.cn501113-20250715-00277

单细胞测序技术解析慢加急性肝衰竭免疫病理机制研究进展

Analyzing research advances in single-cell sequencing technology for immunopathological mechanisms in acute-on-chronic liver failure

Zang Shuxian 1, Cui Chengjie 1, Cui Jing 1, Zhang Yali 1, Fu Na 1,通信作者:, Nan Yuemin 1
Editor: 金 生
PMCID: PMC13312293  PMID: 42373441

Abstract

Acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) is a clinical syndrome characterized by acute deterioration of liver function on the basis of chronic liver disease, primarily manifested as liver and/or extrahepatic organ failure. Due to its rapid progression and poor prognosis, ACLF poses a serious threat to the patient's life. The pathogenesis process of ACLF is extremely complex, with overactivation and dysregulation of the immune system playing key roles in disease development. The high heterogeneity and complexity of immune cells have limited systematic understanding of the disease mechanisms and hindered the development of new therapies. The rise of single-cell sequencing technology has enabled the exploration of gene expression profiles at the single-cell level with high resolution, offering significant application value in analyzing the immune microenvironment and pathogenesis of ACLF, thereby helping to promote the exploration and development of new treatment methods. This review summarizes recent key advances in the application of single-cell sequencing technology in ACLF research, providing a theoretical basis for clarifying the pathogenesis and developing novel targeted treatment strategies.

Keywords: Acute-on-chronic liver failure, Single-cell sequencing, Immune microenvironment, Cellular heterogeneity, Pathogenesis


慢加急性肝衰竭(acute-on-chronic liver failure,ACLF)是在慢性肝病基础上出现的、以急性肝功能恶化和多器官衰竭为特征的临床综合征,病情进展迅速且短期病死率高[1-2]。其核心病理机制涉及复杂的免疫失调[3-4],但免疫细胞的高度异质性限制了对其机制的深入解析。目前,除肝移植外缺乏有效疗法[5],因此,阐明其免疫病理机制以开发新的治疗策略至关重要。单细胞测序(single-cell sequencing,SCS)作为一项突破性技术,能够在单个细胞水平系统解析基因表达,为揭示ACLF中免疫微环境的细胞组成、功能状态及互作网络提供了前所未有的视角[6-7]。本文围绕ACLF的免疫病理机制,重点综述SCS在该领域的关键进展,旨在为ACLF机制研究与治疗探索提供新的见解。

一、. ACLF的免疫病理机制

ACLF的发病机制核心为“炎症-免疫抑制恶性循环”。外源性病原相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular pattern,PAMP)或内源性损伤相关分子模式(damage-associ‑ated molecular pattern,DAMP)通过模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptor,PRR)激活固有免疫系统,大量释放肿瘤坏死因子-α(tumor necrosis factor alpha,TNF-α)、白细胞介素(interleukin,IL)-6等促炎因子,并招募中性粒细胞、单核细胞等浸润肝脏,引起肝细胞广泛坏死[8-12]。乙醇、肥胖等因素可通过损害肠道屏障功能、促进肠道菌群易位,进一步放大PAMP/DAMP信号,形成正反馈环路[13-14]。随着疾病进展,过度炎症触发代偿性免疫抑制,形成“免疫麻痹”,表现为T淋巴细胞(T细胞)耗竭、单核/巨噬细胞功能缺陷、中性粒细胞杀菌能力下降等,导致继发感染风险升高,进一步恶化炎症反应[15-16]。

1.中性粒细胞数量扩增与功能耗竭:ACLF患者外周血中性粒细胞表现出数量与功能的显著失衡。一方面,中性粒细胞绝对计数显著升高,被证实为28 d病死率的独立危险因素[17]。另一方面,中性粒细胞经典吞噬杀菌能力明显受损,而中性粒细胞胞外诱捕(neutrophil extracellular trap,NET)形成能力增强。这种功能转变在ACLF早期作为一种代偿机制,通过NET捕获病原体以弥补吞噬功能不足,从而抵抗感染;然而,NET的过度形成加剧组织损伤和炎症反应,导致免疫病理损伤[17-18]。随着疾病进展,中性粒细胞整体功能呈现耗竭状态,抗菌能力进一步下降,感染风险显著增高[19-21]。其中,趋化因子配体(C-C motif chemokine ligand,CCL)4+中性粒细胞亚群在ACLF中显著扩增,通过招募中性粒细胞和炎症性单核细胞加剧炎症,在ACLF的免疫失衡和病理进程中发挥关键作用[22]。

2.巨噬细胞“促炎-抗菌失衡”:巨噬细胞在ACLF中发挥着核心而复杂的作用,其功能障碍源于细胞内部失调。具体表现为“双重打击”:一方面,线粒体功能严重受损导致生物能量衰竭,使其无法支持吞噬、杀菌等高耗能免疫活动,从而陷入功能瘫痪[23-25];另一方面,溶血磷脂酰胆碱—自分泌毒素—溶血磷脂酸免疫代谢轴发生紊乱,升高的溶血磷脂酸通过相应受体重编程巨噬细胞表型,抑制Mer酪氨酸激酶/CD163等免疫调节标志,同时促进促炎因子产生,最终形成“促炎但不抗菌”的失衡状态[26]。这种能量衰竭与代谢失调共同导致了ACLF中巨噬细胞“数量增多却功能缺陷”的状态,不仅加剧全身炎症反应和多器官衰竭,也解释了患者对感染的高度易感性。SCS技术进一步发现髓系细胞触发受体(triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells,TREM)2+脂质相关巨噬细胞、脂肪酸结合蛋白5阳性促炎亚群等新型功能亚群,这些亚群与代谢紊乱和免疫抑制微环境密切相关[27-28],为深入理解疾病异质性及开发靶向治疗策略提供了新视角。

3.T细胞过度活化与功能耗竭:T细胞介导的免疫应答失衡是驱动炎症恶性循环的核心环节。在慢性肝病背景下,促炎微环境驱动CD4+T细胞向辅助性T细胞17(T helper 17 cell,Th17)分化,进而大量分泌IL-17等促炎因子,形成“细胞因子风暴”,直接或间接介导肝细胞坏死及全身性炎症反应[29]。此外,CD8+ T细胞在含V型免疫球蛋白结构域的T细胞活化抑制因子表达降低的同时[29],也伴随程序性死亡蛋白-1等耗竭标志物的上调[30],显示其处于“过度激活但功能受限”的矛盾状态,仍可通过细胞毒性作用加剧肝损伤。近年来,SCS技术通过揭示ACLF中T细胞从初始到耗竭的分化轨迹,并精准鉴定CD4+ T细胞免疫球蛋白和ITIM 结构域蛋白 (T cell immunoglobulin and ITIM domain protein,TIGIT)+、CD8+ 淋巴细胞活化基因-3(lymphocyte-activation gene 3,LAG-3)+等关键耗竭亚群,为解析其免疫病理机制及开发靶向疗法提供关键靶点[31-32]。

4.B细胞亚群分布异常:B细胞在ACLF中亦表现出显著的亚群分布异常。患者肝内幼稚B细胞数量明显减少,而活化记忆B细胞、非典型记忆B细胞以及浆细胞的比例显著上升,且这些变化与肝损伤指标呈相关性[33]。尽管现有证据提示B细胞在ACLF免疫病理机制中可能具有重要作用,但目前相关研究仍相对缺乏。未来可进一步通过SCS技术解析ACLF中B细胞的高度异质性,并阐明关键亚群在疾病进展中的具体功能。

5.树突状细胞(dendritic cell,DC)抑制炎症与自然杀伤(natural killer,NK)细胞促进损伤:ACLF患者的DC由外周血募集至肝组织,通过抑制CD8+ T细胞分泌γ干扰素,从而减轻肝脏炎症损伤[34]。而NK细胞在乙型肝炎慢加急性肝衰竭(HBV related acute-on-chronic liver failure,HBV-ACLF)患者外周血中数量减少,在肝内聚集并异常活化,加速肝细胞损伤[35-37]。SCS技术能够精确区分DC和NK细胞的亚群,并解析其活化或耗竭状态的特异性基因表达特征,为理解其功能紊乱提供了更精细的分子图谱。

二、. SCS技术在ACLF研究中的关键进展

(一). 解析细胞异质性及免疫微环境重塑

SCS技术的快速发展为在极高分辨率下解析ACLF进程中肝脏细胞的异质性及免疫微环境的动态演变提供了有力手段。在ACLF背景下,慢性肝病基础上叠加的急性损伤导致肝细胞再生能力受损、促纤维化间充质细胞亚群扩增,并引发免疫微环境重构。已有研究利用单细胞转录组测序(single-cell RNA sequencing,scRNA-seq)和单核转录组测序技术系统揭示了健康肝脏中肝细胞的分区特征以及胆管细胞、间充质细胞等的异质性[38],为理解ACLF中各类细胞的失衡与重塑机制奠定了基础。

ACLF的免疫病理核心在于髓系细胞的极端活化与淋巴细胞的深度耗竭所共同驱动的非缓解性炎症[22]。(1)髓系细胞:肝脏巨噬细胞从具有免疫调节功能的亚型向促炎亚型分化[39],其中TREM2+巨噬细胞作为关键亚群被广泛识别。研究发现,不饱和游离脂肪酸的增加和α-硫辛酸代谢紊乱可能促进TREM2+巨噬细胞分化。该亚群与脂质代谢密切相关,并参与形成免疫抑制微环境[27]。异质性分析显示,单核细胞在ACLF中分化为功能迥异的脂肪酸结合蛋白5阳性(促炎)和豆荚蛋白阳性(免疫防御)巨噬细胞,分别通过抵抗素和分泌型磷蛋白-1信号通路调控中性粒细胞等免疫细胞,为解释ACLF中“炎症风暴”与“免疫麻痹”并存的现象提供新见解[28]。同时,CCL4+中性粒细胞亚群显著扩增,通过招募中性粒细胞和炎症性单核细胞进一步放大炎症反应[22]。(2)淋巴细胞:T细胞和NK细胞均呈现严重功能失调。HBV-ACLF患者中,CD4+ TIGIT+ 和CD8+ LAG-3+耗竭T细胞比例显著升高,其分化轨迹呈现“幼稚→效应→耗竭”的不可逆进程,且细胞因子分泌功能受损[31-32] 。NK细胞则表现出亚群失衡,具有免疫调节功能的成熟性NK细胞比例下降,而炎症性NK细胞(高表达细胞迁移诱导透明质酸结合蛋白2,与病死率相关)扩增,加剧全身炎症反应[40]。(3)细胞间通讯分析:Yu等[22]研究识别出T细胞来源的膜联蛋白A1通过甲酰肽受体1负向调控髓系细胞炎症。临床前研究证实,其模拟肽Ac2-26通过依赖甲酰肽受体1的腺苷酸活化蛋白激酶/哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白信号通路重塑巨噬细胞极化,缓解肝损伤,提示膜联蛋白A1为促进炎症消退的潜在治疗靶点。SCS揭示的ACLF关键免疫亚群及其功能特征见表1。

表1.

单细胞测序揭示的ACLF关键免疫亚群及其功能特征

细胞类型 关键亚群/标志物 功能特征 在ACLF中的作用 参考文献
中性粒细胞 CCL4+中性粒细胞 强趋化功能,招募中性粒细胞和单核细胞 扩增并加剧炎症反应,推动免疫失衡 [22]
单核/巨噬细胞 TREM2+巨噬细胞 脂质代谢相关,形成免疫抑制微环境 与代谢紊乱和免疫抑制微环境密切相关 [27]
FABP5+巨噬细胞 促炎表型,通过抵抗素信号通路增强中性粒细胞脱颗粒和趋化 促进“炎症风暴” [28]
LGMN+巨噬细胞 免疫防御表型,通过分泌型磷蛋白-1信号通路抵抗病原体,序贯激活抗原呈递与病原体防御 具有保护性免疫功能 [28]
T淋巴细胞 CD4+ TIGIT+耗竭T细胞 高表达TIGIT、CTLA-4、PD-1等抑制性受体 介导免疫抑制,是ACLF免疫功能障碍的关键亚群 [31-32]
CD8+ LAG-3+耗竭T细胞 高表达耗竭基因LAG-3、TIGIT、PD-1,分泌IFN-γ、TNF-α、IL-2的能力显著丧失 细胞毒性功能严重受限,数量与ACLF疾病严重程度正相关,直接导致抗病毒免疫失效 [31-32]
B淋巴细胞 活化记忆B细胞/浆细胞 比例上升,与肝损伤指标相关 可能参与免疫病理机制,具体功能尚待深入研究 [33]
自然杀伤细胞 CEMIP2+炎症性NK细胞 高表达CEMIP2,与病死率相关 扩增并加剧全身炎症反应 [40]
树突状细胞 未明确特定亚群 抑制CD8+ T细胞分泌IFN-γ 减轻肝脏炎症损伤 [34]

注:ACLF为慢加急性肝衰竭;CCL4为C-C基序趋化因子配体4;TREM2为髓系细胞触发受体2;FABP5为脂肪酸结合蛋白5;LGMN为豆荚蛋白酶;TIGIT为T细胞免疫球蛋白和ITIM结构域蛋白;LAG-3为淋巴细胞活化基因-3;CEMIP2为细胞迁移诱导透明质酸结合蛋白2;CTLA-4为细胞毒性T淋巴细胞相关蛋白4;PD-1为程序性细胞死亡蛋白1;IFN-γ为γ干扰素;TNF-α为肿瘤坏死因子-α;IL-2为白细胞介素-2

此外,“免疫代谢”角度解析疾病结局成为近年研究热点。Feio-Azevedo等[41]通过scRNA-seq与代谢组学结合,在经典单核细胞中识别出两种与临床结局(恢复、未恢复)直接相关的免疫代谢状态。ACLF恢复(ACLF-recovery,ACLF-R)患者经典单核细胞呈现“应激耐受”表型,其特征是高表达抵抗素、S100A8/A9、半乳糖凝集素1等基因,代谢偏向氧化磷酸化,功能表现为吞噬能力下降和IL-10分泌增加,类似于脓毒症中的免疫抑制单核细胞亚群1[42-43]。相反,ACLF未恢复(ACLF-nonrecovery,ACLF-NR)患者的单核细胞处于高炎症状态,高表达波形蛋白、TREM1等促炎介质,代谢活性低下。该研究将特定细胞亚群的转录组、代谢组与功能表型及临床预后直接关联,为解析ACLF的异质性提供了新视角。值得注意的是,上述“恢复相关”免疫代谢特征同样体现在淋巴细胞中。ACLF-R患者的细胞毒性CD8+ T细胞和NK细胞也表现出效应功能下调及氧化磷酸化代谢富集,但未出现典型的耗竭标志物,提示这是一种跨免疫细胞谱系的、旨在对抗过度炎症的适应性功能抑制。

(二). 探索疾病发生发展机制

SCS技术的深入应用,系统揭示了肝硬化向ACLF演进过程中免疫微环境的动态变化与分子机制,推动了对该疾病免疫病理本质的多维度理解。

1.单核/巨噬细胞群:研究逐步解析了单核/巨噬细胞在ACLF中的功能转化路径。Geng等[44]发现,代偿期肝硬化患者中CD52高表达的单核细胞具有强吞噬与免疫调节功能,有助于维持免疫稳态;而进展至ACLF后,CD52水解导致可溶性CD52水平升高,单核细胞功能全面受损,提示CD52系统在疾病不同阶段的动态平衡作用。Feio-Azevedo等[41]的研究进一步从代谢角度阐释了这种功能差异的机制,ACLF-R患者单核细胞的氧化磷酸化和谷胱甘肽代谢通路显著富集,而ACLF-NR患者单核细胞则显示花生四烯酸代谢和非氧化磷酸戊糖途径(如转醛醇酶1、转酮醇酶)相关基因表达上调,后者与促炎和氧化应激反应密切相关。代谢物水平分析显示,ACLF-R患者单核细胞中谷氨酰胺、谷氨酸、α-酮戊二酸等关键代谢物水平较高,提示其可能通过更高效的三羧酸循环恢复能力来促进免疫耐受。Yao等[45]发现ACLF中促炎单核细胞高表达血小板反应蛋白1与患者不良预后相关,为预后评估提供新型标志物。Zhang等[46]揭示单核细胞中圆柱瘤病去泛素化酶(cylindromatosis,CYLD)基因下调导致核因子-κB(nuclear factor kappa-B,NF-κB)通路过度活化,进而驱动炎症因子释放和免疫细胞趋化,提示该轴可能成为治疗新靶点。Zhang等[47]的研究则拓展了对肝内免疫——结构交互的认识,发现单核/巨噬细胞通过分泌分泌型磷蛋白1破坏淋巴管内皮细胞功能,影响肝内淋巴管完整性,为理解ACLF中组织水肿与免疫细胞迁移提供了新视角。

2.趋化因子与神经—免疫调控:Wu等[48]发现ACLF患者肝巨噬细胞来源的趋化因子(C-X-C基元)配体[chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand,CXCL]9表达上调,通过CXC趋化因子受体(C-X-C chemokine receptor,CXCR)3受体招募CD8+ T细胞等淋巴细胞至肝脏,加剧损伤;阻断CXCL9及其受体CXCR3可减少肝脏中CD8+ T细胞、γδ T细胞和NKT细胞的数量,改善肝损伤并降低病死率;而去神经支配可进一步增强该通路,提示“迷走神经-巨噬细胞-CXCL9”轴在ACLF发病中的潜在作用,为神经免疫干预提供了切入点。

3.系统免疫与动态演变:李君教授团队通过纵向单细胞多组学分析,提出了HBV-ACLF免疫应答的时序模型,即早期以单核细胞暴发为特征,后期转为中性粒细胞/抗炎单核细胞主导并伴随T细胞功能衰竭,深化了对疾病全周期免疫格局转变的认识[49]。Feio-Azevedo等[41]的研究为此模型增添了结局预测的维度,其利用ACLF-R单核细胞特征基因(如抵抗素,S100A8等)构建的机器学习模型能有效预测患者预后,推动了从基于临床评分的静态评估,向基于分子特征的动态精准预后判断的转变。Li等[50]从代谢—免疫交叉视角指出HBV-ACLF中存在先天免疫过度活化与适应性免疫抑制并存的免疫代谢紊乱状态,并筛选出Mer酪氨酸激酶、血小板反应蛋白1等关键基因作为潜在标志物,为后续单细胞层面的机制挖掘提供了靶点基础。

综上所述,SCS技术不仅精准解析了髓系与淋巴细胞的功能失调状态及异质性,更从免疫代谢重编程、细胞间通讯及神经—免疫交互等新维度,系统阐释了疾病发生发展的核心机制。这些发现共同推动ACLF研究从现象描述走向机制解析,为开发以特定细胞亚群或信号通路为靶点的精准干预策略奠定了坚实基础,并指明了临床转化方向。

三、. 展望

尽管SCS技术为解析ACLF的免疫微环境提供了高分辨率,但当前研究仍面临重要挑战。一方面,现有成果大多集中于HBV-ACLF,而对酒精性、代谢相关脂肪性肝病等病因的异质性缺乏系统性解析。另一方面,关键标志物(如细胞迁移诱导透明质酸结合蛋白2、血小板反应蛋白1)的临床转化受限于动物模型与靶向递送技术的不足。在技术层面,肝纤维化区域细胞捕获偏倚、转录组与蛋白功能的脱节及跨数据集整合难题也亟待突破。未来研究需构建涵盖多病因、多阶段的ACLF单细胞图谱,并整合空间转录组与多组学技术,精准定位微环境互作网络。同时,要推动单细胞标志物(如CXCL9+巨噬细胞、LAG3+ T细胞等)纳入临床预后分层系统,最终实现从机制解析到精准干预的跨越,为ACLF这一高病死率疾病的靶向治疗开辟新路径。

利益冲突

所有作者声明不存在利益冲突

作者贡献声明

臧淑娴:资料收集、文稿撰写;崔承杰:资料收集、内容修改;崔静、张雅莉:内容修改;付娜:选题、文稿审阅、经费支持;南月敏:总体指导

Funding Statement

河北省自然科学基金精准医学联合基金培育项目(H2025206096);2024年政府资助临床医学优秀人才项目(ZF2024072);SAILING临床研究项目(SAlLING-2024008);2024年度“人工肝专项基金”(iGandanF-1082024-RGG096)

Hebei Provincial Natural Science Foundation Precision Medicine Collaborative Fund Cultivation Project (H2025206096); 2024 Government-funded Clinical Medicine Outstanding Talent Program (ZF2024072); SAILING Clinical Research Project (SAILING-2024008); 2024 Annual Artificial Liver Special Fund (iGandanF-1082024-RGG096)

Footnotes

臧淑娴, 崔承杰, 崔静, 等. 单细胞测序技术解析慢加急性肝衰竭免疫病理机制研究进展[J]. 中华肝脏病杂志, 2026, 34(6):589-594. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.cn501113-20250715-00277.

参考文献

  • 1.中华医学会感染病学分会肝衰竭与人工肝学组, 中华医学会肝病学分会重型肝病与人工肝学组 . 肝衰竭诊治指南(2024年版)[J]. 中华肝脏病杂志, 2025, 33(1):18-33. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.cn501113-20241206-00614. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 2.European Association for the Study of the Liver . EASL clinical practice guidelines on acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. J Hepatol, 2023, 79(2):461-491. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2023.04.021. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.Clària J, Arroyo V, Moreau R. Roles of systemic inflammatory and metabolic responses in the pathophysiology of acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. JHEP Rep, 2023, 5(9):100807. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhepr.2023.100807. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Khanam A, Kottilil S. Abnormal innate immunity in acute-on-chronic liver failure:immunotargets for therapeutics[J]. Front Immunol, 2020, 11:2013. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.02013. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.赖曼,徐曼曼,王鑫,et al.慢加急性肝衰竭肝移植预后评估[J].器官移植,2025,16(3):482-488.DOI: 10.12464/j.issn.1674-7445.2025002. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 6.Bai X, Li YX, Zeng XM, et al. Single-cell sequencing technology in tumor research[J]. Clin Chim Acta, 2021, 518:101-109. DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2021.03.013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.Hwang B, Lee JH, Bang D. Single-cell RNA sequencing technologies and bioinformatics pipelines[J]. Exp Mol Med, 2018, 50(8):1-14. DOI: 10.1038/s12276-018-0071-8. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8.Taru V, Szabo G, Mehal W, et al. Inflammasomes in chronic liver disease:hepatic injury, fibrosis progression and systemic inflamm‑ation[J]. J Hepatol, 2024, 81(5):895-910. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2024.06.016. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 9.Casulleras M, Zhang IW, López-Vicario C, et al. Leukocytes, systemic inflammation and immunopathology in acute-on-chro‑nic liver failure[J]. Cells, 2020, 9(12):2632. DOI: 10.3390/cells-9122632. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.Zaccherini G, Weiss E, Moreau R. Acute-on-chronic liver failure:definitions, pathophysiology and principles of treatment[J]. JHEP Rep, 2020, 3(1):100176. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhepr.2020.100176. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11.López-Sánchez GN, Dóminguez-Pérez M, Uribe M, et al. The fibrogenic process and the unleashing of acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. Clin Mol Hepatol, 2020, 26(1):7-15. DOI: 10.3350/cmh.2019.0011. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.Wang Y, Zhang HY, Chen Q, et al. TNF-α/HMGB1 inflammation signalling pathway regulates pyroptosis during liver failure and acute kidney injury[J]. Cell Prolif, 2020, 53(6):e12829. DOI: 10.1111/cpr.12829. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13.Sharma A, Roy A, Premkumar M, et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation in alcohol-associated acute-on-chronic liver failure:an open-label clinical trial[J]. Hepatol Int, 2022, 16(2):433-446. DOI: 10.1007/s12072-022-10312-z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14.Acciarino A, Diwakarla S, Handreck J, et al. The role of the gastrointestinal barrier in obesity-associated systemic inflamm‑ation[J]. Obes Rev, 2024, 25(3):e13673. DOI: 10.1111/obr.13673. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15.Kou K, Sun XD, Tian GY, et al. The mechanisms of systemic inflammatory and immunosuppressive acute-on-chronic liver failure and application prospect of single-cell sequencing[J]. J Immunol Res, 2022, 2022:5091275. DOI: 10.1155/2022/5091-275. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.Yu XP, Yang FF, Shen ZL, et al. BTLA contributes to acute-on-chronic liver failure infection and mortality through CD4+ T-cell exhaustion[J]. Nat Commun, 2024, 15(1):1835. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46047-8. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 17.Wu W, Sun SS, Wang YJ, et al. Circulating neutrophil dysfunction in HBV-related acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. Front Immunol, 2021, 12:620365. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.620365. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Ortega-Ribera M, Zhuang Y, Babuta M, et al. A novel multi-organ male model of alcohol-induced acute-on-chronic liver failure reveals NET-mediated hepatocellular death, which is prevented by RIPK3 inhibition[J]. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2025, 19(4):101446. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2024.101446. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.卞婷婷, 赵雷. 系统性炎症反应介导慢加急性肝衰竭的研究进展[J]. 临床医学进展, 2024, 14(4):1447-1455. DOI: 10.12677/acm.2024.1441180. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 20.Fernández J, Acevedo J, Wiest R, et al. Bacterial and fungal infections in acute-on-chronic liver failure:prevalence, character‑istics and impact on prognosis[J]. Gut, 2018, 67(10):1870-1880. DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2017-314240. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Martin-Mateos R, Alvarez-Mon M, Albillos A. Dysfunctional immune response in acute-on-chronic liver failure:it takes two to tango[J]. Front Immunol, 2019, 10:973. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00973. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Yu X, Tian WH, Bao XW, et al. Dissecting the liver inflammation ecosystem identifies annexin A1 as a pro-resolving target for liver failure[J/OL]. Hepatology, 2025, 81(2025-06-12) [2025-07-15]. https://journals.lww.com/hep/abstract/9900/dissect-ing_the_liver_inflammation_ecosystem.1309.aspx. DOI: 10.1097/HEP.0000000000001427. [published online ahead of print]. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.Maheshwari D, Kumar D, Jagdish RK, et al. Bioenergetic failure drives functional exhaustion of monocytes in acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. Front Immunol, 2022, 13:856587. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.856587. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 24.Moreau R, Clària J, Aguilar F, et al. Blood metabolomics uncovers inflammation-associated mitochondrial dysfunction as a potential mechanism underlying ACLF[J]. J Hepatol, 2020, 72(4):688-701. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2019.11.009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 25.Zhang IW, Curto A, López-Vicario C, et al. Mitochondrial dysfunction governs immunometabolism in leukocytes of patients with acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. J Hepatol, 2022, 76(1):93-106. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2021.08.009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Trovato FM, Zia R, Napoli S, et al. Dysregulation of the lysophosphatidylcholine/autotaxin/lysophosphatidic acid axis in acute-on-chronic liver failure is associated with mortality and systemic inflammation by lysophosphatidic acid-dependent monocyte activation[J]. Hepatology, 2021, 74(2):907-925. DOI: 10.1002/hep.31738. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27.Peng B, Li H, Liu K, et al. Intrahepatic macrophage reprogramming associated with lipid metabolism in hepatitis B virus-related acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. J Transl Med, 2023, 21(1):419. DOI: 10.1186/s12967-023-04294-1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28.Rao JW, Ye DM, Ren A, et al. Macrophage evolution during progression of hepatitis virus B-related acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. J Innate Immun, 2025, 17(1):29-43. DOI: 10.1159/000542946. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29.Zhang Y, Zhang XY, Han JJ, et al. Downregulated VISTA enhances Th17 differentiation and aggravates inflammation in patients with acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. Hepatol Int, 2023, 17(4):1000-1015. DOI: 10.1007/s12072-023-10505-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30.Zhou XS, Li YD, Ji YQ, et al. PD-1 involvement in peripheral blood CD8+ T lymphocyte dysfunction in patients with acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. J Clin Transl Hepatol, 2021, 9(3):283-290. DOI: 10.14218/JCTH.2020.00142. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 31.彭鹏, 季亚秋, 赵凝慧, et al. 基于单细胞测序技术评估乙型肝炎相关慢加急性肝衰竭患者外周血T淋巴细胞亚群特点[J]. 中华肝脏病杂志, 2023, 31(4):422-427. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.cn501113-20220205-00056. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32.Yao J, Ji YQ, Liu T, et al. Single-cell RNA sequencing shows T-cell exhaustion landscape in the peripheral blood of patients with hepatitis B virus-associated acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. Gut Liver, 2024, 18(3):520-530. DOI: 10.5009/gnl220449. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 33.Zhao YD, He W, Wang CC, et al. Characterization of intrahepatic B cells in acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. Front Immunol, 2022, 13:1041176. DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1041176. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34.Zhang Z, Zou ZS, Fu JL, et al. Severe dendritic cell perturbation is actively involved in the pathogenesis of acute-on-chronic hepatitis B liver failure[J]. J Hepatol, 2008, 49(3):396-406. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2008.05.017. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35.Li HJ, Yang N, Mu XY, et al. Reduction of natural killer cells is associated with poor outcomes in patients with hepatitis B virus-related acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. Hepatol Int, 2022, 16(6):1398-1411. DOI: 10.1007/s12072-022-10386-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 36.李彦霖, 杨雪亮, 刘小静, et al. 免疫细胞在慢加急性肝衰竭中的调控作用[J/OL]. 中国肝脏病杂志(电子版), 2020, 12(2):42-46[2025-07-15]. https://c.wanfangdata.com.cn/magazine/zggzbzz?publishYear=2020&issueNum=02&page=1&isSync=0. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-7380.2020.02.008. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 37.Zhao Q, Chen DP, Chen HD, et al. NK-cell-elicited gasdermin-D-dependent hepatocyte pyroptosis induces neutrophil extracellular traps that facilitate HBV-related acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. Hepatology, 2025, 81(3):917-931. DOI: 10.1097/HEP.000000000-0000868. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 38.Andrews TS, Atif J, Liu JC, et al. Single-cell, single-nucleus, and spatial RNA sequencing of the human liver identifies cholangiocyte and mesenchymal heterogeneity[J]. Hepatol Commun, 2022, 6(4):821-840. DOI: 10.1002/hep4.1854. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 39.MacParland SA, Liu JC, Ma XZ, et al. Single cell RNA sequencing of human liver reveals distinct intrahepatic macro‑phage populations[J]. Nat Commun, 2018, 9(1):4383. DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-06318-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 40.Zhao NH, Wang H, Zhang MX, et al. Characterization of NK cells using single-cell RNA sequencing in patients with acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. J Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2025, 40(4):917-929. DOI: 10.1111/jgh.16870. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 41.Feio-Azevedo R, Boesch M, Radenkovic S, et al. Distinct immunometabolic signatures in circulating immune cells define disease outcome in acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. Hepatology, 2025, 81(2):509-522. DOI: 10.1097/HEP.000000-0000000907. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 42.Liu NP, Jiang C, Cai PF, et al. Single-cell analysis of COVID-19, sepsis, and HIV infection reveals hyperinflammatory and immun‑osuppressive signatures in monocytes[J]. Cell Rep, 2021,37(1):109793. DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109793. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 43.Reyes M, Filbin MR, Bhattacharyya RP, et al. An immune-cell signature of bacterial sepsis[J]. Nat Med, 2020, 26(3):333-340. DOI: 10.1038/s41591-020-0752-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 44.Geng A, Brenig RG, Roux J, et al. Circulating monocytes upregulate CD52 and sustain innate immune function in cirrhosis unless acute decompensation emerges[J]. J Hepatol, 2025, 83(1):146-160. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2024.12.031. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 45.Yao J, Liu T, Zhao Q, et al. Genetic landscape and immune mechanism of monocytes associated with the progression of acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. Hepatol Int, 2023, 17:676-688. DOI: 10.1007/s12072-022-10472-y. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 46.Zhang XY, Zhang Y, Zhou P, et al. Down-regulated cylindromat‑osis enhances NF-κB activation and aggravates inflammation in HBV-ACLF patients[J]. Emerg Microbes Infect, 2022, 11(1):1586-1601. DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2022.2077128. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 47.Zhang PP, Li H, Zhou C, et al. Single-cell RNA transcriptomics reveals the state of hepatic lymphatic endothelial cells in hepatitis B virus-related acute-on-chronic liver failure[J]. J Clin Med, 2022, 11(10):2910. DOI: 10.3390/jcm11102910. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 48.Wu L, Li J, Zou J, et al. Vagus nerve modulates acute-on-chronic liver failure progression via CXCL9[J]. Chin Med J (Engl), 2025, 138(9):1103-1115. DOI: 10.1097/CM9.0000000000003104. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 49.Liang X, Luo JJ, Zhou Q, et al. Single-cell multimodal analysis reveals the dynamic immunopathogenesis of HBV-ACLF progression[J/OL]. Gut, 2025, 74(2025-08-21) [2025-10-01]. https://gut.bmj.com/content/early/2025/08/21/gutjnl-2024-333308. DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2024-333308. [published online ahead of print]. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 50.Li J, Liang X, Jiang J, et al. PBMC transcriptomics identifies immune-metabolism disorder during the development of HBV-ACLF[J]. Gut, 2022, 71(1):163-175. DOI: 10.1136/gutjnl-2020-323395. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Chinese Journal of Hepatology are provided here courtesy of Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University

RESOURCES