Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior logoLink to Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
. 1978 May;29(3):565–601. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1978.29-565

Complex learning and information processing by pigeons: a critical analysis

David E Carter, Thomas J Werner
PMCID: PMC1332854  PMID: 16812079

Abstract

Three models of conditional discrimination learning by pigeons are described: stimulus configuration learning, the multiple-rule model, and concept learning. A review of the literature reveals that true concept learning is not characteristic of the behavior of pigeons in matching-to-sample, oddity-from-sample, or symbolic matching studies. Instead, pigeons learn a set of sample-specific SD rules. Transfer of the discrimination to novel stimuli, at least along the hue dimension, is predicted by a “coding hypothesis”, which holds that pigeons make a unique, but usually unobserved response, R1, to each sample, and that the comparison stimulus chosen depends on which R1 was emitted in the presence of the sample. Convincing evidence is found that pigeons do code sample hues, but there is little evidence that allows one to infer that the “coding event” must have behavioral properties. Parameters of the conditional discrimination paradigm are identified, and it is shown that by appropriate parametric manipulation, a variety of analogous tasks may be generated for both human and animal subjects. The tasks make possible the comparative study of complex learning, attention, memory, and information processing, with the added advantage that behavior processes may be compared systematically across tasks.

Keywords: conditional discrimination, matching-to-sample, oddity-from-sample, symbolic matching, coding hypothesis, information processing, short-term memory, attention, rule learning, concept learning, stimulus configuration learning, pigeon

Full text

PDF
565

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. ASRATYAN E. A. The initiation and localization of cortical inhibition in the conditioned reflex arc. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1961 Jul 28;92:1141–1159. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1961.tb40983.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. BEARE A. C. Color-name as a function of wave-length. Am J Psychol. 1963 Jun;76:248–256. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. BLOUGH D. S. Delayed matching in the pigeon. J Exp Anal Behav. 1959 Apr;2:151–160. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1959.2-151. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. BLOUGH D. S. Spectral sensitivity in the pigeon. J Opt Soc Am. 1957 Sep;47(9):827–833. doi: 10.1364/josa.47.000827. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. BONEAU C. A., HONIG W. K. OPPOSED GENERALIZATION GRADIENTS BASED UPON CONDITIONAL DISCRIMINATION TRAINING. J Exp Psychol. 1964 Jul;68:89–93. doi: 10.1037/h0045926. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Berryman R., Cumming W. W., Cohen L. R., Johnson D. F. Acquisition and transfer of simultaneous oddity. Psychol Rep. 1965 Dec;17(3):767–775. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1965.17.3.767. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Berryman R., Cumming W. W., Nevin J. A. Acquisition of delayed matching in the pigeon. J Exp Anal Behav. 1963 Jan;6(1):101–107. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1963.6-101. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Blough D. S. Recognition by the pigeon of stimuli varying in two dimensions. J Exp Anal Behav. 1972 Nov;18(3):345–367. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1972.18-345. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Boren M. C. Fixed-ratio and variable-ratio schedules of brief stimuli in second-order schedules of matching to sample. J Exp Anal Behav. 1973 Sep;20(2):219–233. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1973.20-219. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Boren M. C., Gollub L. R. Accuracy of performance on a matching-to-sample procedure under interval schedules. J Exp Anal Behav. 1972 Jul;18(1):65–77. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1972.18-65. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. CUMMING W. W., BERRYMAN R., NEVIN J. A. SEARCH FOR AN EFFECT OF SATIATION ON DELAYED MATCHING-TO-SAMPLE PERFORMANCE. Psychol Rep. 1965 Apr;16:645–652. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1965.16.2.645. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. CUMMING W. W., BERRYMAN R. Some data on matching behavior in the pigeon. J Exp Anal Behav. 1961 Jul;4:281–284. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1961.4-281. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Carter D. E., Eckerman D. A. Symbolic matching by pigeons: rate of learning complex discriminations predicted from simple discriminations. Science. 1975 Feb 21;187(4177):662–664. doi: 10.1126/science.1114318. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Clark H. B., Sherman J. A. Effects of a conditioned reinforcer upon accuracy of match-to-sample behavior in pigeons. J Exp Anal Behav. 1970 May;13(3):375–384. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1970.13-375. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Cohen L. R. Generalization during acquisition, extinction, and transfer of matching with an adjustable comparison. J Exp Anal Behav. 1969 May;12(3):463–474. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1969.12-463. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Cohen L. R., Looney T. A., Brady J. H., Aucella A. F. Differential sample response schedules in the acquisition of conditional discriminations by pigeons. J Exp Anal Behav. 1976 Sep;26(2):301–314. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1976.26-301. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Cumming W. W., Berryman R., Cohen L. R. Acquisition and transfer of zero-delay matching. Psychol Rep. 1965 Oct;17(2):435–445. doi: 10.2466/pr0.1965.17.2.435. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Eckerman D. A. Generalization and response mediation of a conditional discrimination. J Exp Anal Behav. 1970 May;13(3):301–316. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1970.13-301. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Eckerman D. A., Lanson R. N., Cumming W. W. Acquisition and maintenance of matching without a required observing response. J Exp Anal Behav. 1968 Jul;11(4):435–441. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1968.11-435. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. FERSTER C. B., APPEL J. B. Punishment of S delta responding in matching to sample by time out from positive reinforcement. J Exp Anal Behav. 1961 Jan;4:45–56. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1961.4-45. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. FERSTER C. B. Intermittent reinforcement of matching to sample in the pigeon. J Exp Anal Behav. 1960 Jul;3:259–272. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1960.3-259. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Farthing G. W., Opuda M. J. Transfer of matching-to-sample in pigeons. J Exp Anal Behav. 1974 Mar;21(2):199–213. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1974.21-199. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Friedman M. I., Bruno J. P. Letter: Exchange of water during lactation. Science. 1976 Jan 30;191(4225):409–410. doi: 10.1126/science.1246627. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. HOLLAND J. G. Human vigilance: the rate of observing an instrument is controlled by the schedule of signal detections. Science. 1958 Jul 11;128(3315):61–67. doi: 10.1126/science.128.3315.61. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Heinemann E. G., Chase S., Mandell C. Discriminative control of "attention". Science. 1968 May 3;160(3827):553–554. doi: 10.1126/science.160.3827.553. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Holt G. L., Shafer J. N. Function of intertrial interval in matching-to-sample. J Exp Anal Behav. 1973 Jan;19(1):181–186. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1973.19-181. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Kamil A. C., Sacks R. A. Three-configuration matching-to-sample in the pigeon. J Exp Anal Behav. 1972 May;17(3):483–488. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1972.17-483. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Kelleher R. T. Conditioned reinforcement in second-order schedules. J Exp Anal Behav. 1966 Sep;9(5):475–485. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1966.9-475. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Looney T. A., Cohen L. R., Brady J. H., Cohen P. S. Conditional discrimination performance by pigeons on a response-independent procedure. J Exp Anal Behav. 1977 Mar;27(2):363–370. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1977.27-363. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Lydersen T., Perkins D., Chairez H. Effects of fixed-ratio sample and choice response requirements upon oddity matching. J Exp Anal Behav. 1977 Jan;27(1):97–101. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1977.27-97. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Lydersen T., Perkins D. Effects of response-produced stimuli upon conditional discrimination performance. J Exp Anal Behav. 1974 Mar;21(2):307–314. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1974.21-307. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Maki W. S., Jr, Leuin T. C. Information-processing by pigeons. Science. 1972 May 5;176(4034):535–536. doi: 10.1126/science.176.4034.535. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Mintz D. E., Mourer D. J., Weinberg L. S. Stimulus control in fixed ratio matching-to-sample. J Exp Anal Behav. 1966 Nov;9(6):627–630. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1966.9-627. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. NEVIN J. A., CUMMING W. W., BERRYMAN T. Ratio reinforcement of matching behavior. J Exp Anal Behav. 1963 Apr;6:149–154. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1963.6-149. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. PETERSON L. R., PETERSON M. J. Short-term retention of individual verbal items. J Exp Psychol. 1959 Sep;58:193–198. doi: 10.1037/h0049234. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Reynolds G. S., Limpo A. J. Attention and generalization during a conditional discrimination. J Exp Anal Behav. 1969 Nov;12(6):911–916. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1969.12-911. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. SPENCE K. W. The nature of the response in discrimination learning. Psychol Rev. 1952 Jan;59(1):89–93. doi: 10.1037/h0063067. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. SPERLING G. A model for visual memory tasks. Hum Factors. 1963 Feb;5:19–31. doi: 10.1177/001872086300500103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Shimp C. P., Moffitt M. Short-term memory in the pigeon: delayed-pair-comparison procedures and some results. J Exp Anal Behav. 1977 Jul;28(1):13–25. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1977.28-13. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Shimp C. P., Moffitt M. Short-term memory in the pigeon: stimulus-response associations. J Exp Anal Behav. 1974 Nov;22(3):507–512. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1974.22-507. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Shimp C. P. Short-term memory in the pigeon: the previously reinforced response. J Exp Anal Behav. 1976 Nov;26(3):487–493. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1976.26-487. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Smith L. Delayed discrimination and delayed matching in pigeons. J Exp Anal Behav. 1967 Nov;10(6):529–533. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1967.10-529. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Stubbs A. The discrimination of stimulus duration by pigeons. J Exp Anal Behav. 1968 May;11(3):223–238. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1968.11-223. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Urcuioli P. J., Nevin J. A. Transfer of hue matching in pigeons. J Exp Anal Behav. 1975 Sep;24(2):149–155. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1975.24-149. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Urcuioli P. J. Transfer of oddity-from-sample performance in pigeons. J Exp Anal Behav. 1977 Jan;27(1):195–202. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1977.27-195. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Wright A. A., Cumming W. W. Color-naming functions for the pigeon. J Exp Anal Behav. 1971 Jan;15(1):7–17. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1971.15-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Yarczower M. Stimulus control during conditional discrimination. J Exp Anal Behav. 1971 Jul;16(1):89–94. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1971.16-89. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. ZIMMERMAN D. W. Durable secondary reinforcement: method and theory. Psychol Rev. 1957 Nov;64, Part 1(6):373–383. doi: 10.1037/h0041885. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. ZIMMERMAN J., FERSTER C. B. Intermittent punishment of Sdelta responding in matching to sample. J Exp Anal Behav. 1963 Jul;6:349–356. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1963.6-349. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Zentall T. R., Hogan D. E. Pigeons can learn identity or difference, or both. Science. 1976 Jan 30;191(4225):408–409. doi: 10.1126/science.191.4225.408. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior are provided here courtesy of Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior

RESOURCES