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. 2026 Jul 1;46(1):82. doi: 10.1007/s44463-026-00076-7

Effects of sous-vide and searing treatments on cooked meat and organoleptic quality attributes in pork loins derived from PSE and normal conditions

Boin Lee 1, Seunghyun Lee 1, Young Min Choi 1,✉
PMCID: PMC13323413  PMID: 42384339

Abstract

This study investigated the effects of sous-vide (SV) alone and in combination with searing (SVS) on meat quality traits, visual attributes, and sensory characteristics of porcine longissimus dorsi muscles from reddish-pink, firm, and non-exudative (RFN) and pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) conditions. Compared with PSE-pan frying (PSE-Pan) loins, PSE-SV and PSE-SVS loins exhibited higher cooking yields and lower Warner-Bratzler shear force (WBS) values (p < 0.05), with no differences in WBS values relative to RFN-SV or RFN-SVS loins (p > 0.05). For visual attributes, the Pan- and SVS-treated groups received higher color acceptability scores than the SV-treated group (p < 0.001) due to surface browning formed by Maillard reactions. SVS treatment on PSE and RFN loins showed comparable color acceptability scores (p > 0.05). Notably, PSE-SV loins were perceived as more tender and juicier than RFN-Pan and RFN-SVS loins (p < 0.001). Flavor intensity was higher in Pan- and SVS-treated samples than in SV-treated samples in both quality classes (p < 0.05). Taken together, the SV followed by searing treatment resulted in higher visual acceptability scores for PSE loins than for RFN-SV and PSE-SV loins, primarily due to higher ratings for color and appearance acceptability. Furthermore, PSE loins subjected to SV treatment exhibited higher overall sensory acceptability scores than those cooked using conventional method. Therefore, these findings indicate that the application of SV and SVS treatments provides a valuable processing approach to improve the utilization of low-grade PSE pork.

Keywords: PSE, Sous-vide cooking, Searing treatment, Quality characteristics, Sensory quality, Pork loin

Introduction

Pork had the highest per capita consumption in Korea, and the production of pork-based products has been steadily increasing due to growing consumer demand worldwide (Ko et al., 2023). Consequently, the pork industry primarily focused on increasing ultimate muscle mass and growth rate through intensive genetic selection and advanced feeding systems (Choi et al., 2009), leading to projected gains in carcass weight of up to 27% globally from 2025 to 2034 (OECD/FAO, 2025). The excessive muscle growth in modern pigs has altered fiber characteristics, especially an increased size of fast-twitch glycolytic fibers (Lee & Choi, 2025). These changes have led to increased physiological susceptibility to various stressors, thereby accelerating glycolytic rates at the early postmortem period and leading to an increased incidence of pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) condition pork (Scheffler & Gerrard, 2007). Due to its paler muscle surface and lower water-holding capacity (WHC) compared to reddish-pink, firm, and non-exudative (RFN) pork, PSE pork can negatively influence consumer purchase decision and the quality attributes of processed products, ultimately resulting in substantial economic losses for the meat industry (Brewer et al., 1998; Scheffler & Gerrard, 2007).

The quality of the meat products is also influenced by the cooking treatments, which govern heat-induced physicochemical changes that ultimately determine the overall quality (Park et al., 2020). Traditional cooking treatments, such as pan-frying and grilling, often involve high and uneven heat, which can cause excessive moisture loss and undesirable textural changes (Becker et al., 2016). Accordingly, cooking strategies that employ mild heating conditions have received increasing attention as potential approaches to minimize thermal damage and stabilize meat quality (Gill et al., 2025). Among the cooking treatments, sous-vide (SV) cooking ensures adequate heat transfer in raw materials due to precisely controlled low temperatures for extended durations, thereby enhancing product consistency, palatability, and consumer acceptance (Baldwin, 2012; Lee et al., 2025). However, an inherent limitation of SV processing is that the relatively low cooking temperatures restrict the development of Maillard reactions, resulting in limited formation of roasted flavor compounds and insufficient surface browning (Ruiz-Carrascal et al., 2019). These drawbacks can be overcome by additional processing steps, such as high-temperature searing or marination treatments applied before or after SV cooking, to improve surface color and flavor intensity (Cho et al., 2021; Lee et al., 2021). On the other hand, previous studies have primarily investigated the effects of SV cooking on normal quality pork. Although SV alone and combined with searing treatment (SVS) may influence the eating and visual quality attributes of pork with abnormal conditions, limited information is available regarding the application of SV or SVS specifically to PSE pork. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of SV and SVS on cooked meat quality traits, visual attributes, and eating quality traits of pork loins from the normal and PSE conditions.

Materials and methods

Muscle samples and cooking treatments

A total of 42 porcine longissimus dorsi (LD) muscles at 24 h postmortem was purchased from a local market. LD muscles were cut into multiple pieces, which were allocated to different analyses and cooking treatments; each piece was used consistently for the corresponding experiment and treatment. Fresh meat quality was assessed by determining muscle pH, meat color, and WHC. The samples were categorized into quality groups based on their lightness (L*) and drip loss (Ryu et al., 2005). The RFN group (n = 34) was defined by a L* ≤ 50 and a drip loss ≤ 6.0%, whereas the PSE group (n = 8) was characterized by a L* > 50 and a drip loss > 6.0%. Following quality measurements, the remaining chunks were cut into a total of 252 sections (six cuts per loin) and allocated for cooked meat quality analysis (2 cm thickness; three cuts per loin) and for visual attributes and sensory evaluation (1.5 cm thickness; three cuts per loin). The samples were immediately stored at 4℃ until subjected to three cooking treatments: pan-frying (Pan), SV, and SVS. The cooking treatments were performed as described previously (Baldwin, 2012; Lee et al., 2025).

For the Pan treatment, samples were pan-fried on a preheated stainless-steel pan (28 cm in diameter) at 180℃ using an electric induction range (NZ31R3707AK, Samsung Electronics, Gyeonggi-do, Korea) at the third heating level. Samples were cooked until the core temperature had reached at 71℃. For the SV treatments, samples were placed in nylon-polyethylene bags (thickness, 90 μm; oxygen transmission rate, 50 cm3/m2/24 h) and vacuum-packed (2.5 kPa vacuum level) using a vacuum sealer (GVM-F500D, Grand Woosung, Seoul, Korea). The vacuum-packed samples were cooked in a precisely controlled-temperature water bath (WSB-30, Daihan Scientific, Gangwon-do, Korea) set at 60℃ for 3 h. For the SVS treatment, SV-cooked samples were subsequently pan-seared on both sides at 180℃ for 60 s (fifth heating level). After the three cooking treatments, a total of 126 samples was used to determine cooked meat quality. Forty-two samples per cooking treatment were frozen at − 20℃ for the evaluation of visual attributes and sensory quality.

Fresh and cooked meat quality measurements

Muscle pH24 h was measured using a spear-type portable pH meter equipped with an automatic temperature compensation probe (Testo 206-pH2, Testo, Lenzkirch, Germany). After allowing the freshly cut surface to bloom at 4℃, color was evaluated following the Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE). Lightness (L*), redness (a*), and yellowness (b*) of muscle surface were measured using a chroma meter (CR-410, Minolta Camera Co., Osaka, Japan) under a closed-cone setup using illuminant C, a 0° viewing angle, and an 8 mm aperture. WHC was assessed by measuring filter-paper fluid uptake (FFU) and dip loss in accordance with the procedures of Honikel (1998) and Kauffman et al. (1986), respectively.

For the cooked quality measurement of Pan-, SV-, and SVS-treated samples, their surface color, treatment loss, and WBS were assessed following standard procedures (Honikel, 1998; Park et al., 2020; Cho et al., 2021). The color of cooked meat was measured using the same chroma meter under identical CIE conditions. Cooking treatment loss was calculated from weight differences before and after cooking. After measuring treatment loss, at least six cylindrical cores (1.27 cm diameter) were obtained parallel to the muscle fiber orientation for WBS measurement. The WBS value was collected using an Instron Universal Testing Machine (Model 1011, Instron Corp., Canton, MA, USA) equipped with a Warner–Bratzler blade (crosshead speed, 200 mm/min).

Visual attributes and sensory quality evaluation

For the evaluation of visual attributes and eating quality characteristics, a total of 126 samples were randomly coded with three-digit numbers. All samples were evaluated twice and assessed across forty-two sessions (6 samples per session). Panel training was conducted with ethical approval obtained from the Kyungpook National University Bioethics Committee (protocol number: 2019-0027; renewed every year), following the procedures described by the American Meat Science Association (AMSA, 1995) and Meilgaard et al. (1991). Eleven sensory panelists (six women and five men, aged 25 to 48 years) were trained to assess the meat samples for at least 6 mon (3 times per week) to familiarize themselves with the evaluation procedures, attribute definitions, and scale usage, enabling consistent and reproducible assessments. Trained panelists evaluated visual attributes and sensory quality characteristics, which descriptors were defined based on standardized criteria (AMSA, 1995). Frozen cooked samples to be used in each session were thawed overnight at 4℃ and reheated in a water bath to a core temperature of 54℃ until visual attributes and eating quality evaluation. All sample preparation procedures for visual and sensory evaluation were conducted under identical conditions for both quality conditions. Visual attributes included color, moisture, appearance, and overall acceptability. Eating quality was assessed using six tenderness attributes (softness, initial tenderness, chewiness, rate of breakdown, and amount of perceptible residue), juiciness, flavor intensity, off-flavor intensity, and overall acceptability. Panelists were provided with water and unsalted crackers to cleanse their palates between cooked meat samples. Visual and sensory attributes were evaluated on a nine-point scale.

Statistical analysis

The general linear model procedure (SAS software, SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA) was employed to analyze differences in fresh quality, cooked meat quality, visual attributes, and sensory quality characteristics across pork quality classes and cooking treatments. Fresh and cooked meat quality traits were conducted using a linear mixed-effects model, with pork quality and cooking treatment as fixed effects and loin and replicate as random effects. For the assessment of visual and sensory quality characteristics of cooked pork, a linear mixed model was applied, incorporating pork quality and cooking treatment as fixed effects, and both panelist and session as random effects. Significant differences among groups were identified using the probability difference option at p < 0.05. All data were presented as least-squares means accompanied by their standard errors.

Results

Comparison of fresh meat quality characteristics between pork quality classes

Table 1 showed a comparison of fresh meat quality characteristics between RFN and PSE quality classes of porcine LD muscles. Muscle pH measured at 24 h postmortem did not differ between the RFN and PSE groups (5.70 vs. 5.60, p > 0.05). For muscle color, the PSE group exhibited significantly higher lightness (53.0 vs. 47.0, p < 0.001) and yellowness (1.99 vs. 1.08, p < 0.05) values than the RFN group, whereas the redness values were comparable between the quality groups (8.63 vs. 8.64, p > 0.05). LD samples from the PSE group showed a greater drip loss compared to those from the RFN group (7.25% vs. 2.76%, p < 0.001). Consistent with the drip loss results, higher FFU values were observed in PSE samples compared to RFN samples (118.7 mg vs. 72.4 mg, p < 0.001).

Table 1.

Comparison of fresh meat quality characteristics between RFN and PSE pork of longissimus dorsi muscle

RFN
(n = 34)		 PSE
(n = 8)		 Level of significance
Muscle pH24 h

5.70

(0.02)1

5.60

(0.05)

 NS
Muscle color
Lightness (L*)

47.0b

(0.27)

53.0a

(0.46)

 ***
Redness (a*)

8.64

(0.28)

8.63

(0.41)

 NS
Yellowness (b*)

1.08b

(0.24)

1.99a

(0.36)

 *
Water-holding capacity
Drip loss (%)

2.76b

(0.23)

7.25a

(0.56)

 ***
FFU (mg)

72.4b

(2.95)

118.7a

(6.08)

 ***
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Levels of significance: NS, not significant; * p < 0.05; *** p < 0.001

a−b Different superscripts in the same row represent significant differences (p < 0.05)

1Standard error of least square means

RFN, red, firm, non-exudative; PSE, pale, soft, exudative; FFU, filter-paper fluid uptake

Combined effects of pork quality conditions and cooking treatments on cooked meat quality characteristics

No significant differences in cooked meat color were observed between RFN and PSE samples within each cooking treatment (Table 2) (p > 0.05). Across both quality classes, samples subjected to SV cooking displayed significantly higher lightness values than those subjected to Pan and SVS treatments (p < 0.001), whereas lightness did not differ between samples subjected to Pan and SVS treatments (p > 0.05). In contrast, redness and yellowness values were consistently higher in the Pan and SVS groups than in the SV group, regardless of pork quality classes (p < 0.001). Treatment loss statistically increased in the order of Pan, SV, and SVS treatments within the RFN (20.6, 23.1, and 26.8%, respectively, p < 0.001) and PSE (23.8, 25.8, and 29.5, respectively, p < 0.001) groups. PSE-cooked pork exhibited significantly greater treatment loss than RFN-cooked pork in each treatment (p < 0.001). PSE loins cooked by Pan (PSE-Pan) had lower treatment loss (23.8%) compared to PSE loins cooked by SV (PSE-SV; 25.8%) and SVS (PSE-SVS; 29.5%) (p < 0.001). The treatment loss of the PSE-SV group did not differ compared to all the RFN groups (p > 0.05). For WBS values, Pan-treated samples exhibited higher values than SV- and SVS-treated samples in both the RFN and PSE groups (p < 0.05). Additionally, PSE-Pan pork showed a higher WBS value than RFN pork cooked by the Pan method (RFN-Pan; p < 0.05). No significant difference in WBS was detected between the SV and SVS groups for either quality class (p > 0.05).

Table 2.

Effect of pork quality class and cooking method on cooked meat quality traits

Quality (Q) RFN PSE Level of significance
Cooking (C) Pan
(n=34)		 SV
(n=34)		 SSV
(n=34)		 Pan
(n=8)		 SV
(n=8)		 SSV
(n=8)		 Q C Q × C
Meat color
Lightness (L*)

44.2b

(1.04)1

66.9a

(1.04)

44.7b

(1.04)

43.2b

(2.11)

70.7a

(2.11)

42.8b

(2.11)

 NS *** NS
Redness (a*)

13.5a

(0.40)

9.43b

(0.40)

13.0a

(0.40)

13.3a

(0.83)

8.52b

(0.83)

14.5a

(0.83)

 NS *** NS
Yellowness (b*)

18.0a

(0.37)

8.50b

(0.37)

16.6a

(0.37)

18.9a

(0.75)

7.38b

(0.75)

17.3a

(0.75)

 NS *** NS
Treatment loss (%)

20.6d

(0.32)

23.1c

(0.32)

26.8b

(0.32)

23.8c

(0.65)

25.8b

(0.65)

29.5a

(0.65)

 *** *** NS
WBS (N)

37.9b

(0.87)

30.5c

(0.87)

30.7c

(0.87)

42.5a

(1.76)

33.4c

(1.76)

31.8c

(1.76)

 * *** NS
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Levels of significance: NS, not significant; * p < 0.05; *** p < 0.001

a−d Different superscripts in the same row represent significant differences (p < 0.05)

1Standard error of least square means

RFN, red, firm, non-exudative; PSE, pale, soft, exudative; pan, pork loin cooked with pan-frying; SV, pork loin treated by sous-vide; SSV, pork loin treated by SV and then seared by pan-frying; WBS, Warner-Bratzler shear force

Combined effects of pork quality conditions and cooking treatments on visual attributes

The visual attributes of RFN and PSE pork loins were compared among the three cooking treatments (Fig. 1). Significant differences in color and moisture acceptability were observed among cooking treatments within both RFN and PSE quality classes (p < 0.001). The RFN-Pan group exhibited a significantly higher color acceptability than the PSE-Pan group (8.08 vs. 7.29, p < 0.001), whereas no difference was detected between RFN samples subjected to SVS (RFN-SVS) and PSE-SVS treatments (p > 0.05). The RFN groups cooked by SV (RFN-SV) showed the highest scores of moisture (7.28, p < 0.001), and there were no significant differences between the RFN-SVS and PSE-SVS groups (5.92 vs. 5.79, p > 0.05). SV-treated samples exhibited lower appearance scores than Pan- and SVS-treated samples in both quality classes (p < 0.001), with loins from the RFN-Pan group receiving the highest score (7.94, p < 0.001). The appearance scores of the PSE-Pan and RFN-SVS groups were comparable (p > 0.05). For overall visual acceptability, the RFN-Pan and treatment achieved the highest score among all treatments (7.38, p < 0.001). Conversely, the PSE-SV loins received the lowest overall acceptability score (4.57, p < 0.001). No significant differences in overall acceptability were observed between PSE-Pan and RFN-SVS loins (p > 0.05).

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Comparison of visual attributes of RFN and PSE pork subjected to different cooking methods. Bars indicate standard errors of least square means. Different letters denote significant differences (p < 0.05). Abbreviations: RFN, reddish-pink, firm, and non-exudative; PSE, pale, soft, and exudative; Pan, pork loin cooked with pan-frying; SV, pork loin treated by sous-vide; SVS, pork loin treated by SV and followed by searing using pan-frying. Score distribution (1–9): color, moisture, appearance, and overall acceptability, very unacceptable to very acceptable

Combined effects of pork quality conditions and cooking treatments on sensory quality characteristics

Quality class and cooking treatment were found to significantly affect all sensory attributes (Fig. 2) (p < 0.05). Among the tenderness attributes, scores for softness, initial tenderness, and chewiness were higher in the order SV, SVS, and Pan treatments, irrespective of pork quality classes (p < 0.001). No significant differences in these attributes were detected between RFN and PSE samples within the same cooking treatment (p > 0.05). Similarly, scores for rate of breakdown and amount of perceptible residue did not differ between RFN-SV and PSE-SV loins (p > 0.05) or between RFN-SVS and PSE-SVS loins (p > 0.05). Within the Pan treatment, PSE samples exhibited significantly lower scores for these attributes than RFN samples (4.27 vs. 4.73 and 4.22 vs. 4.64, respectively; p < 0.05). Juiciness scores differed significantly among pork quality and cooking treatment groups (p < 0.05), except between RFN-Pan and PSE-SVS loins, which showed comparable scores (p > 0.05). Flavor intensity did not differ between RFN and PSE samples within the Pan (p > 0.05) and SV (p > 0.05) treatments; however, PSE-SVS pork exhibited lower flavor intensity scores than RFN-SVS pork (6.27 vs. 6.68, p < 0.05). In terms of off-flavor intensity, RFN samples received higher scores than PSE samples across all cooking treatments (p < 0.05); however, RFN-SV and PSE-SVS samples showed similar scores (p > 0.05). Overall eating acceptability scores were lower in the order of Pan, SVS, and SV within both RFN (4.93 vs. 5.95 vs. 6.80, p < 0.05) and PSE (4.47 vs. 5.84 vs. 6.33, p < 0.05) groups. Consistent with the tenderness attributes, RFN-SV samples exhibited higher overall acceptability than PSE-SV samples (p < 0.05), whereas no significant difference was observed between RFN-SVS and PSE-SVS samples (p > 0.05).

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Comparison of sensory quality characteristics of RFN and PSE pork subjected to different cooking methods. Bars indicate standard errors of least square means. Different letters denote significant differences (p < 0.05). Abbreviations: RFN, reddish-pink, firm, and non-exudative; PSE, pale, soft, and exudative; Pan, pork loin cooked with pan-frying; SV, pork loin treated by sous-vide; SVS, pork loin treated by SV and followed by searing using pan-frying. Score distribution (1–9): softness, very hard to very soft; initial tenderness, very tough to very tender; chewiness, very chewy to very tender; rate of breakdown, very slow to very fast; amount of perceptible residue, very abundant to none; juiciness, not juicy to very juicy; flavor intensity, very weak to very strong; off-flavor intensity, very strong to very weak and overall acceptability, very unacceptable to very acceptable

Discussion

Meat quality is closely linked to consumer acceptance and preference; thus, improving the quality of low-grade meat products continues to be a major priority in the meat industry. During the early postmortem period, high glycolytic potential in PSE pork can cause a rapid pH decline and increased metabolic heat production in skeletal muscle, leading to excessive protein denaturation in both the sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar fractions (Trevisan & Brum, 2020). Lee and Choi (2021) reported that PSE chicken breasts with greater apoptotic and glycolytic potentials at the early postmortem period exhibited impaired meat and sensory quality traits compared to normal chicken. In addition, porcine muscles exhibiting a rapid glycolytic rate showed higher lightness and drip loss values compared to muscles showing a normal glycolytic rate (Choi & Kim, 2009). In the present study, as expected, loins from the PSE group displayed a paler and more exudative muscle surface than those from the RFN group (p < 0.001), even though no difference in ultimate muscle pH was observed between the groups (p > 0.05).

Previous studies have demonstrated that appropriate SV cooking conditions for pork vary depending on product-specific characteristics, such as cut type, shape, and size, as these factors influence palatability and hygiene safety (Jeong et al., 2018; Kurp et al., 2022; Lee et al., 2025). For instance, Kurp et al. (2022) reported that pork loin slices (2.5 cm thickness) achieved optimal quality following SV at 60℃ for 3–4 h, and Jeong et al. (2018) suggested that SV processing at 61℃ for 45–90 min was suitable for pork ham with a thickness of 2 cm. However, SV cooking may induce pink or pale surface color, which consumers may perceive as undercooked or bloody; thereby necessitating an additional cooking treatment to ensure an acceptable surface color (Jeong et al., 2018). In this regard, Cho et al. (2020) reported that SV pork patties seared for 60–90 s in a preheated pan at 180℃ showed greater appearance acceptability than those seared for 0, 30, and 120 s. Based on these findings, the SV and searing conditions in the present study were set at 60℃ for 3 h and at 180℃ for 60 s, respectively, to ensure adequate cooking while maintaining product quality. As expected, in this study, pork loins treated with SV alone exhibited a paler surface color than those exposed to severe heat treatments, which showed darker and redder surface color regardless of quality classes (p < 0.001).

Exposing low-grade meat to higher temperatures or prolonged heat during conventional cooking can exacerbate moisture loss due to its inherently unstable muscle structural integrity, leading to increased toughness in the final products (Aaslyng et al., 2003). For example, increasing core temperature from 60 to 80℃ during pan-frying has been reported to progressively increase cooking loss across various pork quality classes, with PSE pork exhibiting significantly higher loss than normal pork at core temperature of 60 and 70℃ (Aaslyng et al., 2003). Park et al. (2020) reported that cooking loss in SV-cooked chicken breast increased with increasing treatment temperature and time, a trend associated with higher WBS values. Corroborating these observations, the PSE-Pan group, which was subjected to higher temperatures and longer heating durations, exhibited a greater treatment loss compared to the RFN-Pan group, accompanied by the highest WBS values (p < 0.001). The PSE-SVS group, which was subjected to similar severe heating for a shorter time than pan-frying, showed higher treatment loss than the RFN group across all three cooking methods (p < 0.001), primarily due to additional moisture loss induced by the searing process. Interestingly, the application of SV cooking to PSE pork, either alone or in combination with searing, resulted in WBS values comparable to those of normal quality pork treated with any of the cooking treatments (p > 0.05). These results suggest that applying SV-based treatments to low-quality PSE pork can improve cooked meat quality traits, particularly treatment loss and objective tenderness.

Visual attributes of meat products play a pivotal role at the initial stage of the purchasing process by providing visual cues that guide consumers’ early evaluations and subsequent choice decisions (Malheiros et al., 2025). In the present study, pork loins subjected to high temperature treatments exhibited superior color acceptability compared with those processed by SV alone, with the RFN-Pan group receiving the highest score (p < 0.001). Although SV treatment alone resulted in lower color acceptability, the application of searing following SV cooking effectively improved color perception, leading to comparable color acceptability between PSE-SVS and RFN-SVS loins (p > 0.05). These are consistent with previous findings indicating that surface browning formed through Maillard reactions at relatively high temperatures, accompanied by surface dehydration, was perceived as a favorable color attribute by trained panelists and consumers (Ruiz-Carrascal et al., 2019; Cho et al., 2020). In contrast, appearance acceptability was significantly lower for PSE pork than for RFN pork within each cooking treatment (p < 0.001). This outcome is likely associated with the disrupted structure of the PSE muscle, which may limit protein functionality and negatively influence visual appearance by impairing uniform structure formation during heating (Suliga et al., 2024). Consequently, the overall visual acceptability was the lowest for the SV group (p < 0.001), with a significant difference observed between the RFN-SV and PSE-SV groups. Trained panelists assigned higher scores for PSE loins treated with SVS compared to both RFN and PSE loins treated with SV (p < 0.001).

From a sensory quality perspective, SV-treated products show improved eating quality, as the vacuum sealing and precise temperature control used in SV cooking minimize moisture evaporation, facilitate collagen dissolution into gelation, and reduce inter-fiber adhesion (Baldwin, 2012). In addition, myofibrillar proteolysis and collagen solubilization can still occur under SV conditions due to the residual activity of endogenous proteolytic enzymes (e.g. calpains and caspases) at relatively mild temperatures, typically below 70℃ (Baldwin, 2012). Although enzyme activity progressively declines with increasing temperature and time, the controlled low temperature low time heating allows limited proteolytic degradation before complete inactivation. These combined enzymatic and thermal effects contribute to structural weakening of myofibrils and the conversion of heat-stable collagen to gelatin, while minimizing excessive transverse fiber shrinkage. Consequently, SV processing enhances WHC and improves sensory tenderness (Lee et al., 2025). Because of these advantages, SV pork loins, regardless of the pork quality class, required less force during the initial bite and left less perceptible residue after chewing compared to loins from the other groups (p < 0.001). Trained panelists could not distinguish the differences in tenderness attributes between loins from the RFN-SV and PSE-SV groups, nor between loins from the RFN-SVS and PSE-SVS groups (p > 0.05), except in chewiness (p < 0.001). Meanwhile, SV-treated loins in both quality classes exhibited higher juiciness scores than those treated with the other cooking treatments (p < 0.001). Although the PSE group showed lower juiciness scores than the RFN group within each treatment (p < 0.001), which might be attributed to the lower WHC of raw PSE loins, SV cooking effectively mitigated the overall moisture loss. Flavor intensity was greater in samples exposed to severe heat treatments compared with SV-treated samples (p < 0.05), caused by the production of aromatic compounds increasing at relatively high temperatures (Calkins & Hodgen, 2007). Specifically, high-temperature cooking facilitates Maillard reactions, in which a wide range of volatile flavor compounds are formed and contribute to the development of desirable roasted/grilled flavor characteristics (Calkins & Hodgen, 2007). Despite the relatively lower flavor intensity under SV conditions, PSE loins cooked using the SV method showed higher overall acceptability compared to RFN loins treated with the conventional cooking method (p < 0.01). In addition, under the searing method after SV processing, the overall acceptability of PSE loins did not differ from that of RFN loins (p > 0.05).

Taken together, SV processing significantly improved the consumer-relevant palatability of PSE loins by enhancing moisture retention and tenderness, thereby partially mitigating the inherent quality defects associated with PSE pork. Furthermore, the subsequent searing process effectively compensated for the visual and flavor limitations of SV cooking by promoting desirable surface browning and flavor development. However, these treatments did not fully eliminate the quality differences between PSE and RFN pork loins, as trained panelists could distinguish the differences, such as juiciness and flavor intensity. These findings suggest that the combined application of SV and searing may offer practical and value-adding approach for improving the technological and sensory quality of PSE pork, suggesting its potential applicability in meat processing and foodservice settings.

.

Author contributions

Conceptualization: Choi YM. Data curation: Lee S, Choi YM. Formal analysis: Lee B, Lee S. Methodology: Lee B, Lee S, Choi YM. Validation: Choi YM. Investigation: Lee B, Lee S. Writing–original draft: Lee B, Lee S, Choi YM. Writing–review & editing: Lee B, Lee S, Choi YM.

Funding

This research was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (RS-2024-00346933).

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethic approval (IRB/IACUC)

This study was approved by Bioethics Committee of Kyungpook National University (protocol number 2019-0027; renewed every year).

Footnotes

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

References

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

No datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

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