Summary
Rapidly expanding industrial activities, along with rising human living standards, contribute to the emission of emerging pollutants (EPs) that have become one of the foremost threats to human health and the balance of the environment. The increasing significance of health risks and environmental protection has led to an urgent need for intensive research to tackle the challenges associated with developing scalable and advanced technologies for predicting the impacts of EPs and determining their remediation needs. Consequently, this review aims to analyze recent studies on various detection and chemometric techniques employed in the analysis of EPs. Our critical analysis reveals that hybrid analytical techniques and advanced machine learning and deep learning data analysis methods provide scalable and cost-effective solutions for evaluating EPs. Furthermore, understanding their specific effects on human health can serve as a reliable foundation for the selection of appropriate detection and analysis processes.
Subject areas: Environmental science, Environmental monitoring, Pollution
Graphical abstract
Environmental science; Environmental monitoring; Pollution
Introduction
The global environment faces numerous challenges, particularly due to emerging pollutants (EPs), which pose significant risks to both the environment and public health because of the unknown hazards they pose and their widespread effects. Hence, it is important to raise public awareness of these issues to mitigate their adverse consequences. The escalation of environmental contamination is progressively inflicting profound and irreparable harm on the planet. Agricultural runoffs, untreated sewage, and industrial effluents, in particular, are contaminating freshwater.1 The contaminants are increasingly interacting within the environment, owing to urbanization and industrialization.2 Moreover, human activities and technological progress have made the planet less safe to live on due to the lowered quality of food and the living environment.3 This is happening because the energy, residential, commercial, industrial, and transport sectors release harmful wastes, including numerous toxins.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has revised its air quality criteria, and the latest research reveals that air pollution has detrimental effects on human health at even lower levels than was previously believed. These guidelines provide evidence-based suggestions for limiting the values of particular air contaminants. These guidelines suggest new limits on air quality that should be implemented to safeguard the health of communities. Further, lowering the concentrations of major air pollutants will also help slow the progression of climate change.4 Evaluating the toxicological and environmental effects of EPs is becoming crucial to understanding their impact on sustainable development, human health, and ecosystems. There has been a significant rise in research focused on assessing the effectiveness of air pollution legislation. Specifically, there has been a substantial surge in the annual number of published studies on this topic in the past two decades.5 Figure 1 depicts the origins of EPs, the various types produced from different sources, and the pathways through which they can reach humans as well as other living organisms.
Figure 1.
Different types of EPs, their paths, and effects on humans and the environment
Numerous scientists have identified various pollutants in water bodies, including organic substances, such as medical waste; flame retardants, such as bromine; cosmetics; perfluorinated compounds; and plasticizers. The presence of these compounds results in adverse health effects on organisms and disrupts the equilibrium of ecosystems.6 The widespread production and use of various commodities, including plastics, deodorants, personal care items, textile materials, fragrances, and non-stick cookware, has led to the release of numerous EPs into nearby water bodies.7 This contamination harmfully impacts the quality of the living environment and public health.8 Addressing the issue of these pollutants has become one of the most pressing global environmental challenges. This situation necessitates the adoption of effective and acceptable remediation technologies that mitigate harmful impacts. Additionally, it calls for advanced research aimed at developing both prediction and remediation techniques. Previous studies have identified more than 250 chemicals as potential EPs.
Furthermore, organic pollutants, such as pesticides, antibiotics, and phthalate esters, are constantly contaminating farmland soils. These pollutants are known for their high toxicity, persistence, and propensity for accumulation in agricultural areas.9 The interaction between heavy metals and organic contaminants in soil alters their mobility and bioavailability. The presence of various pollutants has been observed to impact the composition and distribution of soil microorganisms,10 and their assessments primarily center on the reaction of bacteria to specific pollutants.11 Additionally, the presence of EPs in soil affects the processes that microorganisms use for soil cleansing and decomposition.12 However, thorough investigations into the effects of various contaminants and soil characteristics across different climatic conditions are still necessary.
The presence of EPs varies across different environments, such as aquatic bodies, subsurface waters, sediments, groundwater, living organisms, and the general atmosphere. Additionally, the concentration of these pollutants changes throughout the year.7 These EPs have the potential to directly produce a variety of adverse effects on human health, including inability to function, headaches, nausea, skin reactions, cardiovascular diseases, damage to the neurological system, damage to the liver, DNA abnormalities, and cancer.13 Human activities primarily produce various plastic wastes, which, in turn, lead to EPs such as microplastics (MPs) in water. The size of MPs in these wastes normally ranges from 0.1 to 1 μm.14 Moreover, MPs are carriers that enable the transportation of numerous contaminants, and their introduction into the food chain occurs through living things, including fish, plants, and microbes.15 Studies have shown that unused or expired drugs might become potentially harmful compounds when they accumulate in various matrices, such as water and soil.16 Due to the lack of a proper system for recycling electronic materials (e-waste), the recovery of reusable materials often falls to the informal sector, which resorts to unregulated processes, sloppy disassembly, and other practices that endanger the environment. Consequently, it is necessary to discover appropriate procedures to check the contaminants at their points of origin.17 The detrimental effects of EPs have emerged as a major reason for concern in both society and the environment due to their potential to induce cancer and disrupt the endocrine system. This disruption has the potential to impact the regular levels of hormones,18 either by increasing or suppressing hormone production and metabolism.19 The environmental consequences include decreased hematocrit levels in fish, lethality to aquatic animals, and endangerment to both terrestrial and aquatic organisms. Furthermore, EPs induce hematocrit reduction in fish, feminization of aquatic living things, and impairment of the immunological and neurological systems.20 Several studies have analyzed the potential EPs in soil, water, and air using the available techniques and predicted their impacts on living things and the environment.
However, the significant advancements in technology, changes in human living conditions, industrial activities, and societal structures have resulted in the emergence of new EPs. While new detection technologies, materials, and data analysis methods are being developed, the complex nature of EPs—including their origins, pathways, and impacts on living organisms and ecosystems—requires researchers to develop cost-effective and scalable technologies. Addressing the challenges of mitigating the toxic effects of EPs necessitates advancements in detection and data analysis technologies. This review critically analyzes various analytical and sensor-based detection methods currently employed to identify EPs, as outlined in the “detection of EPs” section. It provides an overview of existing studies and highlights potential research gaps. In “chemometrics,” we explore recently developed methods for analyzing data obtained from these detection techniques, along with a critical evaluation of their effectiveness. Despite numerous studies on the toxicological impacts of pollutants, the analysis of these effects is complex due to the constantly changing context of industrial operations, environmental concerns, and human health. Consequently, there is a need for more dependable research that builds upon existing findings. “toxicological impacts of EPs on human health” assesses the impact of EPs on human health and their effects on living organisms in soil and water, including microorganisms. “impact of EPs on the environment” analyzes how EPs affect the environment. Finally, in “future perspectives and research directions,” we discuss the challenges faced in this field and outline potential future research directions for the detection, analysis, and prediction of the toxic effects of EPs.
Detection of EPs
The identification of EPs is an essential and necessary step in the process of controlling environmental pollution. The methods for identifying EPs can be categorized into three groups: analytical approaches, general sensing techniques, and advanced sensing techniques. Scientists have made extensive endeavors to employ diverse analysis techniques. Analytical techniques with liquid chromatography (LC), gas chromatography (GC), and mass spectrometry (MS), particularly tandem MS and high-resolution MS, serve as the foundation for separation and accurate quantification of EPs. Furthermore, advanced techniques like capillary electrophoresis and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy augment the capacity to analyze EPs. MS and molecular techniques enable multi-residue analysis and the detection of unidentified pollutants. Sensor technologies are continually evolving to facilitate rapid, on-site screening. The implementation of novel analytical techniques has improved our capacity to detect contaminants of rising concern and acquire essential insights into their environmental presence, addressing specific requirements such as the analysis of ionic species or structural elucidation. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is especially proficient in analyzing volatile and semi-volatile chemical molecules. Advances in hyphenated chromatography-spectrometry techniques and portable sensors allow for on-site detection of EPs, such as heavy metals in water bodies. GC- and LC-ICP-MS techniques are promising in detecting Cr, As, Sb, Se, Hg, and Sn with a limit of detection of 0.2–20 μg/L.21 It integrates the formidable separation skills of GC with the sophisticated detection competence of MS. Recent investigations have corroborated the efficiency of GC-MS in many environmental and analytical chemistry applications. NMR and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) are essential analytical techniques for elucidating the structures and concentrations of organic contaminants. Utilization of appropriate sensors appears to be a favorable approach due to its intrinsic characteristics such as sensitivity, selectivity, ease of use, and on-site detection capability.22 Nanotechnology has significantly advanced pollution detection, especially utilizing nanomaterials such as gold and silver nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and graphene. Nanomaterials exhibit distinctive features, such as extensive surface area and increased chemical reactivity, rendering them optimal for enhancing detection signals in many tests.
Analytical methods for the detection of EPs
The process of detection and quantification of EPs consists of several strategies. Three steps, including sample acquisition, pretreatment, and sample analysis, are involved in analytical procedures for analyzing EPs. The sample analysis involves the identification, characterization, and quantification of the EPs. For this objective, we utilize a variety of methods and tools.23 The visual inspection method encompasses many techniques, such as direct visual observation, optical microscope observation, and electronic microscope observation. This method allows for the selection, classification, and observation of the color and size of the examined object using either the naked eye or a microscope. Visual identification can be achieved by utilizing scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), and micro-Raman techniques.24 Visual approaches, despite their notable advantages, suffer from their requirement of cumbersome apparatus and limited precision. Furthermore, the implementation of this technique results in an inverse correlation between the error rate and particle size. Therefore, there is a need for improved and dependable technology to detect EPs.25
The characterization of specific EP requires the utilization of highly specialized methods. Various researchers have utilized a range of analytical techniques to detect EPs in different media, including sludge, water, and serum.26 Chromatography, MS, and labeling techniques have enabled the quantification of EPs, including nanoplastics (NPs), in plants.27 The chemical detection methodology employs the thermal analytical method and the vibratory spectrum method to identify contaminants by analyzing their chemical properties. To comprehensively examine contaminating particles, several studies employ a mix of analytical approaches.23 Pyrolysis GC-mass spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), thermal extraction desorption GC-mass spectrometry (TED-GC-MS), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) are widely used thermal analytical techniques.24 An efficient detection method is also essential for identifying EPs like polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Commonly employed techniques for measuring volatile PFAS include high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), solid-phase extraction HPLC (SPE-HPLC), ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC), liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), and GC. Occasionally employed techniques encompass NMR, FTIR, and ion chromatography. At present, LC-MS is a highly effective method for analyzing PFAS in various environmental samples, with detection limits reaching the nanogram level.23,28 LC coupled to MS, or tandem mass spectrometry (TMS), is usually the best way to look at a wide range of new pollutants that are found in sewage sludge. LC-MS enables the accurate identification of highly polar, thermally unstable, and large-molecular-weight chemicals such as acidic substances, steroids, and antibiotics, respectively, with outstanding sensitivity and selectivity. UHPLC is often chosen over HPLC due to its superior resolution and faster analysis time.29 Microscopy, FTIR/Raman spectroscopy (RS), GC-MS, stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy, and micro-FTIR are employed for microfiber identification.30
The integration of spatial heterodyne spectrometer (SHS) and RS technology can effectively overcome the challenges encountered in traditional analytical EP sensing. The spatial heterodyne Raman spectroscopy (SHRS) technique is employed for the rapid and accurate detection of EPs, including polypropylene (PP), polycarbonates (PC), polystyrene (PS), and high-density polyethylene (HDPE).31 A technique utilizing surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has been developed to identify MPs in untreated water samples. This responsive sensing technology is capable of detecting small particles, or EPs, in fluid samples. The presence of EPs in freshwater fish can be analyzed using FTIR and observed using an infrared microscope.32 However, the completely automated technique exhibited reduced precision and performance in the context of fiber and polymer sensing, mostly due to its restricted range of profile spectra and absence of chemical image evaluation. Under the most unfavorable circumstances, the completely automated technique yielded a greater number of incorrect positive results.33,34 Semi-automatic inspection offers a supplementary approach to both fully automatic and labor-intensive methods, mitigating the drawbacks of automatic procedures and the limitations associated with human errors. In general, the FTIR and Raman techniques possess unique strengths and weaknesses, and they operate in tandem as complementary methods for MP detection.35 A method of directly measuring the volume of EPs is suggested as a means of detecting organic compounds. Implementing this approach will yield significant advantages in evaluating EPs across different media and improving the existing FTIR procedure.36
A rapid near-infrared hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI) technique can detect and classify EPs with reliable accuracy. The concepts of NIR-HSI are compared to other frequently employed approaches for characterizing MPs chemically. The findings indicate that NIR-HSI, in conjunction with classification models, has the capability to serve as a comprehensive screening method for MP-type characterization.37 The successful application of thermal degradation techniques for detecting and measuring EPs in both environmental and food samples is well established.38 These techniques have been widely utilized to assess EPs, particularly MPs, across various environments, including marine and freshwater ecosystems, soil, living organisms, sewage sludge, commercial sea salt, and drinking water. Table 1 presents various chromatography and spectrometry techniques, along with their combinations, utilized for detecting EPs. It provides information on their limits of detection (LODs), advantages and the challenges associated with each method. The comparison emphasizes that LOD can vary depending on the methods used, the specific type of EP, and the characteristics of the sample. Additionally, effective sampling and managing interferences during the detection process present significant technical challenges. Many detection methods require further research to enhance their scalability and cost-effectiveness. The overall evaluation indicates that advanced research is essential to enhance data collection efficiency and the reliability of detection methods, which are necessary for accurately analyzing data with chemometric methods to reliably predict EPs in various media.
Table 1.
Chromatographic and spectrometry methods used to detect EPs, limit of detection, and their advantages and limitations
| Sl. no. | EP detection method | EP type (detection limit) | Reference | Advantages and challenges |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Chromatographic methods | ||||
| 1 | reversed phase-ion pairing-LP (RP-IP-LC) | ephedrine (0.01–0.08 mg/mL) | Jankovics et al.39 | this technique can concurrently separate ionized and non-ionized analytes. The formulation of buffers is straightforward and exhibits a high degree of result repeatability. Preparation is simpler and more expedient than gas chromatography. It yields highly accurate and consistent results. It can isolate the chemical in a brief retention period. It possesses a low limit of quantification and limit of detection. More complicated operations. Results interpretation is harder. Analysis is expensive. Ion-pair materials are batch-un-replicable. Less activity and stability. |
| 2 | SPE-HPLC | pesticides in food (1.5 ng/mL) | Kolichová et al.28 | this approach has several benefits, such as easier sample preparation, less use of dangerous organic solvents, cost-effectiveness, environmental friendliness, and the capacity to employ isocratic elution to separate a variety of chemicals. The disadvantages include decreased column efficiency, sluggish mass transfer within the stationary phase, inadequate wetting of the stationary phase, as well as to the adsorption of monomeric surfactants. |
| 3 | micellar high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet (MHPLC-UV) | ephedrine (7.8 × 10−5 mg/mL), pseudoephedrine (2.0 × 10−4 mg/mL), and methyl-ephedrine (1.5 × 10−4 mg/mL) | Wang et al.40 and Dong et al.41 | |
| 4 | high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet (HPLC-UV) | ephedrine (0.11 μg/mL), pseudoephedrine (0.12 μg/mL), norephedrine (0.09 μg/mL), norpseudoephedrine (0.10 μg/mL), and methyl-ephedrine (0.15 μg/mL) | Wang et al.40 | advantageous due to its high resolution, precision, and reproducibility in separating complex mixtures; however, it is limited by substantial apparatus and operational costs, the requirement for skilled personnel, and the time-intensive nature of method development. |
| 5 | high-resolution gas chromatography (HRGC) | PBDEs (8.0 × 10−2–2.9 × 105 pg/g) | Kim et al.42 | has exceptional sensitivity and separation capabilities for volatile and semi-volatile chemicals, but its limitations include the requirement for specific sample preparation for complicated mixtures |
| 6 | high-resolution LC (HRLC) | PFAS (110–180 μg/L) | Ganesan et al.23 | benefits include quantitative accuracy, reproducibility, versatility, high sensitivity, high resolution and separation efficiency, and quicker analysis times. Its drawbacks include the high cost of specialized components; the need for expertise; the need for huge amounts of high-purity organic solvents, which can be expensive and produce a lot of solvent waste; the possibility of interference or false positives; and the requirement for orthogonal procedures for confirmation. |
| Spectrometry methods | ||||
| 7 | inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) | Ag nanoparticles (3–14 mg/kg) | Johnson et al.43 | although this approach has many benefits, such as high sensitivity, low detection limits, and the ability to analyze several elements and isotopes, it also has drawbacks, such as high expenses, the possibility of spectral and non-spectral interferences, the requirement for trained operators, and complicated sample preparation. |
| 8 | single MS | Zn nanoparticles (421 mg/kg) | Lombi et al.44 | this method provides benefits such as elevated sensitivity and specificity for the identification of unknown compounds and the measurement of molecular weight; nevertheless, it is constrained by its inability to distinguish specific isomers, the risk for false positives among identical hydrocarbons, and its high cost and complexity. |
| 9 | SP-ICP-MS | Ti (2.71 ng/L), Fe (0.034-0.54 μm), Zn (below 5.5 × 106 particle/L), Sn (1.4 μg/L), and Pb (below 5.5 × 106 particle/L) | Lee et al.45 | provides the distinct benefits of identifying individual nanoparticles by size and quantifying both particulate and dissolved concentrations; however, it is susceptible to matrix effects, necessitates precise calibration, and frequently requires supplementary procedures for comprehensive characterization. |
| 10 | atmospheric pressure photo ionization (AAPI)-MS | inorganic nanoparticles (0.1 ng/L). | Bäuerlein et al.46 | offers benefits such as elevated accuracy, sensitivity, minimal cost per study, and ease of use for the examination of metallic components. Nonetheless, its constraints encompass the incapacity to assess non-metals, a restricted dynamic range, and possible inter-element interferences and matrix effects. |
| 11 | high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) | PFASs (8 × 10−2–2.9 × 105 pg/g) | Liu et al.47 | this method provides enhanced accuracy, selectivity, and sensitivity, facilitating precise chemical formula prediction and non-targeted analysis of unidentified chemicals. Nonetheless, it necessitates substantial instrument expenses, intricate maintenance, and the production of extensive, complicated datasets that demand considerable processing resources. |
| 12 | FTIR and Attenuated total reflectance (ATR)-FTIR spectroscopy | microplastics and nano plastics: fibers, film, and fragments (10–20 μm particle size) | Kor et al.,48 Kanhai et al.,49 and Issaka et al.50 | fast results in seconds to minutes, detection of trace levels of contaminants, non-destructive analysis, reliable and reproducible results over time, and useful for identifying unknown pollutants. Water interference needs drying of sample. Sensitivity to external factors, limited structural information for complex organics. |
| Combined use of chromatograph and spectrometry methods | ||||
| 13 | Ultra performance LC (UPLC)-triple quadrupole-MS | ephedrine and pseudoephedrine (0.5 ng/mL), norephedrine (2 ng/mL) | Odoardi et al.,51 Yahagi et al.,52 and Tang et al.53 | provides faster run times due to smaller particles and higher pressures, leading to increased sample throughput. It enhances sensitivity through sharper peaks that improve the signal-to-noise ratio. It minimizes interference, reduces solvent consumption and operational costs. High initial cost, strict sample preparation requirements, and need for skilled manpower. |
| 14 | UHPLC | PFASs (0.010–0.080 ng/L) | Kaboré et al.54 | |
| 15 | UHPLC-MS | PFASs, EDCs, and PPCPs (0.02–1.25 μg/kg) | Androulakakis et al.,55 Macheka et al.,56 Pang et al.,57 and Liang et al.58 | |
| 16 | LC-HRMS | EDCs (0.5–10 ng/g) | Herrero et al.59 | enables exact compound identification, aids in non-target and retrospective investigations, and is useful for intricate and complex combinations. However, it encounters constraints including elevated instrument expenses, the production of large datasets requiring sophisticated software and storage solutions, and challenges in detecting low-concentration chemicals, especially during co-elution events. |
| 17 | LC-quadrupole time-of-flight (QTOF)-MS | PPCPs (1–2500 ng/g) | Castro et al.60 | |
| 18 | LC with tandem MS | PFASs (0.0001–0.0033 μg/L) | Kaboré et al.,54 Rehman et al.,61 and Menger et al.62 | |
| 19 | GC-MS | PFASs, EDCs, and alkylphenols (APs) (1.2–5.5 ng/L); PCPs (0.5–4.5 ng/kg); and pharmaceutical PCPs (2.009–642.07 ng/g) alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEs), accelerated solvent extraction (ASE), and brominated flame retardants (BFRs) |
Belhaj et al.,63 Azzouz et al.,64 Davis et al.,65 and Chokwe et al.66 | provides improved sensitivity, rapidity, and specificity for detecting volatile chemicals in intricate combinations. Nonetheless, its principal limitations include its capacity to evaluate only volatile and thermally stable chemicals, necessitating considerable sample preparation. |
| 20 | GC-MS | PFASs (0.02–15 ng/L), EDCs (0.01–0.3 ng/g), and PCPs (2.009–642.07 ng/g) | Ayala-Cabrera et al.67 | |
| 21 | HPLC-DAD-FLD | anti-inflammatory drugs, estrogen antibiotics, lipid regulators, β- blockers, and antiepileptic and stimulant drugs (1.22–360 μg/kg) | Martin et al.68 | appropriate for thermally unstable, non-volatile, and high-molecular-weight molecules. Facilitates trace-level analysis, efficiently isolates intricate matrices, and provides accurate quantification. LC-Atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI)/Atmospheric pressure photoionization and high-resolution product scan (APPI-HRPS) is compatible with diverse mobile phases and needs an additional dopant gas. micro-HPLC-MS/MS reduces analysis time, allowing for efficient workflows in pollutant detection. analytes with low solubility, ultra-high molecular weight species, elevated costs, and the necessity for specialized personnel may provide challenges |
| 22 | Micro-HPLC-MS/MS | PFASs (0.09–7.27 μg/kg) | Sznajder-Katarzyńska et al.69 | |
| 23 | LC-APCI/APPI-HRPS | endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) | Golovko et al.70 and Golovko et al.71 | |
| 24 | GC-negative-ion chemical ionization (NICI)-MS | BFRs (0.19–0.67 ng/g) and PBDEs (0.17–0.56 ng/g) | Gorga et al.72 | provides exceptional sensitivity and selectivity for electronegative chemicals, rendering it optimal for ultra-trace detection of analytes such as pesticides and halogenated contaminants. nonetheless, it possesses drawbacks, such as the absence of universal applicability, the possibility of a singular ion in the mass spectrum, and the requirement for significant sample purification due to a more susceptible ion source to contamination. |
| 25 | GC-NCI-MS | PBDEs and PCPs | Lee et al.73 and Gago-Ferrero et al.74 | |
| 26 | GC-electron capture negative ion (ECNI)-MS | HFRs and BFR (0.2–1.5 ng/g) | Davis et al.65 and Wu et al.75 | |
| 27 | Solid-phase microextraction (SPME)-GC-MS | EDCs (1.0–42.5 ng/g) | Vakondios et al.76 | benefits in pollutant detection, chiefly owing to its amalgamation of sampling, extraction, and concentration into a singular, solvent-free process. nonetheless, it possesses limits, such as the fragility and expense of the fibers, along with difficulties in the quantitative measurement of intricate mixes. |
| 28 | GC- inductively coupled plasma (ICP)-MS | PBDEs (0.182–0.302 ng/g) | Novak et al.77 | |
Sensors for EP detection
Sensors are multifaceted devices that combine the fields of chemical, biological, materials, electronics, and cross-disciplinary sciences. They are regarded as a very promising technology capable of delivering significant convenience and transformative impact on a global scale. In recent years, the sensor-based detection of pollutant concentrations in various environmental media has advanced significantly due to digital and internet of things (IoT) technologies. This is particularly evident in sensor-based detection and monitoring systems that are economical, reliable, eco-friendly, and sustainable. These sensors can be classified as physical, chemical, or biological, and their applications are widely observed in both environmental and medicinal fields. Based on their sensing mechanisms, these sensors are categorized as colorimetric sensors, optical sensors, electrochemical sensors, coulometric sensors, electrochemiluminescence sensors, and biosensors. Each type of sensor has distinct advantages and limitations regarding sensitivity and selectivity.78 Chemical sensors have evolved into biosensors, transitioning from single detectors to chip techniques. Several techniques, including linear sweep voltammetry (LSV), alternating current voltammetry (ACV), cyclic voltammetry (CV), chrono amperometry, chrono coulometry (CC), chrono potentiometry (CP), anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV), cathodic stripping voltammetry (CSV), adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV), differential pulse voltammetry (DPV), differential pulse stripping voltammetry (DPSV), square wave voltammetry (SWV), electron capture negative ion mass spectrometry (ECNI), electron ionization (EI), and fluorescence detector (FLD).79 The other advanced sensor technologies, including electrochemical sensors, fluorescent sensors, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensors, and field-effect transistors (FET), are incorporated in the detection of EPs.80,81,82 Table 2 lists the LODs, benefits, and challenges associated with the identification of EPs by voltammetry.
Table 2.
Voltammetry methods used to detect EPs and their measuring range
| Sl. no. | Type | EP type (detection limit) | Reference | Advantages and challenges |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | LSV | naphthalene acetic acid, artificial colorant and carcinogen (0.0016 μm). | Zhu et al.83 and Ayerdurai et al.84 | attains exceptionally low detection thresholds, rendering it optimal for trace contaminant analysis. Voltametric instruments are significantly more economical than ICP-MS or Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS). Voltammetry concurrently identifies many metal ions or organic contaminants in a single analysis. It can distinguish among various chemical forms or oxidation states of metals. The performance can be improved by altering the working electrode with nanomaterials or polymers. nevertheless, environmental samples from the actual world comprise intricate matrices and diverse chemicals that may lead to electrode fouling. The creation of intermetallic complexes can hinder the precise identification of individual elements. Furthermore, it necessitates meticulous optimization and regulation for precise and accurate outcomes. It may not be suitable for all organic contaminants without previous derivatization, and the electrodes may exhibit poor long-term stability and significant variability between batches. |
| 2 | ACV | Hg2+ (0.01 p.m.) | Liu et al.85 | |
| 3 | CV | bisphenol A, 4-nitrophenol, and metronidazole (0.032–0.07 μm) | Rasheed et al.86 and Huang et al.87 | |
| 4 | SWV | Cd (1.5 μg/L), Pb (1.3 μg/L), Zn (0–10 mg/L), As (2.2 μg/L), Cu (0–100 μg/L), and Hg ions (0.1–3.0 ppm) | Manikandan et al.88 | |
| 5 | ASV | pita vastatin (9.66 ± 0.04 nm) | Pandit et al.89 | |
| 6 | DPV | nitrite, fluorite, carbendazim, bromate, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and paracetamol (0.001–0.14 μm) | Rhouati et al.90 and Song et al.91 | |
| 7 | hydrodynamic | l-tyrosine (1.54 ng/mL) | Karthik et al.79 | |
| 8 | DPSV | Hg2+ (10.0–3.0 nm) | Tajik et al.92 |
The pursuit of precision and reliability is a primary objective in the development of sensors, particularly those used for the detection of EPs.93 Furthermore, the expected advancement of automation, miniaturization, and related technologies is a highly anticipated trend in sensing technologies in future. Hence, it is vital to thoroughly analyze the advancement of sensors for EP detection. It is anticipated that many strategic advancements that satisfy the existing requirements will help EP monitoring. It is, therefore, anticipated that sensor technologies will advance to unprecedented levels and that devices supporting process automation, small-scale gadgets, high performance, smaller size, high identification efficiency, and reliable performance, as well as enhanced detection effectiveness, soft sensing compatibility, and aesthetics, will emerge.81,94 Table 3 examines the LODs, merits, and challenges associated with the identification of EPs using different types of sensors and nanomaterials. Emerging sensor-network technologies can deliver extensive datasets for the analysis of regional and temporal variations in EPs, together with their origins and trends. These sensors incorporate IoT technology to monitor EPs in real time and transmit the data wirelessly to cloud for analysis. Remote sensing technologies, such as satellite imaging, drones, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), are being employed to monitor environmental pollutants across diverse mediums and extensive spatial scales.110 Microfluidic gadgets utilizing artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML)111 may represent the forthcoming evolution of EPs detection and analysis.
Table 3.
Sensors used in the detection of EPs and their measuring limits, advantages, and challenges
| Sl. no. | Sensor type | EP type (detection limit) | Reference | Advantages and challenges |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) | PFASs | Cheng et al.95 and Li et al.96 | high sensitivity and selectivity, tunable structure and functionality, rapid mass transfer of pollutants to the active sensing sites, and regenerated and reused after the detection or removal process. however, they have poor electrical conductivity, generate potential toxic substances and limited industrial level scalability, |
| 2 | thodamine derivatives (RhD) grafted on AuNS@Ag core-shell nanocubes (CSN) | Hg iron (0.001–1000 ppm) | Singh et al.93 and Li et al.97 | capability to utilize a singular sensor to attain elevated sensitivity, selectivity, and an extensive linear range for analytes such as mercury ions. the primary constraint is the absence of widely accessible, scalable, and cost-effective synthesis techniques for nanomaterials, with the difficulties in their actual incorporation into electronics. |
| 3 | magnetic cellulose nanoparticles (MCNPs) | ibuprofen, paracetamol, naproxen, and diclofenac (11–24 μg/L) | Abujaber et al.98 | benefits stemming from its facile magnetic separation, elevated efficiency, and eco-friendly composition. nevertheless, they encounter constraints pertaining to stability, possible long-term toxicity issues, and difficulties in large-scale manufacture. |
| 4 | AuNPs | microplastic (0.1–50.0 mg/mL) | Li et al.99 | stability, compatibility with aqueous media, ease of surface functionalization, downsizing, and the provision of a useful platform for practical and economical investigation make this candidate the preferred choice. although gold nanoparticles exhibit biocompatibility, elevated amounts can be hazardous. The synthesis and functionalization of gold nanoparticles necessitate specialized methodologies. Gold nanoparticles are comparatively costly in relation to alternatives. |
| 5 | Rhodamine B derivative fluorescent (RBS) + Y-AgNPs | Hg+ (12.9 ppb–0.7 ppb) | Kraithong et al.100 | the primary advantages include ultrahigh sensitivity, portability, molecular fingerprinting, rapid response and real-time monitoring, non-destructive and non-invasive characteristics, effective performance in aqueous solutions, enhanced chemical stability and resistance to matrix interference, and compatibility with multifunctional platforms. the primary hurdles include difficulties in large-scale production, intricate and costly fabrication procedures, the necessity for sophisticated sample purification techniques, concerns over potential effects on human health and ecosystems, and complications in analysis. |
| 6 | Ag nanoisland film (Ag-NIFs) | arsenic ions (2.5 × 10−1 to 2.5 × 10−5 nm) | Yen et al.101 | |
| 7 | nano sensors based on nanoparticles | DNA, metal ions, glucose, sucrose, ATP, and phytoestrogens (2.25–42.5 nm) | Kwak et al.102 | |
| 8 | nano sensors based on nanowires (CuWNEEs) | nitrite (10–500 μm) | Stortini et al.103 | |
| 9 | nano sensors based on nanotubes (HNTs) | nitrite (2–425 μm) | Ghanei-Motlagh.et al.104 | |
| 10 | carbon-based molecularly-imprinted polymers (CBMIP) | Cr ion (56.1–438.1 mg/g), dimethoate (1.83 × 10−11 mol/L), triazine (0.007–0.068 μg/L), acetamiprid (2 nm), lead (II) ion, β-estradiol (83.2 mg/g), bisphenol S (0.03 μm), phosphate (5.0 × 10−6 mol/L), and isoproturon (2.2 μg/L) | Kamyab et al.105 | |
| 11 | bioreceptor-based sensors | enzyme and antibody (0.5–8 and 10–120 μm) | Turan et al.106 | demonstrate a reliable, straightforward, efficient, and rapid approach for monitoring EPs that is robust in both particular and overall responses, consumes less energy, and minimizes carbon impact. challenges arising from humidity interference, pH impact on sensitivity, selectivity, sustainability, mobility, and reusability. |
| 12 | electrochemical transducers | Cd2+, Pd2+, and Hg2+ | Sharma et al.107 and Li et al.108 | high sensitivity, real-time monitoring, and portability render them effective for pollutant detection. Nonetheless, constraints encompass possible influence from extraneous compounds, the necessity for routine maintenance, and difficulties in attaining elevated selectivity for intricate environmental samples. |
| 13 | colorimetric transducers | S. aureus (102–107 CFU/mL) | Antunović et al.109 |
The materials of EP detecting sensors
The material that is used in the sensor has a significant influence on the detection of EPs and its real-time application. Furthermore, the sensor material plays a direct role in the sensor’s sensitivity, selectivity, economics, reliability, and overall performance. The rapid advancement of material technology in the past few years has significantly influenced sensors, resulting in a constant enhancement of their efficiency for detecting environmental toxins. Functionalization is achieved by employing metal nanoparticles, CNTs, mesoporous materials, as well as the electrical conductivity of polymers and polystyrene. In addition, single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) were specifically engineered to act as a substance that reduces the intensity of fluorescence in a DNA sensing method called “switch-on” for the purpose of detecting Hg2+ ions.112 CNTs have attracted increasing attention because of their versatile and wide-ranging utility in sensing methodologies. Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) is a polymeric carbon nitride that resembles graphite and does not include any metals. The combination of metal nanoparticles with g-C3N4 can form metal-semiconductor heterojunctions, facilitating electron mobility between the two materials. Furthermore, quantum dots (QDs), a type of nanoparticle, have garnered significant interest as a crucial fluorescent probe for biosensing in recent times. In addition, scientists have employed graphene oxide quantum dots (GOQD) for the detection of small amounts of lead via photoluminescence.113 Global interest in mesoporous materials synthesized by a template approach is driven by their well-organized porous architectures and diverse pore sizes, which confer unique characteristics and exhibit fascinating phenomena due to the nano- or quantum-size effect. Numerous sensing techniques have utilized biomolecular materials as sensing units due to their intrinsic characteristics. The choice of sensor materials must tackle the challenges arising from advances in chemometric techniques for detecting EPs, which are influenced by the prevailing dominance of AI and IoT technologies.
Applications of different sensors in EP identification
There are a variety of sensors that can be used to detect developing contaminants, including electrochemical sensors, optical sensors, biosensors, and nanomaterial-based sensors, all of which have their own unique applications. An electrochemical sensor is a device capable of interpreting electrochemical data and generating a valuable analytical signal. Electrochemical sensing techniques are widely used due to their affordability and user-friendly nature, sometimes in conjunction with conventional methods. Electrochemical sensors have the added advantage of being able to detect a wide range of substances, including organic, inorganic, neutral, and ionic molecules. Additionally, they have the capability to simultaneously detect many analytes.92,114 The electrochemical cell consists of three electrodes: the working electrode (WE), the reference electrode (RE), and the counter electrode (CE).115 Possible options for the WE include a glassy carbon electrode, an indium-tin oxide electrode, or a gold electrode. The electro-catalytic activity of the WE can be improved using several processes such as drop casting, ink mixing and printing, or electro-deposition. Usually, the RE is made of either an Ag/AgCl or a saturated calomel electrode, whereas the CE is made of a platinum wire. Enhancing the WE modifies it in a way that improves the transfer of electrons, resulting in an enhanced electrochemical activity.116 Chemosensors, also known as chemical screening, can quickly detect EPs regardless of whether or not common interfering elements are present. When a particular EP is present in soil, water, or other environmental samples, these sensors are able to provide information about it. It functions by way of a transduction mechanism that translates the recognition event into a perceivable signal. Chemosensors are classified as optical, electrochemical, mass-sensitive, and heat-sensitive sensors based on the operating mechanism of the transducer. The colorimetric chemosensor’s reaction is readily observable without the need for any further tools, or it can be tracked by employing a UV spectrophotometer.117 Conversely, fluorometric chemosensors often provide highly sensitive and versatile measurements, allowing for the estimation of ions at concentrations below one micromolar.118 Furthermore, they are employed on a large scale in the identification of EPs, which include a wide range of substances such as pesticides, pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and heavy metals, in a variety of habitats that pose substantial threats to the environment and to people’s health.
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), alternatively referred to as porous coordination polymers, are highly porous nanomaterials composed of metal ions or clusters interconnected by organic ligands. Recently, scientists have conducted thorough investigations on MOFs, primarily focusing on their exceptional structural properties. MOFs, when paired with other functional or semiconductor nanoparticles, have demonstrated remarkable capacity to identify air contaminants, including hazardous gases. These sensors demonstrated outstanding sensitivity and selectivity specifically for H2S gas.119 Graphene-based nanostructures and reduced graphene oxides (rGO) are highly versatile nanomaterials that have gained significant attention in the studies of EPs due to their exceptional and adjustable properties. They possess remarkable characteristics such as a large surface area, excellent electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, surface properties, and various other physiochemical attributes.120,121 Specifically, these nanomaterials have demonstrated encouraging outcomes in identifying EPs in air. This contributes to significant advancements in controlling and monitoring air pollution.122 QDs, also known as semiconductor nanocrystals, possess adjustable optical, electrical, and physiochemical characteristics that depend on their size. These qualities include variable band gaps and a significant surface-to-volume ratio.123,124,125 QDs can be utilized to detect air pollutants, offering exceptional sensitivity. Researchers have recently created many resistive gas sensors using QDs. A gas sensor having PbS QDs detected NO2 gas at ambient temperature.126 The sensor demonstrated exceptional sensitivity. In addition, scientists have created a sensor using ZnS QDs to detect acetone and monitor potential health risks in both indoor and outdoor settings.127 Nanocomposite materials incorporating graphene QDs and exhibiting various nanoarchitectures have been identified as highly effective sensing materials.128 MXene and similar hybrid materials are a new type of multifunctional nanomaterial that is becoming more popular because of their unique properties.129 Due to their extensive surface area and diverse surface chemistry, they exhibit excellent adsorption capabilities for target gases and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This property renders them highly susceptible to detection by lowering the LOD. The nanocomposites composed of MXene and In2O3 (In2O3/Ti3C2Tx) exhibited excellent formaldehyde sensing capabilities, as reported by Liu et al.130 In a similar manner, the composites of MXene and NiO serve as chemiresistive sensors for formaldehyde with enhanced sensitivity.131 The domain of MXene/NiO composites as chemiresistive sensors for formaldehyde is currently expanding, and scientists expect to obtain more captivating outcomes in the foreseeable future.
Plasmonic nanoparticles exhibit a phenomenon known as localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), which enables them to accurately and sensitively detect contaminants. In a recent study, a three-dimensional Ag SERS substrate was used as a sensor for highly sensitive detection of formaldehyde.132 Plasmonic photocatalysts are novel nanomaterials with many functions that exhibit potential for detecting air pollution. This phenomenon is due to the synergistic integration of the photocatalytic attributes of plasmonic and semiconductor nanostructures, resulting in a highly effective combination. Researchers have studied different plasmonic photocatalysts for the purpose of detecting formaldehyde.133,134 Flow-injection chemiluminescence based on Trautz-Schorigin reaction was applied to the determination of formaldehyde in urban rainwater.135 Additionally, sensors based on Au-WO3/SnO2/NiO have been developed to detect CH3COCH3, C6H5CH3, NH3, and H2S.136 Several novel nanomaterials exhibiting diverse nano-architectures, such as ZnS(OH)6, ferrites-CoFe2O4, and other similar compounds, have demonstrated potential for environmental applications.137 Bio-nano-sensors (bNSRs) have been extensively studied, resulting in significant advancements and developments in biotechnology, particularly in the detection and surveillance of bacteria and viruses. These advanced biosensors have the potential to greatly improve both sensitivity and selectivity, leading to a revolutionary impact on this field. Toxin detection can be achieved more quickly when high-affinity ligands and antibodies are used as sensors in conjunction with nanoparticles.80 To effectively employ nanomaterials for the detection and degradation of air contaminants, it is crucial to address numerous challenges. A thorough evaluation of the potential adverse effects of nanomaterials on human health and the environment is essential to address issues related to nanotoxicity. Moreover, the challenge of scaling emerges from the complex and costly process of manufacturing nanomaterials in substantial quantities. The practical application of nanomaterial-based solutions depends on their economic viability. Future investigations should concentrate on the long-term stability of the nanostructures. Overcoming these challenges will enable the efficient application of nanomaterials in detecting and removing air pollutants, hence improving air quality and promoting sustainable environmental management.
Chemometrics
The examination of EPs involves several phases, including assessing the concentrations of EPs, determining the pollution status and the related risks to humans and ecosystems using different indicators, and identifying the likely sources of EPs using suitable procedures.138 Considering the large amount of data, its sporadic nature, the high cost of collecting it, and its direct impact on the safety and well-being of all organisms, handling EP-related data requires meticulous care to ensure correct forecasts. It employs a wide array of integrated methodologies, algorithms, and models to reveal the qualitative and quantitative relationship between measures and predicted parameters.139 Chemometrics also necessitates the development of various actions, including the definition of the variables under consideration and the critical evaluation of the results. In addition, algorithms employ critical reasoning to assess the information supplied by the utilized programs, thereby emphasizing the critical importance of human involvement in multivariate optimization procedures.140 Furthermore, researchers have integrated chemometrics with the most recent breakthroughs in sensor technology.141 However, the fundamental principles of the methods that are involved in chemometrics are essential to employing an appropriate strategy in studying EPs. In addition, chemometric strategies employ analytical and statistical methods to analyses intricate data for interpreting the qualitative and quantitative variation of parameters. As a result of certain constraints in the traditional analysis of pollution-related data, the chemometric method is gaining popularity.142 EPs found in trace amounts in the environment require special attention. Extracting useful information from the data provided by modern analytical instruments is a difficult process143 due to its complexity. Thus, advances in chemometrics have become indispensable in the analysis of trace contaminants. Numerous chemometric procedures have been employed by researchers for a thorough and more reliable understanding of the nature and trend of EPs in the environment, and this also involves the advancement of AI technology.139 In addition to the univariate approach, the application of chemometric analysis enables the effective quantification of experimental data and guarantees the revelation of previously unrecognized trends in chemical datasets. This approach involves the utilization of mathematical and statistical techniques to enhance the comprehension of chemical data and to develop a relationship between the necessary parameters. Figure 2 conceptually illustrates the importance of chemometrics in the comprehensive detection, assessment, and prediction processes involved in analyzing EPs and forecasting their toxicological effects on humans and the ecosystem. The figure shows how the chemometric techniques interact with the analytical and sensor technologies used in the detection of EPs. Researchers have noted the importance of this burgeoning area across multiple domains of the chemical sciences. This method predominantly employs indirect techniques to determine the properties of substances that are difficult to measure directly.
Figure 2.
Schematic representation of the overall EP detection process with chemometric methods
Diverse chemometric techniques in EP detection
Chemometrics is a field that frequently employs techniques also classified under data mining and ML. The various approaches are primarily categorized into quantitative descriptive techniques and qualitative regression techniques. Additionally, chemometric approaches can generally be divided into two categories: supervised and unsupervised. The objective of supervised methods is to identify a function that provides the most accurate approximation of the relationship that exists between the input and the output related to pollutants.144 Both the input and the output are known in these approaches. Individuals typically utilize supervised learning to solve classification or regression difficulties. When addressing these types of issues, the goal is to create a data-driven connection where both the input and output are known, allowing the model to generate new outputs based on the given inputs. Techniques such as logistic regression (LR), relevance vector machine-based partial least squares (RVM-PLSs), decision trees (DTs), ensemble method (EM), artificial neural networks (ANNs), support vector machines (SVMs), least square support vector machine (LS-SVM), and gradient boosting decision tree (GBDT) are all examples of commonly used supervised learning methods.145 The main goal of unsupervised learning is to identify the underlying structure of the data in a way that does not entail any human intervention. Researchers typically employ unsupervised approaches for the goal of analyzing unstructured data and implementing strategies for reducing the number of dimensions. Some examples of typical uses of unsupervised techniques include cluster analysis (CA), positive matrix factorization (PMF), self-organizing maps (SOM), decrement analysis (DA), factor analysis (FA), and principal-component analysis (PCA).146,147
Application of chemometrics in EP analysis
A keyword search in the Scopus database revealed that more than 8,300 articles about using chemometric analysis to study pollutants were published between 2005 and 2025. Of those, 550 were specifically about new EPs. The steep growth in the number of published articles indicates advancements in research, technologies, and data analysis methods related to chemometrics and detection techniques for predicting EPs and assessing their toxic effects across various fields. Several researchers have highlighted the substantial benefits of integrating chemometrics with AI techniques, such as ML and deep learning (DL), in comparison to conventional methods.140,148 Reports from researchers indicate that the use of chemometrics results in a significant reduction in the amount of bulk data obtained from environmental monitoring and evaluation. In addition, the implementation of integrated chemometric processes helps in effectively explaining a complicated collection of chemical data derived from the environment and in gaining a deeper understanding of environmental issues that are caused by pollution.149 A number of scientists have refocused their efforts on identifying pollution sources and classifying samples using chemometric concepts and techniques.150 Furthermore, scientists have shown that this approach is vital in addressing a variety of environmental problems. Specifically, it is because of its capability to prevent the incorrect interpretation of complicated experimental data, which is necessary for efficient decision making. Additionally, chemometric procedures have a greater level of reliability and are advantageous to a variety of authorities. They serve to enhance focus on essential environmental aspects and, as a result, contribute to the avoidance of redundant parameters.151 The main objective of employing chemometrics is to minimize or eradicate analytical errors. Most basic and complex statistical techniques rely on the assumption that the experimental data follows a normal distribution. Nevertheless, this assumption is invalid when applied to data obtained from the natural surroundings.152 Moreover, as the complexity of environmental monitoring increases, especially with the use of sensor technologies, the associated data also become complex. Hence, a complex dataset requires robust data processing to get a comprehensive and high-quality understanding. Consequently, scientists have developed numerous chemometric algorithms that provide a practical approach to uncovering patterns that exceed the capabilities of the standard univariate strategy.153 This section provides a succinct summary of the utilization of chemometric approaches in assessing environmental pollutants in various scenarios. Other chemometric methods used to analyze EP detection data include PMF, soft independent modelling by class analogy (SIMCA), multiway principal-component analysis (MPCA), parallel factor analysis (PFA), spatial distribution-PCA (SD-PCA), hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis (HACA), linear discriminant analysis (LDA), hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA), partial least-squares regression (PLSR), response surface methodology (RSM), and RSM with desirability function (RSM-DF). Table 4 presents various models that have been recently utilized to identify EPs, along with their applications in evaluating EPs across different media, such as soil, water, and air.
Table 4.
Chemometric methods used in the detection of EPs
| Sl. no. | Chemometric method | Applications in the evaluation of emerging pollutants | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | PMF | pollution in ground water with multiple physicochemical parameters soil heavy metal pollution sources airborne coarse and fine particulate matter |
Li et al.154 Dugga et al.155 Zhang et al.156 |
| 2 | DT | microplastic identification in human and ecosystem | Su et al.157 |
| 3 | PCA | toxicity of polyethylene microplastics in aquatic ecosystem effects of silver, polystyrene nanoplastics, and 5-fluorouracil in reproduction of marine mussels combined effect of nanoplastics and the pharmaceutical diphenhydramine in marine creatures potential sources of emerging pollutants related to raw-treated leachates and ground water |
Araújo et al.158 Gonçalves159 Barreto et al.160 Nikka et al.161 |
| 4 | ANN | detection of Heavy metal pollutants (Cu, Fe, Zn, Mn, Ni, and Pb) in river water detection of EPs in Air and water estimate the spatial distribution of the concentration of heavy metal-based EPs in soil detection of cadmium and lead in soil EPs rejected from reverse osmosis membrane |
Ucun Ozel et al.162 Nandi et al.163 Wang et al.164 Bazoobandi et al.165 Mousavi et al.166 |
| 5 | DA | classification and quantification of microplastics in a seabed sediment | da Silva et al.167 |
| 6 | FA | identifying the sources of metal EPs in aquatic biota sediments | Ofrydopoulou et al.168 |
| 7 | multiple linear regression (MLR) | detection of EP variation in ground water | Charulatha et al.169 |
| 8 | CA | concentration assessment of 70 EPs | Gasco Cavero et al.170 |
| 9 | PCA | independent variations of EPs in ground water detect EPs in air |
Charulatha et al.169 Song et al.171 |
| 10 | RSM | heavy metal (Pb, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cr, and Cd) contamination in mangrove forests | Mahanty et al.172 |
| 11 | RSM-DF | quantitative analysis of 172 anthropogenic organic EPs in water | Ofrydopoulou et al.168 |
| 12 | PLSR | EP concentrations in coal mine-affected rivers detection of pesticide residue in vegetable |
Jones et al.173 Lu et al.174 |
| 13 | LS-SVM | prediction of water quality in urban areas | Zhang et al.175 |
| 14 | SIMCA | microplastics in marine sediments and soil | Goyetche et al.176 |
| 15 | MPCA | potential EPs in air of underground subway stations | Yang et al.177 |
| 16 | PFA | relation between dissolved organic matter (DOM) and EPs | Xiao et al.178 |
| 17 | RVM-PLS | real-time prediction EPs in effluents | Yang et al.179 |
| 18 | SD-PCA | detect and analyze Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, and Pb in soil | Liu et al.180 |
| 19 | EM | concentration forecasting of air particulate matter type EP | Siddique et al.181 |
| 20 | HACA | investigate the human health risks, contamination levels, and spatial variation of EPs in river | Dong et al.182 |
| 21 | GBDT | characterize airborne EP concentrations with temporal and spatial variations of major meteorological factors | Shi et al.183 |
| 22 | LDA | heavy metals in soil | Koki et al.184 |
| 23 | HCA | evaluation of the effect of organic pollutants identification of polar organic chemicals in the aquatic organism monitoring heavy metal pollutants |
Nikzad et al.185 Creusot et al.186 Linnik et al.187 |
| 24 | PLS-DA | microplastics in marine sediments and soil | Goyetche et al.176 |
Innovative technologies, such as drone-based remote sensing and AI, are transforming environmental pollutant monitoring through expedited, extensive, and high-resolution data acquisition and analysis. These technologies provide scalable, economical, and effective solutions for environmental monitoring, rendering them essential instruments for tackling global pollution issues. Owing to the intricacy and elevated dimensionality of the data, conventional analytical techniques frequently fail to comprehensively leverage and utilize this information.188 Supervised learning techniques develop predictive models to elucidate the correlation between EP exposure and disease. Random forest, an ensemble learning algorithm predicated on DT,189 has effectively identified pivotal biomarkers associated with environmental exposure and forecasted disease risk. Several ML models used in the analysis of organic EPs predicted the values close to the experimental results,190 The SVM method has been utilized for risk prediction associated with lead exposure and its effects on the neurological system.191 Linear regression and logistic regression effectively predicted the influence of pesticide exposure on liver cancer. DL methodologies, including convolutional neural networks (CNNs) and recurrent neural networks (RNNs), forecasted high-risk exposure zones and the probable influence of environmental pollutants on diseases, respectively. The section “impact of EPs on the environment” analyzes the ecological consequences of EPs.192 The CNN model also predicted the level of MPs in green tea.193 Recent advancements in data acquisition methods, including IoT and drone technologies, demonstrate the potential of AI techniques in analyzing EPs and predicting their impact on human health and the environment.
Chemometrics for the identification of EPs in air
Chemometric approaches, such as DA, HACA, PCA, multiple linear analysis (MLR), and ANN, were used to analyze datasets of SO2, NO2, O3, CO, and particulate matter to determine patterns of air quality in terms of both time and space.194 The models successfully identified the primary source of air pollution in peninsular Malaysia.195 Compared with DA, spatial pattern recognition (S-ANN) results exhibit superior predictive capability in distinguishing across regions, achieving exceptional classification accuracy.196 Chemometric tools are better at measuring air pollution, because they are more accurate, efficient, and flexible. Furthermore, DA, HACA, PCA, and ANN can track the EPs in the environment cost-effectively.197 The partial least-squares (PLS) regression technique has been demonstrated to possess greater reliability in predicting organic EPs in air.198 A non-targeted chemometric method called regions of interest-multivariate curve resolution-alternating least squares (ROIMCR) was used to detect phthalates, pesticides, and nicotine in the air at a school in Estarreja, Portugal.199 A chemometric research shed light on the connections and interplay between a number of Nigerian atmospheric factors and EPs. The investigation200 also shed light on the intricate dynamics of atmospheric chemistry and the interdependence of different EPs. PCA verified that the thermal treatment of solid fuels resulted in a reduction in the levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and total organic carbon in the atmospheric environment. In addition, CA played a crucial role in establishing the correlation between the levels of PAH, quantities of dust, and total organic carbon levels. ML techniques currently dominate, with random forest being the most frequently used method, achieving up to 98.2% accuracy. DL techniques show promise in capturing complex spatiotemporal relationships in air quality data.148 The studies on the analysis of EPs in air indicate that it is essential to conduct continued research with advancements in data analysis techniques for effectively monitoring and controlling the impact of EPs in the atmosphere.
Chemometrics in water pollutants detection
Chemometric approaches have been widely recognized as a highly advantageous instrument for the analysis of water contaminants since 1996. In a study, the researchers employed CA, DA, and principal components analysis and factor analysis (PCA-FA) models to detect and classify pollutants present in a river basin. The results of the experiments demonstrated the effectiveness of multivariate statistical methods in identifying pollutants, especially when dealing with intricate datasets. FA was capable of identifying altered heavy metals and establishing the correlation between the concentration of chemical ions and heavy metals.201 The PCA, statistical process control (SPC), and absolute principal compound source-multiple linear regression (APCS-MLR) approaches were capable of identifying the primary and agricultural-related pollutants present in a river.202 DA and PCA methods were utilized to examine the spatial differences in the significant heavy metal concentrations and physicochemical characteristics in the drinking water samples. The study employed multivariate analytical approaches such as PCA, CA, and DA to identify potential causes of heavy metal pollution.203 The CA, FA, HCA, and PCA methods were utilized in another study in Nigeria to evaluate the quality of groundwater. The goal was accomplished by determining the extent of heavy metal pollution in the groundwater that had accumulated from several sources.204 It was found that Pb and Cd were the primary elements responsible for the contamination of groundwater with heavy metals. In a similar manner, CA, PCA, and HCA models were used to investigate the chemical composition, potential sources of pollution, quality index, and health concerns that were associated with the utilization of water resources in southeastern Nigeria. In addition, the chemometric methods identified potential sources of water pollution and classified the water resources.205 PCA/FA indicated that the heavy metal contamination in the Nakuvadra-Rakiraki river was very high and could also have adverse consequences on its ecology.206 The outcomes of CA and PCA determined that the origin of pollution could be attributed to human activities, such as the improper disposal of plant and mining waste effluents, agricultural runoff, and sewage sludges infiltrating the groundwater. Furthermore, the PCA and Q-mode HCA outcomes made it easier to identify highly contaminated regions surrounding the sampling sites. The elevated levels of Fe, Mn, Cd, Pb, Ni, and Cr in groundwater were predominantly attributed to the rapid infiltration and accumulation of highly hazardous mine water in the aquifer.207 A recent study reported that the bootstrapping soft shrinkage with partial least squares (BOSS-PLS) model provided a practical and reliable method for detecting bentazone traces in drinking water.208 Furthermore, the ability to quickly identify PFAS in actual groundwater samples in the field is supported by an intelligent chemometric PLSR model for the produced electrochemical signals.209
Chemometrics for EP detection in soil
In detecting and analyzing EPs in soil, various chemometric methods are utilized depending on the type, intensity, and toxicological impacts on human beings and the environment. PCA is employed to determine the overall distribution pattern of heavy metals, such as Cd, Ni, Zn, Cr, Pb, and Cu, in soil samples, which are considered EPs. Researchers employ CA and FA to identify the origins of pollution. In a study, CA specifically examined the correlation between several heavy metals, such as arsenic, zinc, iron, copper, chromium, cadmium, lead, manganese, and nickel, present in the soil.210 CA revealed that these metals may have common origins resulting from human activities, such as the disposal of metallic, rubber, plastic, and battery wastes, and other comparable sources.211 RSM is the platform that connects the statistical and mathematical methods used to plan experiments and figure out how different variables affect each other. This makes it easier to identify the best conditions for an experiment. A study was conducted to investigate heavy metal pollution in the Indian Sundarbans using chemometric approaches, specifically RSM.212 However, studies that are done in living things are not enough to fully understand how the enzymes work and come up with better ways to control and get rid of heavy metal ions in soil.172 Researchers conducted a study to monitor the presence of heavy metal pollutants in the vicinity of copper mines. To obtain comprehensive information on these pollutants, one-way analysis of variance, HCA, and calculation of bioaccumulation rates were employed. The researchers also considered the PCA method to examine the contamination of heavy metals in vegetables and soil in a region that had been subjected to prolonged mining activities. Their research determined that employing this chemometric technique facilitated the selection of the most dependable model for evaluating the risk associated with heavy metals in the food chain and its impact on consumers’ health. PCA has facilitated the identification of vegetable species with the lowest and highest potential for negatively affecting human health and the food chain. The applied multivariate approaches measured the concentration of heavy metals using atomic absorption spectroscopy. The LDA findings indicated a significant concentration of Cr, Pb, and Zn in the soil surrounding the dump sites.184,213 The results of most research indicate that while chemometric methods are more economical and time-efficient, they also offer significant benefits for sampling and monitoring applications. By determining the optimal number of sampling parameters or stations to use as input for environmental modeling, these methods effectively extract valuable information from complex datasets. However, finding a suitable approach to fulfill the requirements for continuous monitoring necessitates extensive data collection and the use of effective data processing tools.
Toxicological impacts of EPs on human health
The majority of recently discovered pollutants remain unregulated by domestic or international laws, thereby increasing the dangers to human life.214 These contaminants comprise an extensive variety of substances, such as pharmaceuticals, chemicals, hormones, endocrine disruptors, antibiotics, industrial additives, microbeads, and MPs. Its applicability is restricted to environmental degradation encompassing physical, chemical, and biological aspects. In the present day, various forms of pollution have an impact on human health, either through direct or indirect means.215,216 Antibiotics and endocrine disruptors are two instances of low-level pollutants that exert significant environmental impacts and disseminate rapidly in tandem with the public’s demand for protection.217 Pesticides, personal hygiene products, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals are among the many substances utilized in contemporary society.218 Furthermore, the dispersion of geogenic substances by humans has resulted in the formation of more than 140,000 compounds and chemical compositions, the majority of which were hitherto unidentified. Further examination of chemical inventories worldwide suggests that this number could potentially exceed 350,000. Despite the fact that even minute concentrations of the majority of recently developed synthetic compounds may be hazardous, they are frequently discharged into the global natural ecosystem as breakdown products or combined with other contaminants. The environment has been heavily contaminated due to the extensive discharge of xenobiotic substances as a consequence of rapid industrialization and urbanization. To mitigate the detrimental effects of various substances on organisms and ecosystems, it is crucial to comprehend their toxicological consequences and environmental ramifications.219 EPs, or emerging contaminants, pose a threat to the ecological balance of the environment and human health.220 These very intricate organic compounds are predominantly found in water sources due to factors such as population expansion and disposal of sewage, industrial waste, radioactive waste, and so on. The current state of water contamination necessitates urgent focus on the remediation and purification of these harmful substances to ensure a healthy living environment.221 Chronic exposure to polluted food, water, workplaces, or consumer goods leads to the mortality of more than 9 million individuals, representing one-sixth of all premature deaths globally.222 The focus of this section is on the toxicological impacts of significant environmental contaminants, specifically heavy metals, insecticides, and phenols. Additionally, it addresses the impact of chemicals, physical agents, and other pollutants on both the environment and human well-being.
Figure 3 provides a schematic representation of the toxicological effects associated with EPs. The health risks posed by EPs are contingent upon their chemical, physical, biological, and radiological properties, with the figure categorizing these risks according to each source. A range of remediation techniques—including physical, biological, chemical, phytoremediation, and hybrid methods—are chosen based on the toxicological effects on human health and the specific characteristics of each EP.223,224 The quality of detection techniques, as well as the speed and reliability of analyses, are influenced by the specific characteristics of EPs, as illustrated in Figure 3. Key effects considered include acute, chronic, carcinogenic, systemic, neurotoxic, and genotoxic impacts. Additionally, the toxic effects of EPs on various organs play a crucial role in the overall processes of detection, chemometrics, and remediation.
Figure 3.
The source-specific EPs and their toxicological impacts, specific to their effects and damages in organs
Acute toxicity
People often suffer acute toxicity when exposed to certain chemicals, even for a brief period, leading to rapid negative consequences. The effects of such exposure can become noticeable within a short time frame, typically ranging from minutes to hours, highlighting their immediate and easily recognizable nature.225 The phenomenon in which some medications can cause harmful effects, varying from mild to severe, after a single use or administration is termed acute toxicity.226 The adverse side effects of the medication frequently manifest in patients quickly after ingestion, rendering these effects the primary contributor to drug-related mortality. When a drug is administered for its intended medicinal purposes or accidentally in a way that causes death, most of these circumstances are classified as emergencies.227,228 Increased dosages frequently lead to heightened and more intense consequences, which may differ depending on the particular substance, mode of contact, and individual vulnerability. For instance, while topical application of cyanamide is somewhat hazardous, its oral consumption is very toxic. An overactivation of the parasympathetic nervous system leads to comparable harmful consequences in both animals and humans. Contact with liquid or dust containing cyanamide can cause incontinence-associated dermatitis (IAD) and severe eye discomfort.229 Systemic exposure results in twitching, lacrimation, salivation, and miosis. Severe poisoning is characterized by refractory shock and metabolic acidosis.
Chronic toxicity
Exposure to a chemical repeatedly or continuously over a prolonged period of time leads to the development of chronic toxicity, which refers to the cumulative negative effects. Chronic toxicity occurs gradually over months or years of ongoing interaction, in contrast to acute toxicity, which shows symptoms quickly after a single encounter.230 There are a number of ways in which this kind of exposure might occur, such as through ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact. A wide range of health problems, including organ damage, cancerous effects, reproductive difficulties, and immune system degradation, are associated with chronic toxicity. These effects can potentially have significant and long-lasting implications for a person’s health, even if they might not be noticed immediately.230 Some compounds with long-term toxicity may also be carcinogenic, meaning they can gradually cause cancerous growth over time.221 It is essential for public health as well as for regulatory reasons to recognize and understand the possible hazards associated.
Genotoxicity
The use of micro-nanoparticle (MNPs) is associated with genotoxicity, which is a major factor in the initiation and progression of abnormalities. Genotoxins cause harmful genetic changes, including recombination, structural chromosomal abnormalities, and gene mutations, which are collectively referred to as genotoxicity. These are the substances that can alter chromosomal structure and DNA sequence through addition, deletion, duplication, ring formation, and other processes.231 Toxins are categorized into three groups based on their effects: (1) carcinogens, substances that cause cancer; (2) mutagens, substances that cause mutations; and (3) teratogens, substances that cause birth defects. It is impossible to register a new drug without first conducting genotoxicity tests. MNPs can be biosynthesized by various plants, algae, fungi, and bacteria as low-cost, biocompatible substitutes for traditional physical and chemical processes.232 Particularly, MNPs have found applications in photothermal therapy, drug delivery, photoimaging, wound dressings, cell labeling, and sensors. In a recent 2018 meta-analysis, the researchers found that cytogenic MNPs exhibited nine times higher cytotoxicity in cancer cell lines compared with normal cell lines.233 This suggests that MNP cytotoxicity in cancer cell lines is significantly higher. While research has shown that biogenic MNPs have substantial biomedical and pharmacological potential, it is crucial to investigate the risks associated with using them.
Neurotoxicity
Neurotoxicity is caused by the alteration of neurotransmitters, oxidative stress, and inflammation.234 The increasing influence of certain new contaminants, specifically PFAS, on neurotoxicity has raised significant concerns, particularly in relation to the health of children. There is evidence indicating a connection between exposure to PFAS and negative effects on cognitive function and development. However, further study is still being conducted to determine the complete range of dangers involved.235 PFAS are a category of synthetic chemicals that have application in a wide range of industrial and consumer goods, including cookware, firefighting foam, waterproof apparel, and food packaging. Their distinct characteristics, such as their ability to repel water and oil, result in their long-lasting presence in the environment and their tendency to accumulate in living organisms.236 Regrettably, PFAS compounds can traverse the blood-brain barrier, thereby accessing the vulnerable and growing brains of young people. Upon influx, these substances can disturb multiple neurochemical pathways and impede essential brain functions. Primarily, it can impact children’s cognitive abilities (as measured by IQ testing), hinder their ability to concentrate, and pose challenges in acquiring and retaining information. The research has also addressed specific difficulties such as hyperactivity, impulsivity, and increased tendency toward violence.
Endocrine disruption
Phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) are significant organic pollutants that can have a direct impact on human well-being. EPs such as BPA and phthalates possess chemical structures that closely resemble those of natural hormones like estrogen or testosterone. These errant molecules can attach to hormone receptors, causing incorrect reactions in different tissues.237 For instance, BPA has the ability to stimulate estrogen receptors in breast tissue, which could potentially elevate the likelihood of developing breast cancer. Therefore, both substances have the ability to imitate or disrupt hormones, which can harm fertility and growth, and even increase the risk of cancer.238 Certain pollutants can disrupt the enzymatic pathways that are responsible for the production and release of natural hormones. This disruption may lead to hormone deficiencies, which can impair the proper functioning of various organs and systems. For example, phthalates can interfere with testosterone synthesis in males, potentially affecting sperm quality and overall reproductive health.239
General toxicological effects of EPs on human health
The growing list of organic pollutants that humans encounter encompasses synthetic musks, perchlorate, triclosan (TCS), BPA, organophosphate flame retardants, phthalate substitutes, brominated flame retardants, and polycyclic siloxanes. Bisphenol is a widely utilized plasticizer on a global scale.239 In addition to various other endocrine problems affecting other systems, it modifies the functioning of the thyroid, male reproductive system, and salivary glands. Due to the hormonal impact of bisphenol, which acts as an anti-androgen and detrimentally impacts male fertility, women have a higher likelihood of developing breast cancer.240 Pesticide poisoning has a direct impact on the endocrine cycle. Occupational exposure is linked to microbial activation, carcinogenicity, extensive genotoxic effects, and neurotoxicity. Brominated flame retardants possess neuroprotective, endocrine, pulmonary, and impermeable properties, but they can also induce carcinogenesis.241 Hexabromodiphenyl ether, decabromodiphenyl ether, and pentabromodiphenyl ether are carcinogenic substances that have detrimental effects on neuronal function, thyroid function, brain development, fertility, and general growth. Tetrabromodiphenyl ether has the potential to cause harm to DNA and mitochondria, as well as affect hormone balance and endocrine function.242 Table 5 provides a comprehensive summary of the adverse impacts of different pollutants on human health. Additionally, brominated flame retardants have been found to have genetic toxic effects, potentially causing abnormalities in female anatomy, specifically in the breast and liver. These flame retardants have also been shown to impact the production of thyroid hormones, androgens, progestin, and estrogen, resulting in an increase in disrupted immune cells.259,260
Table 5.
Human health effects caused by the various EPs
| Sl. no. | Name of the pollutants | Sources | Impact on human health | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Heavy metals | ||||
| 1 | lead | lead acid batteries, paints, and electrical connection lids | encephalopathy; peripheral neuropathy; anemia; damage to the liver, kidney and brain; neurobehavioral changes; infertility; and abnormalities in pregnancy | Wang et al.243 and Fendall et al.244 |
| 2 | mercury | thermal power plants and hospital waste | hypertension, myocardial infarction, proteinuria, and cardiovascular diseases | Fendall et al.244 |
| 3 | arsenic | wood preservatives and pesticides | respiratory cancer, dermatomes, and genetic toxicity | Fendall et al.244 |
| 4 | nickel | smelting operations and battery industries | cancer and dermatitis | Fendall et al.244 |
| 5 | cadmium | tobacco smoke and batteries | proteinuria, glucosuria, osteomalacia, aminoaciduria, and emphysema | Fendall et al.244 |
| 6 | sulfur dioxide (SO2) | fossil fuels combustion | irritated airways and lungs; prolonged exposure may lead to chronic bronchitis | Lee et al.245 |
| 7 | carbon monoxide (CO) | vehicular emission and open fire | cardiovascular and pulmonary diseases and asphyxiation. | Lee et al.245 |
| 8 | nitrogen oxides (NOx) | fuel combustion | NOx gases can exacerbate respiratory illnesses and cardiovascular disease | Farooq et al.246 |
| Plastic additives | ||||
| 9 | bisphenol A | food storing container | ovarian disorder | Wang et al.247 |
| 10 | phthalates | personal care products, vinyl flooring, and polyvinyl chloride plastics | endocrine disruptor; interference with testosterone, sperm motility, and testicular cancer | Ghose et al.248 |
| 11 | dioxins | tobacco smoke; combustion of wood, coal, and oil; and pesticides | carcinogen; interferes with testosterone | Pakpahan et al.249 |
| 12 | polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) | tobacco smoke; burning coal, oil, gas, and wood; and garbage | developmental and reproductive toxicity | Sun et al.250 |
| 13 | polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) | contaminated fish, meat, and dairy products | interferes with thyroid hormone | Okunola et al.251 |
| Plastics | ||||
| 14 | high-density polyethylene | plastic containers and pipes | mild dermatitis, respiratory damage, and hormone disruption | Sarker et al.252 |
| 15 | low-density polyethylene | shrink wraps and squeeze bottles | mild dermatitis, burning sensation in eyes, and asthma | Sarker et al.252 |
| 16 | polyvinyl chloride | cosmetic containers wrap | respiratory damage and immune system damage | Sarker et al.252 |
| 17 | low-density polyethylene | shrink wraps and squeeze bottles | mild dermatitis, burning sensation in eyes, and asthma | Thornton et al.253 |
| 18 | polyvinyl chloride | cosmetic containers wrap | respiratory damage and immune system damage | Pattnaik et al.254 |
| Pesticides | ||||
| 19 | organochlorine compound | dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane, DT, dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane, dicofol, eldrin, and dieldrin | damages human liver, kidney, neural, and immune systems; induces birth defects and cancer; and causes neurotoxicity and reproductive toxicity, inflammation of the upper respiratory tract and bronchitis, and blood effects such as aplastic anemia | Fu et al.255 |
| 20 | organophosphorus compound | malathion, parathion, diazinon, fenthion, dichlorvos, chlorpyrifos, and ethion | reproductive effects, immunotoxicity, cancer and immunosuppression, hypertension, tachycardia, and paralysis | Van Dyk et al.256 |
| 21 | carbamates | sprays | impairs child development and IQ, decreases lung function, and causes central nervous system tumor | Shetty et al.257 |
| 22 | pyrethrin and pyrethroids | sprays, dust, and pet shampoos | paranesthesia; irritation of respiratory tract, eyes, and skin; and cardiovascular disease | Divers et al.258 |
An analysis of the bacterial genome of rat has revealed that the fragrance molecule musk xylol is extremely carcinogenic, and significant quantities of it can be absorbed by human tissue.261 Prolonged exposure to high levels of phthalates is associated with complications during pregnancy and pregnancy termination. Chemical pesticides have been linked to the development of ovarian tumors, thyroid disorders, reduced thickness of eggshells, diminished male reproductive capacity, and behavioral abnormalities.
Impact of EPs on the environment
Several contaminants considered hazardous today are actually EPs, and they originate from different sources (Table 6). This distinction is due to the fact that these bacteria propagate by several distinct routes. The main contributors to these EPs include agricultural activities, municipal waste, and industrial emissions. While the initial strategies used to tackle pollution in residential and commercial areas are similar, these pollutants have unique characteristics that necessitate a tailored approach for effective mitigation and prevention of their impacts.262 Establishing a direct correlation between the appearance of pollutants and their influence on human health is challenging. Assessing the effects of pollutants on human health and the environment is particularly challenging. Different organisms exhibit varying levels of biological complexity, which complicates the evaluation process. Additionally, analyzing field data presents further difficulties due to the influence of multiple external factors. Surfactants exert a detrimental effect on organisms. Elevated quantities of certain compounds can have a detrimental impact on the environment. For instance, BPA is neurotoxic and hinders the growth of plants and cell division.263 Alterations in human socioeconomic conduct may explain the identification of additional contaminants during the production and distribution of potable water. An associated phenomenon is that the usage of different types of fertilizers and animal manure in the agricultural sector can result in the infiltration of these substances into the soil, leading to the contamination of groundwater.264 Exposure to alkylphenol during spermatogenesis in experimental mice has been shown to cause detrimental side effects. Alkylphenols in marine organisms have been demonstrated to induce various estrogenic effects, such as a decline in male sexual ability. Brominated dioxins, polychlorinated naphthalene, and furans possess toxicity, potentially leading to the occurrence of birth abnormalities in animals and detrimental effects on their immune systems, hormone systems, and reproductive capabilities.265 Perchlorate mainly impacts the development of the thyroid and brain at lower concentrations. Studies have shown that rodent offspring delivered by affected mothers are particularly susceptible to negative consequences.266 Perfluorochemicals in aquatic organisms can have either a stimulating or an inhibiting effect on the synthesis of proteins responsible for carrying out oxidative metabolism across the outer mitochondrial membrane. Phthalate exposure during pregnancy primarily affected the male reproductive organ, leading to severe adverse cognitive effects in research animals.267
Table 6.
Different types of EPs and their sources
| Sl. no. | Category of EPs | Sub-category | Major contaminants | Sources |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | personal care products | insect repellants, synthetic musk, and sunblock agents/UV filters | diethyltoluamide, 4-benzophenone, galaxolide, and tonalide |
WWTPs effluent, landfill leachate, and surface water |
| 2 | pegulated compounds | pesticides and poly aromatic hydrocarbons | chlorpyrifos and phenanthrene | agricultural runoffs, sewage treatment plants, sediments, soil, and surface water |
| 3 | industrial chemicals | plasticizers and fire retardants | dimethyl adipate and tris(1-chloro-2-propyl)phosphate | domestic and industrial wastewater |
| 4 | EDCs | bisphenol, xenohormone, and phthalates | bisphenol A, xenoestrogen, and dioctyl phthalate | drinking water, surface water, sediments, soil, and secondary sludge. |
| 5 | biocides | herbicides, fungicides, and molluscicide | metaldehyde, butachlor, and epoxiconazole | surface water, aquafarming, and agricultural runoff |
| 6 | pharmaceutically active complexes | nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medicines, antidepressant, antibiotics, anticonvulsants, and lipids | diazepam, ciprofloxacin, metoprolol, diclofenac, carbamazepine, clorfibric acid, and testosterone | effluents from medicine manufacturing facilities, hospitals, and health centers; livestock farms; and domestic wastewater |
| 7 | surfactants | ionic and nonionic surfactants | tweens (polysorbates) and sodium lauryl sulfate | domestic and industrial wastewater |
In elderly livestock, phthalates can cause failure of the thyroid, liver, and kidneys. Research on animal models has linked polybrominated diphenyl ethers to a number of adverse health effects. These include disruptions in thyroxine levels, persistent cognitive and memory issues, psychological abnormalities, partial hearing loss, skipped onset of adolescence, reduced sperm quality, and fetus imperfections.268 Nitro-musk and polycyclic musk compounds exhibit relatively long-term suppression of Mnemiopsis cell membrane resistance detection systems generated by certain carrier proteins in marine invertebrates.269 TCS is extensively utilized in personal care, acrylic, veterinary, medical, and home products. It poses a threat to various marine species. TCS is frequently found in diverse organisms, and its breakdown product methyl TCS accumulates in fish fatty tissues.270 In natural environments, TCS undergoes microbial degradation, resulting in the formation of more persistent and hazardous metabolites such as dioxins, which cause teratogenic, biochemical, and cytogenic impacts on various aquatic species.271 Table 6 enumerates diverse sources of EPs along with their corresponding categories. Methyl TCS is a byproduct of TCS degradation, predominantly located in fish adipose tissue. An enhanced omics-based approach could augment the diverse biological assays employed to evaluate the ecotoxicological effects of EPs on the environment. This method may effectively isolate the adverse impacts of a combination of contaminants from wastewater treatment.
Future perspectives and research directions
Recognizing deficiencies in existing information and identifying areas that necessitate additional research are essential for enhancing our comprehension and management of EPs. Creating sensitive, selective, and economical techniques for the detection and monitoring of ECs is essential for mitigating toxicological risks to humans and the environment. Advanced analytical methods are being investigated to identify EPs at minimal concentrations within intricate matrices. Innovations encompass the improvement of detection capabilities and the extension of the spectrum of detectable compounds, targeting both recognized contaminants and those not previously monitored. Proactive strategies emphasizing the systematic collection and analysis of data over an extended duration could mitigate public health hazards. Advanced analytical methodologies and sensor materials, coupled with newly developed chemometric approaches, can identify the existence, behavior, and possible effects of novel chemical compounds, microbes, or other emerging dangers.272 Moreover, the detecting systems must facilitate continuous and remote monitoring through IoT, data acquisition via drones, and AI-driven analytical methods. The impetus for enhanced methodologies arises from an improved comprehension of environmental pathways and health effects associated with EPs, hence increasing the necessity for equipment capable of delivering precise, real-time data. The emphasis on enhancing analytical techniques is essential for guiding risk evaluations and formulating appropriate environmental regulations.273 Novel detection technologies, including nanotechnology, biosensors, SERS, molecular detection, and multi-omics methodologies, have created new opportunities for the swift and precise identification of environmental pollutants. These technologies augment sensitivity and selectivity while facilitating the concurrent detection of numerous contaminants.274 Notwithstanding progress, nascent detection technologies encounter numerous obstacles, such as the necessity for enhanced sample processing, data integration, and the creation of economical, portable detection apparatuses.
It is quite clear that chemometric techniques have significantly impacted the environmental domain. While chemometric tools have been efficiently used in solving various problems in the science and technology domain,275,276 in the environmental domain, they have the potential to play an essential role in solving EP detection and mitigation issues by utilizing statistical, AI, and analytical techniques. There are limitations associated with the use of chemometrics in environmental pollution analysis. Poorly applied chemometrics techniques give rise to meaningless results and poor data collection that can also limit the strength of the chemometric analysis.145 Therefore, flawed experimental design experiments would generate measurements that cannot be replicated; hence the chemometrics analysis would lead to a faulty conclusion.275 It is also challenging to handle cases of missing experimental data arising out of the numerous chemometric techniques.277 Furthermore, the fluctuation in experimental values away from the detection limits cannot be handled in chemometric analysis. MLR model cannot be implemented if there are fewer variables than samples. Therefore, while working with such data, alternative modeling strategies must be used.278,279 Some methods in the category of ANN and SVM require large datasets and are computationally expensive, which necessitates advance AI algorithms. Importantly, chemometrics methods can be combined to overcome some of the limitations of either the method or the dataset.280 Further, with their increasing utilities, selecting the best statistical method is still challenging as they all possess both positive and negative features. However, an understanding is still required to overcome the limitations of each method to obtain highly accurate and applicable results from any chemometric study conducted in the environmental domain.
Conclusion
EPs, characterized by their physical, chemical, biological, and radiological attributes, present significant challenges to environmental and human health due to their unknown risks and widespread effects. This review methodically examines the various types of environmental pollutants, their detection methods, chemometric tools, and the associated health risks. It also reviews developments in detection and chemometric methods that are influencing the future of a healthy society and a safe environment. While various analytical methods, materials, and sensors have been effectively employed to identify and quantify EPs with impressive limits of detection and accuracy, there remains a pressing need for scalable and mature technologies that align with the complex nature of EPs and the diverse range of detection technologies available. Current methods for detecting EPs must evolve with regard to their data collection and processing strategies to incorporate emerging chemometric tools, such as advanced statistical analysis, big data, DL, and ML methods. Moreover, the effective integration of these chemometric tools with instrumental software can enhance environmental researchers’ ability to reliably predict the presence of EPs and assess their impacts. Understanding the toxicological effects and environmental consequences of EPs is crucial for increasing awareness among the public and researchers regarding their adverse impacts on human health and the environment. The observations underscore the need for more in-depth studies on the subject. While this study focuses on the chemical characteristics of EPs, a more thorough investigation that encompasses physical, biological, and radiological pollutants could provide a more expansive framework for detecting, analyzing, and predicting the toxicological impacts of a broader range of EPs. Additionally, to devise effective and innovative strategies for mitigating the effects of EPs on human health and the environment, robust collaboration among environmental scientists, industry stakeholders, government agencies, and engineers is crucial.
Data and code availability
The data that support the findings of this article are available from the corresponding author.
Acknowledgments
This article did not receive funding from any agency.
Author contributions
J.S.S., conceptualization, validation, visualization, data curation, and writing – original draft; A.S.A.A.-S., visualization and writing - review and editing; N.K., validation and writing – review and editing; N.B., writing – review and editing; T.M., conceptualization, supervision, validation, visualization, writing – original draft, and writing – review and editing.
Declaration of interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
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Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this article are available from the corresponding author.