Skip to main content
PMC home page
British Journal of Sports Medicine logoLink to British Journal of Sports Medicine
. 1995 Jun;29(2):89–94. doi: 10.1136/bjsm.29.2.89

Eccentric activation and muscle damage: biomechanical and physiological considerations during downhill running.

R G Eston 1, J Mickleborough 1, V Baltzopoulos 1
PMCID: PMC1332286  PMID: 7551767

Abstract

An eccentric muscle activation is the controlled lengthening of the muscle under tension. Functionally, most leg muscles work eccentrically for some part of a normal gait cycle, to support the weight of the body against gravity and to absorb shock. During downhill running the role of eccentric work of the 'anti-gravity' muscles--knee extensors, muscles of the anterior and posterior tibial compartments and hip extensors--is accentuated. The purpose of this paper is to review the relationship between eccentric muscle activation and muscle damage, particularly as it relates to running, and specifically, downhill running.

Full text

PDF

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Appell H. J., Soares J. M., Duarte J. A. Exercise, muscle damage and fatigue. Sports Med. 1992 Feb;13(2):108–115. doi: 10.2165/00007256-199213020-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Armstrong R. B. Muscle damage and endurance events. Sports Med. 1986 Sep-Oct;3(5):370–381. doi: 10.2165/00007256-198603050-00006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Armstrong R. B., Warren G. L., Warren J. A. Mechanisms of exercise-induced muscle fibre injury. Sports Med. 1991 Sep;12(3):184–207. doi: 10.2165/00007256-199112030-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Buczek F. L., Cavanagh P. R. Stance phase knee and ankle kinematics and kinetics during level and downhill running. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1990 Oct;22(5):669–677. doi: 10.1249/00005768-199010000-00019. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Byrd S. K., McCutcheon L. J., Hodgson D. R., Gollnick P. D. Altered sarcoplasmic reticulum function after high-intensity exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1989 Nov;67(5):2072–2077. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1989.67.5.2072. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Byrnes W. C., Clarkson P. M. Delayed onset muscle soreness and training. Clin Sports Med. 1986 Jul;5(3):605–614. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Byrnes W. C., Clarkson P. M., White J. S., Hsieh S. S., Frykman P. N., Maughan R. J. Delayed onset muscle soreness following repeated bouts of downhill running. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1985 Sep;59(3):710–715. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1985.59.3.710. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Clarkson P. M., Byrnes W. C., Gillisson E., Harper E. Adaptation to exercise-induced muscle damage. Clin Sci (Lond) 1987 Oct;73(4):383–386. doi: 10.1042/cs0730383. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Clarkson P. M., Nosaka K., Braun B. Muscle function after exercise-induced muscle damage and rapid adaptation. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1992 May;24(5):512–520. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Clarkson P. M., Tremblay I. Exercise-induced muscle damage, repair, and adaptation in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1988 Jul;65(1):1–6. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1988.65.1.1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Cleak M. J., Eston R. G. Muscle soreness, swelling, stiffness and strength loss after intense eccentric exercise. Br J Sports Med. 1992 Dec;26(4):267–272. doi: 10.1136/bjsm.26.4.267. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Cody F. W., Moore R. B., Richardson H. C. Patterns of activity evoked in cerebellar interpositus nuclear neurones by natural somatosensory stimuli in awake cats. J Physiol. 1981 Aug;317:1–20. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1981.sp013810. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Costill D. L., Pascoe D. D., Fink W. J., Robergs R. A., Barr S. I., Pearson D. Impaired muscle glycogen resynthesis after eccentric exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1990 Jul;69(1):46–50. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1990.69.1.46. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Dick R. W., Cavanagh P. R. An explanation of the upward drift in oxygen uptake during prolonged sub-maximal downhill running. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1987 Jun;19(3):310–317. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Ebbeling C. B., Clarkson P. M. Muscle adaptation prior to recovery following eccentric exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1990;60(1):26–31. doi: 10.1007/BF00572181. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Evans W. J., Meredith C. N., Cannon J. G., Dinarello C. A., Frontera W. R., Hughes V. A., Jones B. H., Knuttgen H. G. Metabolic changes following eccentric exercise in trained and untrained men. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1986 Nov;61(5):1864–1868. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1986.61.5.1864. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Fitts R. H., Courtright J. B., Kim D. H., Witzmann F. A. Muscle fatigue with prolonged exercise: contractile and biochemical alterations. Am J Physiol. 1982 Jan;242(1):C65–C73. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.1982.242.1.C65. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Fridén J. Changes in human skeletal muscle induced by long-term eccentric exercise. Cell Tissue Res. 1984;236(2):365–372. doi: 10.1007/BF00214240. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Fridén J., Seger J., Ekblom B. Sublethal muscle fibre injuries after high-tension anaerobic exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1988;57(3):360–368. doi: 10.1007/BF00635996. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Fridén J., Seger J., Sjöström M., Ekblom B. Adaptive response in human skeletal muscle subjected to prolonged eccentric training. Int J Sports Med. 1983 Aug;4(3):177–183. doi: 10.1055/s-2008-1026031. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Fridén J., Sfakianos P. N., Hargens A. R. Blood indices of muscle injury associated with eccentric muscle contractions. J Orthop Res. 1989;7(1):142–145. doi: 10.1002/jor.1100070120. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Fridén J., Sfakianos P. N., Hargens A. R. Muscle soreness and intramuscular fluid pressure: comparison between eccentric and concentric load. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1986 Dec;61(6):2175–2179. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1986.61.6.2175. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Fridén J., Sjöström M., Ekblom B. A morphological study of delayed muscle soreness. Experientia. 1981 May 15;37(5):506–507. doi: 10.1007/BF01986165. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Iversen J. R., McMahon T. A. Running on an incline. J Biomech Eng. 1992 Nov;114(4):435–441. doi: 10.1115/1.2894092. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Jones D. A., Newham D. J., Round J. M., Tolfree S. E. Experimental human muscle damage: morphological changes in relation to other indices of damage. J Physiol. 1986 Jun;375:435–448. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1986.sp016126. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Jones D. A., Newham D. J., Torgan C. Mechanical influences on long-lasting human muscle fatigue and delayed-onset pain. J Physiol. 1989 May;412:415–427. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1989.sp017624. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Komi P. V., Buskirk E. R. Effect of eccentric and concentric muscle conditioning on tension and electrical activity of human muscle. Ergonomics. 1972 Jul;15(4):417–434. doi: 10.1080/00140137208924444. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Newham D. J., Jones D. A., Clarkson P. M. Repeated high-force eccentric exercise: effects on muscle pain and damage. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1987 Oct;63(4):1381–1386. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1987.63.4.1381. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Newham D. J., Jones D. A., Edwards R. H. Plasma creatine kinase changes after eccentric and concentric contractions. Muscle Nerve. 1986 Jan;9(1):59–63. doi: 10.1002/mus.880090109. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Newham D. J., Jones D. A., Ghosh G., Aurora P. Muscle fatigue and pain after eccentric contractions at long and short length. Clin Sci (Lond) 1988 May;74(5):553–557. doi: 10.1042/cs0740553. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Newham D. J., McPhail G., Mills K. R., Edwards R. H. Ultrastructural changes after concentric and eccentric contractions of human muscle. J Neurol Sci. 1983 Sep;61(1):109–122. doi: 10.1016/0022-510x(83)90058-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Newham D. J., Mills K. R., Quigley B. M., Edwards R. H. Pain and fatigue after concentric and eccentric muscle contractions. Clin Sci (Lond) 1983 Jan;64(1):55–62. doi: 10.1042/cs0640055. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Pierrynowski M. R., Tüdus P. M., Plyley M. J. Effects of downhill or uphill training prior to a downhill run. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1987;56(6):668–672. doi: 10.1007/BF00424808. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Sargeant A. J., Dolan P. Human muscle function following prolonged eccentric exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1987;56(6):704–711. doi: 10.1007/BF00424814. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Schwane J. A., Armstrong R. B. Effect of training on skeletal muscle injury from downhill running in rats. J Appl Physiol Respir Environ Exerc Physiol. 1983 Sep;55(3):969–975. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1983.55.3.969. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Schwane J. A., Johnson S. R., Vandenakker C. B., Armstrong R. B. Delayed-onset muscular soreness and plasma CPK and LDH activities after downhill running. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1983;15(1):51–56. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Schwane J. A., Williams J. S., Sloan J. H. Effects of training on delayed muscle soreness and serum creatine kinase activity after running. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1987 Dec;19(6):584–590. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Styf J. Chronic exercise-induced pain in the anterior aspect of the lower leg. An overview of diagnosis. Sports Med. 1989 May;7(5):331–339. doi: 10.2165/00007256-198907050-00004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Walmsley B., Hodgson J. A., Burke R. E. Forces produced by medial gastrocnemius and soleus muscles during locomotion in freely moving cats. J Neurophysiol. 1978 Sep;41(5):1203–1216. doi: 10.1152/jn.1978.41.5.1203. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Westerlind K. C., Byrnes W. C., Mazzeo R. S. A comparison of the oxygen drift in downhill vs. level running. J Appl Physiol (1985) 1992 Feb;72(2):796–800. doi: 10.1152/jappl.1992.72.2.796. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Winter D. A. Moments of force and mechanical power in jogging. J Biomech. 1983;16(1):91–97. doi: 10.1016/0021-9290(83)90050-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from British Journal of Sports Medicine are provided here courtesy of BMJ Publishing Group

RESOURCES