Relevance of positive psychology in the veterinary profession: A narrative review

Abstract

Background

Veterinary professionals encounter myriad stressors that challenge their wellbeing and mental health. Positive psychology provides an evidence‐based approach to improving mental health by emphasising individual strengths, effective coping mechanisms, and the promotion of overall wellbeing. The specific objectives of this narrative review were to: (1) provide an overview of positive psychology concepts applicable to the veterinary profession, (2) synthesise the growing body of literature on positive psychology concepts researched within the veterinary context while also providing insights from other healthcare professions, and (3) inform the integration of positive psychology concepts in education and/or daily veterinary practice of veterinarians.

Method

This narrative review was conducted by examining peer‐reviewed literature on positive psychology relevant to the veterinary profession.

Results

The review highlights the promising potential of positive psychology for veterinary professionals. For example, meaningful experiences such as helping clients and patients can foster veterinarian job satisfaction and mental wellbeing. Emotional intelligence, empathy, and compassion can enhance professional interactions and counteract negative mental health outcomes. Furthermore, practices such as mindfulness and flow have the potential to foster focus and emotional regulation, whereas self‐esteem, self‐efficacy and self‐confidence contribute to a sense of competence and self‐worth.

Limitations

This review did not follow a systematic method for selecting and examining literature, and only includes peer‐reviewed literature published in English.

Conclusion

The evidence from this review provides encouraging possibilities to strengthen positive psychology skills applicable to veterinary professionals, bearing in mind that incorporating strategies for organisational wellbeing is equally important to promote a healthier and more sustainable veterinary field.

INTRODUCTION

Veterinarians experience significant mental health and wellbeing challenges worldwide, reflecting the complex demands inherent to the profession. Specifically, compared to the general population, veterinary professionals are more likely to experience negative emotions ¹ , ² and have higher levels of serious mental health concerns such as burnout, depression, anxiety and suicidal ideation. ³ , ⁴ , ⁵ , ⁶ , ⁷ Similarly, many other studies have demonstrated that veterinary occupational stress levels are linked to poor psychological health and low wellbeing, ¹ , ³ , ⁷ which can ultimately contribute to veterinarians deciding to leave their career. ⁸

A variety of occupational stressors have been linked to the high prevalence of mental health outcomes in veterinary care. For example, chronic stress and burnout are likely caused by a combination of workplace stressors (e.g., extended hours and high caseloads) and emotional pressures such as patient euthanasia, client grief and animal suffering. ⁸ , ⁹ , ¹⁰ Other risk factors that have been associated with poor mental health include clients’ expectations and financial limitations, ethical dilemmas and moral distress. ¹¹ , ¹² , ¹³

To address the mental health challenges within the veterinary profession, numerous studies have discussed positive psychology components as essential principles for veterinarians, and the focus has been shifted to resilience building, coping skills and wellbeing solutions. ¹⁴ , ¹⁵ , ¹⁶ , ¹⁷ , ¹⁸ While the ideas underlying positive psychology have deeper historical origins, Seligman played a key role in formally defining and advancing the field as a distinct area of psychological study. ¹⁹ Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi believed that the study of disorder and dysfunction, which was the primary focus of psychology following World War II, ignored aspects of the human experience that contribute to happiness and thriving. ²⁰

The focus of positive psychology is on what makes life worthwhile: how people can cultivate positive individual and collective characteristics, be happy in the moment, be satisfied with the past and have hope for the future. ²⁰ , ²¹ Positive psychology presupposes that mental wellbeing interventions can benefit healthy people as well and that the tenets of positive psychology do not apply exclusively to those with mental illnesses. ²⁰ , ²²

Thus, measuring and promoting human flourishing through aspects such as increasing positive affect, resilience and coping is the cornerstone of positive psychology. ²³ , ²⁴ According to Diener et al., ²⁵ ‘flourishing’ describes a state of psychosocial wellbeing that arises when fundamental psychosocial needs such as connection with others, a sense of respect, self‐worth, competence and life purpose are fulfilled. Flourishing, central to positive psychology, is also relevant in the context of veterinary medicine as it encompasses wellbeing, resilience, job satisfaction and professional fulfillment—critical factors in addressing the challenges faced by practicing veterinary professionals and veterinary students. ¹⁷ , ²¹

Wellbeing encompasses flourishing in several areas of life, such as physical health and all the pillars described by Seligman ²⁶ in a model known as PERMA: (1) positive emotion—opinions and feelings are the sole subjective means of evaluating positive emotions; (2) engagement—when people are in a state of flow, which is characterised by deep engagement, peak performance and a heightened sense of control, attention and satisfaction, they are said to be engaged; (3) relationships—the existence of close friends, family or social ties; (4) meaning—contributing to and being a part of something greater than oneself; and (5) achievement—striving towards and accomplishing goals, along with maintaining the motivation to engage in and complete tasks. Seligman contends that ‘wellbeing is the central focus of positive psychology’ and ‘flourishing is the gold standard for assessing wellbeing’. ²⁶ Given the recent increased attention to positive psychology in the veterinary field, ¹⁴ , ²⁷ , ²⁸ the aim of this narrative review was to synthesise the literature on the concepts of positive psychology and their application within veterinary medicine. Therefore, the specific objectives of this review were to: (1) provide an overview of positive psychology concepts applicable to the veterinary profession, (2) synthesise the growing body of literature on positive psychology concepts researched within the veterinary context while also providing insights from other healthcare professions, and (3) inform the integration of positive psychology concepts in education and/or daily veterinary practice of veterinarians. Within each of the following sections, various positive psychology terms and concepts will be first described broadly, followed by specific examples or applications relevant to the veterinary profession.

HEDONIA AND EUDAIMONIA

According to Deci and Ryan, ²⁹ there are two general perspectives of wellbeing: hedonic and eudemonic. Hedonia is the pursuit of the experience of positive affect, such as pleasure and happiness, while eudaimonia is the search for fulfillment, meaning and purpose. While eudaimonia is about using and developing one's greatest qualities and contributing to the greater good, hedonia is primarily concerned with short‐term comfort and pleasure. ³⁰ Hedonic pleasure, according to Berridge and Kringelbach, ³¹ encompasses many higher forms of pleasure (e.g., cognitive, social, artistic and moral) in addition to sensory pleasures.

The distinction between hedonic and eudaimonic approaches has deep philosophical roots, dating back at least two millennia. ³² Huta and Ryan ³³ compared these two types of pursuits and found that they are related to some distinct and some overlapping sets of wellbeing outcomes. For example, in their study, hedonia and eudaimonia were related to positive emotions and wellbeing but the effects of hedonia on positive affect faded in the short term (by the 3‐month follow‐up) while eudaimonia was related to positive affect in the long run (at 3‐month follow‐up). This distinction highlights that hedonia provides quick emotional benefits but may lack lasting impact, while eudaimonia offers long‐term wellbeing, although its benefits may take time to emerge.

Kashdan et al. ³⁴ posit that hedonia and eudaimonia overlap conceptually and statistically and may operate together rather than in isolation. Specifically, they noted that positive affect, a component of hedonic wellbeing, is positively correlated with meaning in life, a component of eudaimonic wellbeing. This strong correlation suggests that individuals who experience pleasure and positive emotions also tend to find meaning and purpose in their lives, highlighting the intertwined nature of these constructs. Similarly, Fredrickson's ³⁵ broaden‐and‐build theory of positive emotions states that positive emotions contribute to building a person's personal resources over time such as competence, meaning (purpose in life), optimism, resilience, self‐acceptance, positive relationships and physical health. As such, even a brief period of feeling happy can start an ‘upward spiral’ that improves wellbeing over the long run. ³⁶

While research has shown that compared to non‐caregiving professions, veterinarians encounter higher levels of negative emotions at work, ¹ veterinarian wellbeing is also strongly correlated with the gratifying nature of the veterinary profession. ¹⁶ Generally, hedonic pleasure and other positive emotions have been demonstrated to provide significant effects in the workplace such as decreased risk of burnout ³⁷ and career success. ³⁸ Furthermore, in other professions, positive emotions have been linked to a host of advantages, including enhanced immunity, ³⁹ enhanced resistance to adversity, recovery from stress ⁴⁰ , ⁴¹ and even longer life. ⁴² A veterinary model of work‐derived wellbeing was proposed by Cake et al., ⁴³ emphasising that a career in veterinary medicine can be a rich source of fulfillment and satisfaction, positioning veterinarian wellbeing within the context of eudaimonia. This perspective is further supported by a qualitative study that highlighted numerous benefits of working in the veterinary profession, such as forming strong bonds with animals and their owners and the rewarding experience of helping them. ⁴⁴ The connection with humans and animals was also highlighted as a key contributor to the sense of meaningful work in Canadian veterinarians, alongside the ability to make a difference in the lives of patients, clients and the broader community, and the opportunity for creativity and problem‐solving. ⁴⁵ Furthermore, Clise et al. ⁴⁴ highlighted a connection between job satisfaction and self‐beliefs, particularly self‐efficacy and adaptability, qualities that contribute to veterinarians' resilience and overall wellbeing. The job demands–resources model ⁴⁶ provides a framework for understanding how workplace conditions influence wellbeing in veterinary practice. Job resources such as supportive colleagues and management, adequate support staff, reasonable appointment scheduling and clear organisational policies can foster a sense of control, competence and purpose. Conversely, high job demands—including long hours, heavy workloads and the emotional strain of client interactions and animal care—can deplete energy and contribute to burnout. When veterinarians have sufficient organisational and personal job resources, they are better able to manage these demands, engage meaningfully with their work, and maintain job satisfaction and mental wellbeing.

To operationalise and empirically assess the veterinary model of work‐derived wellbeing proposed by Cake et al., ⁴³ Wallace ¹⁶ explored how job qualities relate to eudaimonia. Besides providing further evidence that factors such as helping clients and animals contribute to a sense of meaningful work, the research also emphasised the importance of feeling a sense of belonging in the profession to meaning and wellbeing. Eudaimonia is intrinsically tied to the concept of flourishing as it emphasises the realisation of one's full potential and living in alignment with one's values and purpose. ⁴⁷

RESILIENCE AND COPING

While hedonia and eudaimonia provide a foundation for understanding wellbeing, the ability to sustain wellbeing in the face of challenges is equally important. In the demanding field of veterinary medicine, where stress, emotional labour and ethical dilemmas are common, resilience and effective coping strategies become essential for maintaining both personal and professional fulfillment. Resilience is a key predictor of psychological wellbeing in both the general population and among medical professionals. ⁴⁸ The American Psychological Association defines resilience as ‘the ability to effectively adapt and cope when confronted with challenges such as adversity, trauma, tragedy, threats or major stressors’. ⁴⁹ Resilience is a dynamic process that helps a person overcome adversity and obstacles in their life. ⁵⁰ Over time, experiences, the acquisition of useful skills and tacit knowledge all contribute to the development of resilience. ⁵¹ While resilience is a valuable coping mechanism, scholars caution that emphasising this concept should not detract from the need to address the structural and systemic factors contributing to adversity; advocating resilience must go hand in hand with acknowledging and responding to the realities of adverse circumstances. ⁵² , ⁵³

Over the past few decades, as veterinary education has moved towards a competency‐based approach, multiple frameworks have emerged to outline the essential professional competencies expected of graduate veterinarians. For example, the competency of ‘attends to wellbeing of self and others’ is included in the Competency Framework of the American Association of Veterinary Medical Colleges ⁵⁴ (p. 45). The Day One Competencies of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons ⁵⁵ (p. 5) emphasises that ‘veterinary surgeons must possess resilience and confidence in their professional judgements to effectively handle the pressures and competing demands they are likely to encounter in the workplace’. These competencies indicate that it is a veterinarian's responsibility to maintain balance and continue to prosper despite adversity.

Despite the limited research, there are indications that veterinarians may not be particularly resilient. ⁵⁶ , ⁵⁷ For instance, a study conducted among Canadian veterinarians found that 75% of participants had lower average resilience scores compared to the general population norm, ⁵⁶ whereas a survey of veterinarians in Australia showed that only 6% of veterinary students met the criteria of high resilience, while about one‐third were identified as having low resilience levels. ¹⁸ Another study ⁵⁸ highlighted that resilience may not significantly change as veterinarians progress in their career based on the three career‐stage groups that took part in the study (new graduate veterinarians and mid‐ and late‐career veterinarians). Additional research has explored the factors that likely contribute to resilience in veterinary students and practitioners, highlighting the importance of both personal resources such as self‐efficacy, self‐compassion, drawing from past experiences, changing perspectives and mindfulness, as well as contextual resources such as social support ¹⁸ , ⁵⁹ in fostering adaptability and psychological wellbeing.

In a sample of Canadian veterinarians, demographic, career and lifestyle factors have been reported to be associated with resilience. ⁵ Specifically, overall health, and the level of satisfaction with support from friends and workplace resources had positive associations with resilience and/or perceived stress, while anxiety, depression, burnout, secondary traumatic stress and the presence of mental illness were negatively associated with resilience. Furthermore, McArthur et al. ⁵⁸ investigated the coping methods of veterinarians and found that resilience was positively correlated with emotion‐focused coping methods (e.g., efforts to lessen the emotional impact of a stressful situation), while being negatively correlated with dysfunctional and problem‐focused coping strategies (e.g., planning, seeking out advice and assistance from others, and trying to improve the situation by actively seeking solutions, all of which depend on eliminating or minimising the stressor in order to succeed).

Understanding the factors that contribute to resilience can help in designing effective interventions. To shed light on the importance of strengthening resilience, Moffett and Bartram ⁵⁹ conducted mixed‐methods research to explore how a mental wellbeing teaching intervention affected the self‐reported resilience of first‐year veterinary students in the UK. According to the study, veterinary students who receive the right kind of training in resilience‐building techniques may become more resilient in both their personal and professional lives and become more conscious of resilience. According to this study, veterinary students believed that resilience training was a useful addition to the curriculum and that having resilience is probably crucial to having a successful career in veterinary medicine. ⁵⁹ Also in the veterinary student context, Taylor et al. ⁶⁰ developed a career development programme to help prepare and empower undergraduates in Australia. The programme covered six key areas: business, communication, consultation, leadership, mental health and ethics. The results indicated that implementation of the programme helped students to use protective factors that are internal to an individual, such as self‐reliance, self‐esteem and self‐efficacy, which fostered resilience.

EMPATHY AND COMPASSION

For veterinary professionals, the benefits and challenges of their work arise from connecting with and understanding the experiences of both clients and patients. ⁴³ , ⁶¹ , ⁶² , ⁶³ Empathy includes emotional aspects such as recognising someone else's feelings and responding emotionally, as well as cognitive aspects such as understanding their perspective and managing one's own emotions. ⁴³ , ⁶⁴ , ⁶⁵ Compassion involves recognising pain and suffering in others and wanting to relieve it. ⁶²

Emotional and cognitive engagement in veterinary care can lead to both positive and negative outcomes. Compassion satisfaction refers to the fulfillment and joy gained from supporting others through hardship, trauma or crisis, and is often identified as a key reason why many people choose to enter the veterinary profession. ⁶² , ⁶⁶ Compassion satisfaction arises when individuals recognise that their work reflects their personal values and holds both personal and professional significance. ⁶⁷ Furthermore, while provider–client–patient interactions may be emotionally demanding, often veterinary professionals find these interactions highly meaningful and derive great satisfaction from caring for and helping animal patients and their caretakers. ⁶² The negative implication of caring deeply has been commonly referred to as compassion fatigue. However, Klimecki and Singer ⁶⁸ challenge the term ‘compassion fatigue’, suggesting that it is not compassion but empathy that leads to caregiver exhaustion. They term this phenomenon empathic distress (or empathetic distress), emphasising the emotional strain of absorbing others' suffering rather than engaging in compassionate action.

However, in human and veterinary health care professions, empathy is recognised as a crucial element of the therapeutic relationship, as it supports better communication, aids in diagnosis, and increases client satisfaction. ⁶⁹ , ⁷⁰ , ⁷¹ In addition to the already complex nature of empathy and compassion in the veterinary context, research has highlighted significant associations between gender and empathy levels towards animals. ⁷² For example, Colombo et al. ⁷³ revealed that female veterinarians in Italy scored higher on empathy levels towards animals compared to male veterinarians. Furthermore, Menor‐Campos et al. ⁷⁴ found that female students, from three European veterinary medicine schools, show greater concern than male students regarding animal use.

There appears to be a change in empathy throughout medical training. Several studies have shown that levels of empathy are lowest in veterinary and medical students in the later years of their studies. ⁷⁵ , ⁷⁶ This decrease in empathy has been hypothesised to be related to compassion fatigue (empathic stress), lack of resources and a feeling of resignation regarding some of the negative outcomes for the animals they treat. ⁷⁷ , ⁷⁸ , ⁷⁹ This decline is concerning, as decreased empathy has been associated with increased odds of self‐perceived medical errors, which can further directly affect patient care. ⁸⁰ During veterinary education, empathy can be nurtured by promoting a respectful and encouraging educational atmosphere, integrating ethics and animal welfare into the curriculum, and offering meaningful experiences that allow students to engage closely and compassionately with animals. ⁷²

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

A broad spectrum of inter‐ and intrapersonal skills is essential for health professionals to deliver both competent and compassionate care. ⁸¹ Emotional intelligence, which builds on empathy and compassion, helps veterinarians to not only recognise emotions in others and themselves but also handle emotionally challenging situations. As such, emotional intelligence has the potential to serve as a mitigating factor to empathic distress. Salovey and Mayer ⁸² (p. 189) defined emotional intelligence as ‘a specific aspect of social intelligence, referring to the ability to recognise and understand one's own emotions as well as those of others, to distinguish between different emotions, and to use this awareness to guide thoughts and behavior’.

The contribution of emotional intelligence to the effectiveness of medical professionals is of particular interest because of the unique doctor–patient/client and medical team relationships, as it enables healthcare professionals to navigate complex emotional dynamics, foster trust and communicate effectively, which are essential for improving patient outcomes and collaboration within teams. ⁸³ , ⁸⁴ , ⁸⁵ Emotional intelligence contributes to the quality of veterinary health care and improves team performance by supporting better communication, more effective conflict resolution, and timely detection and management of stress and burnout. ⁸⁶ Specifically, veterinarians with higher emotional intelligence were able to elicit improved client satisfaction and client adherence with treatment plans. ⁸⁶

Besides benefiting patients and clients, high emotional intelligence also has the potential to benefit veterinary professionals’ mental wellbeing. For example, higher emotional intelligence was associated with both lowered stress levels and improved academic performance in medical students. ⁸⁷ , ⁸⁸ Similarly, a cross‐sectional study conducted by Wells et al. ⁸⁹ with veterinary medical students in the United States revealed a statistically significant, negative correlation between emotional intelligence levels and stress, anxiety and depression. Importantly, some aspects of perceiving and managing emotions appear to be modifiable, ⁹⁰ and researchers have suggested that these much‐needed attributes should be explicitly taught and inculcated within the curriculum ⁹¹ while others suggested to also consider the emotional intelligence levels of veterinary student candidates. ⁸⁹ The need for targeted training was confirmed by Adin et al. ⁹² who showed that emotional intelligence scores of fourth‐year veterinary students, interns and residents in a teaching hospital in the United States were mostly below the mean for other professionals at all stages of training. Similarly, emotional intelligence scores did not change significantly in a longitudinal study following veterinarians from the time of graduation through their first year of clinical practice. ⁹³ These results suggest that standard didactic and clinical training programmes and specific interventions may be required to increase emotional intelligence among veterinary health professionals.

MINDFULNESS

Mindfulness is increasingly being discussed within the veterinary profession. ⁹⁴ A widely cited definition of mindfulness is ‘the state of awareness that arises by intentionally focusing on the present moment with openness and without judgement through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and non‐judgementally to the unfolding experience moment by moment’. ⁹⁵ Cultivating mindfulness can enhance focus and resilience, allowing practitioners to manage stress and maintain emotional balance in demanding situations. ⁹⁶ , ⁹⁷ , ⁹⁸ Mindfulness has been shown to have positive impacts on reducing psychological problems of individuals ⁹⁹ , ¹⁰⁰ decreasing burnout and increasing compassion satisfaction, ¹⁰¹ , ¹⁰² and supporting quality of professional life. ¹⁰³ For example, McArthur et al. ¹⁸ reported a positive correlation between mindfulness characteristics and resilience in the veterinary student population.

The small amount of research on mindfulness and the use of mindfulness practices in the veterinary industry primarily involves veterinary students. Findings indicate that regular engagement in mindfulness practices may be associated with lower levels of depression and anxiety ¹⁰⁴ , ¹⁰⁵ and that a mindful breathing exercise may temporarily decrease stress. ¹⁰⁶ Mind‒body practices such as mindfulness are considered effective for alleviating stress and enhancing wellbeing due to their non‐invasive nature and emphasis on overall wellness. ¹⁰⁷ Indeed, Moir and Van den Brink ⁴ and Rohlf ¹⁰⁸ emphasised the need for more research into strategies that support the wellbeing of veterinary professionals. Given the potential benefits of mindfulness observed in veterinary students, this highlights the need for further research on mindfulness‐based interventions within the veterinary profession.

FLOW

Csikszentmihalyi ¹⁰⁹ described flow as a state of mind or internal experience that arises when a person is fully engaged in an enjoyable activity, becoming so absorbed that all other distractions fade away. Csikszentmihalyi ¹¹⁰ assumed that the repeated experience of flow in a given context not only increases intrinsic task interest but also has a cumulative effect on positive mood over time through feelings of engagement, satisfaction and joy. As a result, engaging in such activities—whether a job, hobby or sport—can significantly enhance overall positive mood. ¹¹¹ However, the Job Demands–Resources theory ⁴⁶ states that positive results from work engagement only occur when job resources surpass job demands. If not counterbalanced by sufficient resources such as autonomy and social support, high job demands, including emotional labour, moral quandaries and long working hours can compromise wellbeing in healthcare settings. ¹¹² Therefore, to experience flow, individuals must experience their work as positive, while work that is overly demanding or inconsistent with personal beliefs will hinder flow and worsen stress and burnout.

When individuals engage in challenging and meaningful tasks that align with their skills and personal values, they are more likely to experience flow, leading to enhanced self‐worth, personal growth, and a sense of mastery of skills and meaning in life. ¹¹³ , ¹¹⁴ , ¹¹⁵ , ¹¹⁶ The concept of flow has been explored only sparingly in the veterinary medicine literature ¹⁴ , ⁴³ as per our knowledge, but flow experiences have been explored within medical practice, where they are linked to improved focus, satisfaction and reduced burnout among practitioners. ¹¹⁷ , ¹¹⁸ , ¹¹⁹ Cake et al. ⁴³ discussed flow as a key component of engagement in veterinary work, highlighting that experiences of flow—arising from a balance between high challenge and high skill—are linked to eudaimonic wellbeing rather than short‐term pleasure. Furthermore, Corrigan et al. ¹⁴ emphasised that the ‘engagement’ element of the PERMA model is linked to flow, highlighting the importance of designing learning experiences in veterinary education that balance challenge and skill to foster deeper engagement and wellbeing. Research on flow highlights the importance of engagement in hobbies and leisure activities as a means of experiencing deep focus and enjoyment. ¹⁰⁹ , ¹²⁰ , ¹²¹ Exploring how veterinarians engage in such activities—whether through creative pursuits, sports or social interactions—could provide valuable insights into how flow states outside of work contribute to the overall wellbeing of this profession.

SELF‐ESTEEM, SELF‐EFFICACY AND SELF‐CONFIDENCE

Rosenberg ¹²² explained that self‐esteem is a person's overall favourable view of themselves, with high self‐esteem involving self‐respect and a belief in one's own worth. Furthermore, Vealey ¹²³ defined self‐confidence as an individual's certainty about their abilities while Bandura et al. ¹²⁴ defined self‐efficacy as an individual's confidence in their capability to successfully and effectively perform a particular task. These three concepts are intertwined and the terms and definitions of self‐confidence and self‐efficacy, ¹²⁵ , ¹²⁶ and self‐confidence and self‐esteem ¹²⁷ , ¹²⁸ have been used interchangeably. However, some authors believe that self‐esteem includes self‐confidence, ¹²⁹ , ¹³⁰ viewing self‐confidence as a narrower construct than self‐esteem. ¹³¹ Others simply purport that self‐esteem is associated with, or contributes to, a sense of confidence. ¹³² , ¹³³ , ¹³⁴

Given the interpersonal and challenging nature of veterinary work, understanding how veterinarians develop and maintain self‐esteem could provide insight into wellbeing and professional fulfillment. According to Leary, ¹³⁵ self‐esteem is not just an internal judgement of worth but fluctuates based on how accepted or valued an individual feels in their social environment. Veterinarians are generally perceived as more approachable, sensitive and understanding than human physicians, ¹³⁶ and this positive public perception may enhance veterinary professionals’ self‐concept and self‐esteem, contributing to their overall mental health and wellbeing.

In the veterinary student population, a study conducted in New Zealand showed that students with higher self‐esteem reported better wellbeing and lower stress levels. ¹³⁷ Similarly, higher self‐efficacy was positively associated with higher resilience in Australian veterinarians. ⁵⁸ Where low self‐esteem may reflect an accurate awareness of one's limitations, it could also lead to a distorted sense of insecurity and inadequacy. ¹³⁸ Similarly, a qualitative study of early‐career veterinarians highlighted how veterinary school and the transition into clinical practice contributed to feelings of inadequacy and an erosion of self‐confidence, and how this erosion negatively affected mental wellbeing. ⁴⁵ However, having a mentor during the first year(s) of clinical veterinary practice fostered confidence and was described as an important determinant of success in clinical practice. ¹³⁹

LIMITATIONS OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY APPROACHES AT THE INDIVIDUAL LEVEL

Persistent stressors and demanding workplace conditions have become deeply ingrained in the culture of veterinary medicine, creating a perception that such challenges are an inherent and unchangeable part of the profession. ¹⁴⁰ This normalisation of mental health struggles contributes to the ongoing difficulty in addressing and improving wellbeing within the field. ¹⁴¹ While veterinary professionals are often encouraged to work towards enhancing individual‐level factors that have the potential to reduce negative mental health outcomes and foster flourishing, the work‐related context of the veterinary clinical profession cannot be ignored. Building on Seligman's PERMA model, the PERMA +4 model takes a step further by addressing additional dimensions relevant to work‐related contexts. ¹⁴² This extension includes components related to the physical work environment, physical health, mindset and economic security, ¹⁴² and calls for intentionally improving the efficiency of the work environment and cultivating a supportive culture through good leadership that empowers clinicians and promotes holistic mental health. ¹⁴³ For example, positive leadership significantly impacts workplace wellbeing and organisational commitment within veterinary settings. ¹⁴ As such, an individual's resilience should not be seen as a substitute for addressing underlying issues inherent to the veterinary profession, as individuals thrive best when personal efforts are supported by structural change. ¹⁴⁴ , ¹⁴⁵ , ¹⁴⁶ Similarly, Ungar and Theron ¹⁴⁷ suggested that resilience is not an internal resource, but one's ability to access the resources needed for wellbeing. It is, therefore, crucial to provide veterinary professionals with an environment that allows for flourishing and the necessary resources to overcome challenges.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Awareness of the principles and applications of positive psychology and their impact on mental wellbeing highlights wide‐ranging implications for the profession's practices and current and future generations of veterinarians. This review emphasised how positive psychology can address challenges to mental health and wellbeing in veterinary medicine, while recognising that some stressors are inherent to the profession. The positive psychology strategies discussed in this review largely fall within the category of primary interventions, as they focus on prevention and the proactive cultivation of wellbeing before significant distress arises. At the same time, several concepts—such as mindfulness, resilience training and compassion‐focused approaches—can also function as secondary interventions by mitigating stress responses and supporting early recovery from adversity. In some cases, especially when addressing chronic occupational stress or burnout, these same strategies may serve as tertiary supports that complement rehabilitative or therapeutic efforts. Future research could more explicitly distinguish and evaluate the effectiveness of positive psychology interventions across these three levels of prevention. Overall, these concepts offer tools to navigate unavoidable stressors, mitigating their impact and fostering a healthier outlook. Furthermore, valuable insights can be drawn from the growing body of literature in other healthcare professions, where these concepts have been explored more extensively. These cross‐disciplinary findings provide meaningful guidance and highlight the potential benefits of applying positive psychology principles within the veterinary context.

In considering the application of the PERMA model ²⁶ to veterinary mental health, it is evident that components such as positive emotion (e.g., through hedonia), engagement (e.g., through flow experience), relationships (e.g., through compassion and empathy), meaning and achievement (e.g., through eudaimonia) have been explored to some extent in recent years in the veterinary context, while some studies also addressed work‐related contexts and the environment that allow for, or hinder, flourishing. It is crucial to acknowledge the powerful role of institutional and organisational structures on wellbeing. Enhancing veterinarian wellbeing is most effectively achieved not by placing the sole responsibility on individual veterinarians to cultivate resilience, but by fostering resilience within veterinary schools and practice environments. This involves prioritising workforce wellbeing, regularly assessing mental health and stress within organisations, and sharing accountability for these outcomes among leadership roles.

The findings of this review indicate that there are ample opportunities to deepen our understanding of positive psychology in the veterinary context, including further exploration of potential cultural and gender differences. Furthermore, to date, much of the research has been conducted with veterinary students, and while this is undoubtedly an important avenue, conditions in clinical practice are very different and warrant further study. Similarly, an important additional component is to include members of the veterinary team (e.g., veterinary technicians) in future research. Furthermore, much of the existing literature relies on cross‐sectional studies, surveys and qualitative analyses rather than longitudinal assessments or experimental designs with control groups. Strengthening the evidence base through diverse and methodologically robust quantitative and qualitative studies will help inform best practices for integrating positive psychology into veterinary training and practice.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Conceptualisation of the manuscript, writing of initial draft, and editing based on co‐authors’ feedback: Aiman Khattak. Conceptualisation of the manuscript, reviewing and editing of the manuscript, and providing supervision for Aiman Khattak: Philip Smith and Caroline Ritter. Reviewing and editing of the manuscript: Andria Jones, April L. McGrath and Kathryn L. Proudfoot.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors declare they have no conflicts of interest.

ETHICS STATEMENT

Ethics approval was not required as this review synthesised previously published literature.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.