Abnormal Time and Space Experiences Among Transitional‐Age Youth With a Major Depressive Disorder: A Phenomenological Qualitative Study

ABSTRACT

Aim

To explore the abnormal experiences of time and space among transitional‐age youth with major depressive disorder.

Design

A descriptive phenomenological qualitative study.

Methods and Setting

The study was conducted at a psychiatric hospital in China. Purposive sampling was used to recruit transitional‐age youth with major depressive disorder. Data were collected through semi‐structured interviews and analysed using Colaizzi's method.

Findings

Seventeen participants were interviewed. The abnormal experiences of time and space among transitional‐age youth with major depressive disorder were synthesised into five overarching themes: (1) Disturbance of Time Order; (2) Slackening of the Flow of Time; (3) Vital Inhibition; (4) Desynchronisation of Social Rhythms; and (5) Disturbance of Lived Space.

Conclusions

This study highlights that pervasive abnormalities in temporal and spatial experiences characterise transitional‐age youth with major depressive disorder. These disturbances shape their sense of self, personal development, relationships and engagement with the world, underscoring the need for interventions that address these temporal and spatial disturbances within the context of developmental transition.

Impact

This study addresses a knowledge gap regarding the subjective experience of time and space among transitional‐age youth with major depressive disorder. This study highlights that transitional‐age youth with major depressive disorder experience desynchronisation across temporal, spatial, bodily and social domains. Moreover, the desynchronisation of social rhythms appears to be a unique and developmentally salient challenge for transitional‐age youth with major depressive disorder. These insights expand phenomenological understandings of major depressive disorder and highlight the developmental vulnerabilities of major depressive disorder as it navigates this critical life phase.

Patient or Public Contribution

Five participants were involved in reviewing and providing feedback on the interview content and results. Their contributions included enhancing the authenticity and credibility of the findings.

Reporting Method

The study followed the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research guidelines.

Summary.

• This study deepens understanding of how transitional‐age youth with major depressive disorder experience disturbances in time and space. These disturbances shape their sense of self, social connectedness and engagement with everyday life, revealing how depression alters their lived experience of the world. The findings underscore the clinical importance of recognising abnormal time and space experiences as central to the depressive experience in this population, and highlight the need for therapeutic interventions that not only target symptom reduction but also support patients in reconstructing temporal continuity, expanding lived space, restoring bodily vitality and rebuilding social synchrony.

1. Introduction

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the leading causes of disability worldwide and contributes substantially to the global burden of disease (World Health Organization ²⁰²³). It is characterised by persistent depressed mood, loss of interest in activities and accompanying psychological and somatic symptoms that lasting at least 2 weeks (World Health Organization ²⁰²⁵). These symptoms often disrupt daily functioning across academic, occupational and interpersonal domains of life. The impact is particularly profound among transitional ‐ age youth (TAY; 16–25 years), who are navigating the developmental transition from adolescence to adulthood (Arnett 2000; Davis and Vander Stoep ¹⁹⁹⁷). The onset of MDD during this period can profoundly affect their psychological well‐being (Arnett 2000; Davis and Vander Stoep ¹⁹⁹⁷).

Despite advancements in pharmacological and psychotherapeutic interventions, caring for young people with MDD remains complex. Conventional approaches primarily emphasise symptom alleviation, whereas the subjective dimensions of illness—particularly how patients perceive and experience their lived world—remain underexplored. Phenomenological psychiatry underscores that disruptions in time and space experiences, such as slowing of time, oppressive memories or constricted lived space, are central to the depressive symptom (Fuchs 2007; Fuchs ²⁰¹³; Kent et al. ²⁰²³; Moskalewicz and Schwartz ²⁰²⁰; Northoff ²⁰¹⁶; Northoff et al. ²⁰²³; Northoff et al. ²⁰²⁵). These disturbances not only shape patients' emotional suffering but also influence their capacity to engage in relationships, envision the future and participate in treatment (Coventry et al. 2014). For TAY with MDD, whose developmental tasks are tightly linked to future orientation and expanding life possibilities, abnormal time and space experiences may present distinctive challenges. Therefore, exploring these experiences is essential for advancing person‐centred and developmentally sensitive care strategies.

2. Background

Time is typically perceived as a continuous and dynamic flow, enabling individuals to situate themselves between past experiences, present realities and future possibilities. When this flow is disrupted, individuals encounter what has been described as an abnormal time experience (Stanghellini et al. 2017). In a study of 100 patients with MDD, 96% reported at least one temporal disturbance, including a predominance of the past or a subjective slowing of temporal flow (Stanghellini et al. 2017). Qualitative studies further illustrate that people with MDD often experience time as dragging or immobilised, with the past dominated by guilt, the present associated with negative emotions and the future perceived as fear, worry and hopelessness (Vogel et al. 2018). Such disruptions compromise the ability to generate hope, envision recovery, or make treatment decisions (Owen et al. 2018). Moreover, individuals frequently contrast their current stagnation with an idealised past, which reinforces hopelessness and undermines adherence to therapeutic regimens (Abbey et al. 2021).

In addition to temporality, lived space—the prereflectively ‘lives’ and experiences, with its situations, conditions, movements, effects and its horizon of possibilities—constitutes another fundamental dimension of human existence (Fuchs 2007). When spatial possibilities become restricted, individuals encounter abnormal space experiences. Patients with MDD have described distortions such as constriction of their living space, in which familiar environments like homes or hospitals lose meaning or become threatening (Coventry et al. 2014; Smith and Rhodes ²⁰¹⁵). Such spatial constriction diminishes emotional connectedness, reinforces social withdrawal and erodes a sense of belonging and safety, thereby weakening engagement in therapeutic processes (Coventry et al. 2014; Fuchs ²⁰⁰⁷; Smith and Rhodes ²⁰¹⁵). Although space experience has been noted in MDD, it remains less systematically explored compared to time experience.

To date, most research on abnormal time and space experiences has focused on middle‐aged or older adults with MDD (Smith and Rhodes 2015; Vogel et al. ²⁰¹⁸). Evidence concerning TAY remains limited, with few qualitative studies specifically investigating how these disruptions manifest during this transitional life stage. One study included younger adults but did not differentiate findings across age groups (Stanghellini et al. 2017), leaving a gap in understanding how developmental context shapes these experiences. Considering that TAY are in a critical phase of identity formation and future orientation, disturbances in time and space may exert particularly profound effects on their development and growth. To address this gap, this study adopted a descriptive phenomenological approach to explore abnormal time and space experiences among TAY with MDD. By capturing the lived meanings of these phenomena, this research seeks to provide insights that can inform personalised and developmentally sensitive nursing strategies, thereby enhancing the quality and effectiveness of care for this vulnerable population.

3. The Study

3.1. Aim and Research Question

This study aimed to explore the abnormal time and space experiences among TAY with MDD. The study was guided by the central question: How do TAY with MDD experience and describe abnormal time and space experiences?

4. Methods

4.1. Study Design

This study employed a descriptive phenomenological design guided by Colaizzi's method (Colaizzi 1978; Morrow et al. ²⁰¹⁵). This approach seeks to reveal the essential structure of the phenomenon by remaining close to participants' lived descriptions. Colaizzi's method provides a systematic and rigorous analytic framework that allows meanings to be derived directly from the data while reflexively bracketing researchers' preconceptions. Descriptive phenomenology was valuable for exploring experiences in areas where empirical evidence remains limited; thus, it was especially appropriate for understanding how TAY with MDD experience and describe abnormal time and space experiences (Morrow et al. 2015; Neubauer et al. ²⁰¹⁹; Staiti ²⁰¹²). Study design and reporting followed the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) (Tong et al. 2007).

4.2. Study Setting and Recruitment

The study was conducted in a psychiatric hospital in Guangzhou, China, between June and July 2025. Purposive sampling was used to recruit inpatients aged 18–25 years who were within 3 days of admission and had a confirmed diagnosis of MDD according to the International Classification of Diseases, 10th Revision (ICD‐10; World Health Organization ¹⁹⁹²). Diagnoses were confirmed by a senior psychiatrist with a full professorial title. Exclusion criteria included a history of organic brain disease, major physical illness, substance abuse, pregnancy‐related psychiatric disorders, or comorbid psychiatric conditions identified during routine clinical assessments. Individuals were also excluded if they had significant communication or cognitive impairments that would limit their ability to participate in the study interview. To enhance diversity and representativeness, participants were recruited according to the principle of maximum variation, taking into account age, gender, employment status, illness duration and genetic history.

Data saturation was reached after 15 interviews, with no new codes or themes emerging, and was further confirmed by interviewing two additional participants.

4.3. Data Collection

Data were collected through semi‐structured, face‐to‐face interviews conducted in Mandarin. The interview guide was developed based on the time questionnaire and the relevant literature, and consisted of six core questions regarding their experiences of time and space. Probing questions were used to encourage elaboration. The complete interview guide is presented in Table 1. All interviews were conducted by two researchers, both trained in clinical interviewing and qualitative methods. These researchers had no relationship with the participants before the study's commencement. Each interview was conducted in a private and quiet setting within the hospital. Formal debriefs were completed within 24 h of each interview to document participant characteristics, unexpected remarks, key findings and recommendations for subsequent sessions. All interviews were audio‐recorded and transcribed verbatim in Chinese within 24 h. The research team reviewed each transcript for accuracy and anonymised all identifying information. The transcripts were returned to the participants for verification, and all transcripts were confirmed to be accurate and without amendment. Audio recordings were permanently deleted after transcription verification. All analyses were conducted using the anonymised transcripts. To ensure cultural and linguistic fidelity, the research team conducted the analysis using the Chinese transcripts. Selected quotations were translated into English by three co‐authors and reviewed collaboratively with an additional foreign academic to maintain accuracy.

TABLE 1.

Interview guide for transitional‐age youth with major depressive disorder.

Question

How do you experience the passage and flow of time? How do you experience the present? How do you experience the past? How do you experience the future? How do you experience the space or your surroundings also changing? How do you experience being disconnected from the people around you? How do you experience any physical sensations?

4.4. Data Analysis

Colaizzi's method was used to guide the analysis. First, all transcripts were read repeatedly to become familiar with the participants' experiences. Then, all significant statements related to the phenomenon of time and space were identified, from which meanings were formulated while the researchers reflexively bracketed their preconceptions. These meanings were clustered into themes that reflected shared experiences among participants. Subsequently, an exhaustive description of the phenomenon was developed and condensed into a fundamental structure that captured its essence. Finally, this fundamental structure was returned to the participants for validation of whether it accurately reflected their lived experiences. To ensure rigour, two researchers independently coded the transcripts and compared results. Discrepancies were resolved through discussion and consensus. The emerging themes and interpretations were reviewed by the steering board, consisting of a professor of nursing with expertise in qualitative research, two chief psychiatric nurse specialists, a chief nurse specialising in depression care, and a professor of psychiatry. NVivo 12 Plus (QSR International, Melbourne, Australia) was used to manage and organise the data.

4.5. Rigour of the Study

To enhance the authenticity and credibility of the findings, five participants who had agreed to be re‐contacted during the consent process were invited to review the results. Dependability was supported by completing reflexive diaries, which helped increase self‐awareness and minimise potential bias. Rigour was further strengthened through investigator triangulation. Two co‐authors trained in qualitative research independently analysed the data and resolved discrepancies through discussion and consensus. In addition, the research team held regular meetings to review theme development, address emerging issues and refine theme clusters and categories until a consensus was reached.

4.6. Ethical Considerations

Ethical approval was granted by the Institutional Review Board of The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University (Approval No. 2025–051; Date of approval: June 20, 2025). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Participants were assured that their confidentiality and anonymity would be maintained, and all identifiable information was removed during transcription and analysis. Clinical support was available if any participant experienced distress during the research procedures. All quotes presented in the findings were labelled with generic identifiers (e.g., ‘N1’).

5. Findings

Seventeen participants were included in this study, including five males and 12 females. All interviews lasted 30–60 min, with a mean duration of 47 min. The patients' mean age was 20.41 ± 2.53 years. Of the participants, three were unemployed, four were employed and 10 were enrolled in higher education. A comprehensive overview of demographic information is provided in Table 2.

TABLE 2.

Descriptive characteristics for participants (N = 17).

Characteristic	N (or mean)	% (or SD)
Gender
Female	12	70.6%
Male	5	29.4%
Age (years)	M = 20.41	SD = 2.53
Employment status
Student	10	58.8%
Employed	4	23.5%
Unemployed	3	17.6%
Illness duration (years)	M = 3.94	SD = 2.19
Genetic History
Yes	7	41.2%
No	10	58.8%

Through descriptive phenomenological analysis, findings revealed that TAY with MDD underwent abnormal time and space experiences characterised by five overarching themes: disturbance of time order, slackening of time flow, vital inhibition, desynchronisation of social rhythms and disturbance of lived space. See Table 3 for themes and subthemes from the data analysis.

TABLE 3.

Key themes and subthemes related to abnormal time and space experiences.

Key themes	Subthemes
Disturbance of time order	Haunted by the past
	The emptied present
	A Future Foreclosed
Slackening of time flow	Slowing down of time flow
	Blocking of time flow
Vital inhibition	Slowed movement
	Reduced energy
Desynchronisation of social rhythms	Falling behind the task rhythms
	Lagging in life progression
Disturbance of lived space	Perceived narrow Space
	Perceived enclosed space
	Perceived disconnection with others
	Intentional relational withdrawal

5.1. Disturbance of Time Order

5.1.1. Haunted by the Past

Participants described how painful memories from the past continued to cast a heavy shadow over their present experience. Rather than being contained within memory, the painful past—such as experiences of familial abuse, school bullying, or bereavement—continued to shape their present experience. While the external world seemed to move forward, they felt themselves trapped within an unrelenting past. This fixation generated emotional pain and a sense of helplessness.

‘When I was in eighth grade, my father was in poor health and suffered from severe diabetes. He often took his anger out on me, frequently saying, ‘Get out of my face’ or ‘You are a loser. You might as well be dead’. He's probably forgotten, but I never have’. (N4)

‘Two years ago, my mother died of cancer. I stayed by her side through hospital visits and surgeries, and when she passed away, I was devastated. Soon after, both my grandfathers also died. I couldn’t accept it, so I named my online ID ‘Reality's Death’ to express my wish to escape reality’. (N5)

‘In elementary and middle school, I was bullied by classmates because of my weight and appearance. I became anxious, couldn't sleep and my grades dropped sharply. Teachers criticised me harshly, and classmates looked at me differently. It pushed me to the point of having suicidal thoughts’. (N8)

5.1.2. The Emptied Present

Participants frequently described an emptied present, characterised by a collapse of vitality and meaning. They used stark metaphors—’maggot’, ‘walking corpse’—to convey a state of existential paralysis where life continued only in form, not in lived significance.

‘After breaking up with my girlfriend, I felt purposelessness. I realised that neither my family nor the world seemed to need me, and at work I felt dispensable. I feel like a maggot—living or not living makes no difference’. (N6)

‘I'm like a walking corpse, numb to everything, even myself’. (N8)

‘I feel like a corpse now, with no emotion’. (N14)

5.1.3. A Future Foreclosed

Participants expressed a pervasive sense of hopelessness and uncertainty towards the future. Their illness disrupted not only immediate functioning but also the basic temporal orientation that allowed them to project themselves forward.

‘Society is cruel, with so much workplace bullying. I don't like going to work, and I'm afraid of it’. (N11)

‘I might drop out of college, and I can't imagine what the future will be like after that’. (N15)

For some participants, the sense of having ‘no future’ became overwhelming, extinguishing both hope and motivation. In its most extreme form, this foreclosure of the future culminated in suicidal ideation, reflecting the depth of despair and loss of possibility.

‘I feel like I don't even have a future until this disease is cured’. (N8)

‘I have no future because I am going to commit suicide on my 20th birthday’. (N13 ¹ )

5.2. Slackening of Time Flow

5.2.1. Slowing Down of Time Flow

Participants described time as painfully slowed, stretched, or dragging on during moments of physical pain, prolonged boredom or depressive states. This temporal slowing intensified their suffering, leaving them feeling confined within an agonising and inescapable present.

‘During depressive episodes at work, time feels unbearably slow and every minute is torment’. (N3)

‘The pain covered my whole body and my brain, making me feel like every second was passing slowly. Every second felt like a knife cutting into my body; it was agonising’. (N8)

‘When I took the pills to end my life, time stretched endlessly. I felt alone, waiting quietly for death’. (N6)

5.2.2. Blocking of Time Flow

Some participants described an even more extreme disruption of temporal flow, in which time was not merely slow but seemed completely arrested. The world appeared frozen and devoid of movement or change, while they themselves felt suspended outside the stream of life.

‘Sometimes when I lie in bed, it feels like the whole world has stopped. Nothing changes, and time doesn't move’. (N1)

‘That's the saddest time. It feels like time is stagnant or won't move forward’. (N3)

‘I lose all sense of others around me, as if nothing changes, no matter how much time passes’. (N8)

5.3. Vital Inhibition

5.3.1. Slowed Movement

Participants reported motor retardation and difficulty initiating actions, which profoundly disrupted their daily functioning. Even basic movements—such as walking in public spaces, commuting after work or navigating through ordinary environments—were described as unusually slow, heavy and effortful. This pervasive sense of being physically hindered not only reduced their pace compared with others but also generated frustration and heightened awareness of impaired functioning.

‘On a crowded street, I felt dizzy and unsteady, as if I were about to fall. I kept telling myself to walk faster, but I couldn't. My body felt heavier and heavier’. (N2)

‘After work, I have to get to my car just like everyone else, but they always move so much faster than I do. I'm so slow it can take me two or three times as long just to reach the parking lot’. (N3)

‘My movements have slowed down. Even going to a cafeteria feels like it takes forever’. (N15)

5.3.2. Reduced Energy

Participants also reported profound physical exhaustion, hypersomnia, and loss of appetite. These bodily symptoms were accompanied by a sense of depletion, with no strength, motivation, or impulse to act, which further limited their capacity to engage in daily life.

‘Sometimes I order food but barely touch it. I'm not hungry at all’. (N3)

‘During depressive episodes, I sleep most of the time. I may sleep for more than ten hours a day’. (N5)

‘I have no appetite and don't want to eat’. (N15)

5.4. Desynchronisation of Social Rhythms

5.4.1. Falling Behind the Task Rhythms

Participants emphasised the difficulty of keeping pace with others in study or work settings. Even simple tasks, such as learning new skills or completing routine work, became overwhelming, and they described themselves as perpetually ‘falling behind’. This sense of delay was not merely about productivity but about being out of sync with the social flow of life.

‘I tried to learn makeup, but my health was poor and I couldn't even get out of bed. While others made progress, I couldn't do anything’. (N1)

‘When my co‐worker and I do the same task, he finishes much faster. I'm always behind’. (N3)

‘At work, I feel like I can't keep up with others’. (N14)

5.4.2. Lagging Behind Life Progression

At a broader level, participants described feeling left behind in life's major developmental milestones, including academic achievement, career development and personal growth. While their peers advanced, they felt stagnant and unable to keep pace with the normative expectations of their age. This perceived gap fostered a sense of disconnection from the social timelines of their peers and reinforced their feelings of stagnation and inadequacy.

‘I've attended three colleges, but my former classmates are already working. Everyone moves forward, while I feel permanently stuck’. (N1)

‘I'm 20 years old and have repeated my senior year three times. I still only have a high school education, while most of my peers are about to graduate from college’. (N4)

‘Everyone is growing and moving forward, but I'm still like a child, unable to grow up’. (N12)

5.5. Disturbance of Lived Space

5.5.1. Perceived Narrow Space

Participants also described a subjective sense of spatial narrowing or compression, often intertwined with experiences of slowed time. This shrinking or pressing sense of space signified a diminished horizon of possibilities, in which the meaning of the environment, the environment itself and the sphere of action available to the embodied subject was reduced. As their lived space contracted, participants felt a diminished capacity to act or respond to the world, which in turn elicited intense anxiety, helplessness and physical unease.

‘When time slows down, it feels like the surroundings shrink. I become anxious and helpless’. (N1)

‘I feel like the distance to the table stretches out while the space around me narrows’. (N8)

‘During a depressive episode, the whole air felt like it was condensing and compressing me’. (N11)

5.5.2. Perceived Enclosed Space

Beyond mere narrowing, many participants described a sense of being trapped within invisible yet tangible barriers, such as glass, cobwebs or membranes, which seemed to separate them from the world. This imagery reflects a transformation of their world from an open and engaging space into one of confinement and closure. The invisible barrier was not external but relational and existential, symbolising a collapse of the reciprocal field between the self and the environment. The resulting atmosphere was marked by suffocation and despair, as the world no longer responded but instead enclosed them like a sealed chamber.

‘It felt like being wrapped in cobwebs. I couldn't breathe. I cried. The sensation lasted only a minute, but the despair and helplessness lingered for much longer’. (N4)

‘It feels like I'm wrapped in a transparent membrane, and it makes me depressed’. (N9)

‘There's a pane of glass, and it keeps shrinking—until it's the size of my bed, trapping me alone within it’. (N10)

5.5.3. Perceived Disconnection With Others

The sense of spatial barriers that participants perceived also extended to the social world, disrupting intersubjective connectedness. They could see others, yet the invisible barriers prevented genuine contact, leading to an acute sense of isolation and alienation. This disconnection signified that depression impaired their capacity for emotional resonance and responsive engagement with others. The lived space of depression thus became fragmented. As interpersonal resonance and responsiveness diminished, the world of others seemed to recede into the distance, even when people were physically near.

‘Sometimes I lie in bed and feel like no one is there, even though people are around me. It still feels like it's just me, lying there alone’. (N1)

‘It's like being covered by a shroud that prevents me from communicating normally with others. It has seriously affected my job and feels profoundly depressing’. (N3)

‘Even when my friends are around, I feel trapped in a different world that they're outside of’. (N11)

5.5.4. Intentional Relational Withdrawal

In contrast to the passive spatial constriction described above, some participants engaged in deliberate withdrawal—a self‐protective narrowing of social space. This intentional retreat can be understood as a defensive ‘relieving posture’ that seeks to avoid potential relational injury by preemptively constricting one's world. Although initially protective, such avoidance ultimately perpetuated the very isolation it sought to prevent, reinforcing a depressive ecology in which the environment ceased to respond to them.

‘When my co‐workers noticed something was wrong and invited me out for dinner or to hang out, I turned down their kindness’. (N3)

‘Many friends left me in the past. Maybe they didn't want to get involved with someone like me. So now, I rarely make friends’. (N4)

‘Sometimes I walk down the hall just to watch them play. I want to join, but I'm afraid the same hurtful things will happen again. After all, we're all patients here’. (N10)

6. Discussion

This study highlights that TAY with MDD experience a profound disruption of lived temporality and spatiality, manifested as disturbance of time order, slackening of time flow, vital inhibition, desynchronisation of social rhythms and disturbance of lived space. These interrelated disturbances reveal a pervasive desynchronisation across the temporal, spatial, bodily and social domains. Such disruptions extend beyond individual psychological suffering and reflect the developmental and sociocultural contexts in which TAY navigate the transition from adolescence to adulthood. By focusing on this population, the findings broaden the phenomenological understanding of MDD, demonstrating how temporal, spatial, bodily and social abnormalities are uniquely intertwined at this critical life stage.

Consistent with previous qualitative studies, participants described their past as oppressive and painful, the present as empty and meaningless and the future as inaccessible and threatening (Ratcliffe 2012; Vogel et al. ²⁰¹⁸). These findings reinforce the notion that the future transforms from a space of possibility (‘I can’) into one of impossibility (‘I cannot’) in MDD, thereby curtailing agency and hope (Ratcliffe 2012). Participants emphasised that this temporal disturbance was experienced as a continuous entrapment; they felt unable to leave behind past suffering, immobilised in an empty present, and incapable of envisioning or preparing for their future. For participants who developmentally should be projecting forward towards independence and growth, this disturbance of time order may be detrimental, leaving them vulnerable to stagnation at a crucial life stage.

Participants also reported experiences of slowed or blocked time, particularly during depressive episodes, boredom or physical pain. This aligns with earlier accounts of altered temporal flow in MDD (Stanghellini et al. 2017). This experience can be interpreted through the concept of conation (Fuchs 2013; Stanghellini et al. ²⁰¹⁷). ‘Conation’ (derived from the Latin conatus = effort, drive) is the basic ‘energetic momentum’ of mental life, which can be expressed by concepts such as striving, urge, or élan (Fuchs 2013; Stanghellini et al. ²⁰¹⁷). Depression diminishes this conation, leaving individuals unable to initiate or sustain action. For participants, whose life stage demands the pursuit of education, employment and relational commitments, the depletion of conation not only intensified their subjective suffering but also impeded their developmental progress. In our sample, time was not only perceived as dragging but also as actively obstructing action, with participants describing their bodies as heavy, unresponsive and resistant to movement. This embodied experience of temporal blockage contributed to feelings of exhaustion and futility, constraining exploration of life directions and reinforcing social withdrawal (Fuchs 2005). The overlap between bodily slowing and temporal disruption further supports the interdependence of temporality, embodiment and self‐agency in MDD.

A distinctive contribution of this study is the identification of desynchronisation of social rhythms as an abnormal time experience among TAY with MDD. Participants frequently described being unable to keep pace with the accelerated demands of study, work and social life, which led to feelings of falling behind their peers. This phenomenon can be interpreted through the concept of intersubjective time—the synchronisation of own and world time (Fuchs 2013). When own time is slowed by depression, world time continues to move forward, generating tension and distress (Fuchs 2013). For participants, this desynchronisation holds particular significance, as this developmental stage is characterised by an intensified need for peer identification and social belonging (Erikson 1968; Steinberg and Morris ²⁰⁰¹). Peer contexts function as crucial arenas for identity exploration and validation, shaping not only observable behaviours but also internalised values and self‐concept through mechanisms such as modelling, social comparison and reflected appraisal (Brechwald and Prinstein 2011). When depression disrupts synchrony with peers, who often serve as salient reference points for social identity, it diminishes opportunities for social feedback and belonging, thereby hindering identity formation and personal development, while intensifying feelings of isolation, inadequacy and detachment from one's social world (Fuchs 2005; Fuchs ²⁰¹³). This finding suggests that desynchronisation of social rhythms is not only a symptom of depression but also a disruption of the social and developmental processes through which young people construct a sense of self and orientation towards the future.

Beyond temporal disruptions, participants described a narrowing and enclosing of lived space, often using metaphors of glass, film, cobwebs or silk within invisible barriers. Similar experiences of spatial distortion have been reported in qualitative accounts of depression (Smith and Rhodes 2015). These spatial constrictions were accompanied by profound relational disconnection, which left participants feeling separated from others by intangible barriers, able to see but unable to meaningfully connect. Although many expressed a longing for social bonds, they simultaneously withdrew due to anxiety, fear of rejection or past relational wounds. This paradox of yearning for connection while retreating into isolation mirrors existing descriptions of relational depletion in MDD (Smith and Rhodes 2015), but it appears compounded by their developmental need for peer belonging and social integration in TAY.

7. Strengths and Limitations

A narrative review of the existing qualitative literature was conducted using PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO, CNKI, Wanfang and VIP databases, which revealed no previous research specifically examining abnormal time and space experiences among TAY with MDD. By concentrating on this unique developmental stage, our study captures experiences that have been overlooked in previous research, thereby extending current phenomenological understandings of depression. Nevertheless, some limitations should be acknowledged. First, participants were recruited from a single region, which may limit the transferability of our findings across different cultural or healthcare contexts. Future studies should consider multi‐site recruitment to increase sample diversity. Second, although participants were asked to recall experiences of depressive episodes, the retrospective nature of these accounts introduces the possibility of recall bias, especially given that depressive symptoms can affect memory and insight. Prospective longitudinal qualitative designs may help capture the unfolding of these experiences in real time. Finally, our sample size, while appropriate for phenomenological inquiry, may not capture the full range of heterogeneity among TAY with MDD; further research, involving larger and more diverse populations, is warranted.

8. Implications for Nursing Practice

Our findings underscore that TAY with MDD is not solely a disorder of mood but involves fundamental alterations in temporal, spatial, bodily and social experiences. Clinically, this suggests that therapeutic interventions should not only target symptom reduction but also support patients in reconstructing temporal continuity, expanding lived space, restoring bodily vitality and re‐establishing social synchrony. Furthermore, we should be attentive to the developmental context of TAY, recognising how disrupted social rhythms can exacerbate depressive suffering by undermining their identity formation and life trajectory.

9. Conclusions

This study explored the abnormal time and space experiences of TAY with MDD and identified five essential structures: disturbance of time order, slackening of time flow, vital inhibition, desynchronisation of social rhythms and disturbance of lived space. In general, these findings reveal a profound disconnection between self and world in this population. It is important that desynchronisation of social rhythms emerged as a distinctive characteristic of TAY, underscoring the developmental specificity of their experiences. Ultimately, future research should pay greater attention to the lived experiences of time and space among TAY with MDD to reduce suffering and enhance recovery trajectories.

Author Contributions

Yingying Qin, Ying Zhou and Wenjing Wang contributed equally to this work. They were responsible for conceptualisation, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Formal analysis, calidation, writing, original draft and writing – review and editing. Graeme Drummond Smith, Qing Luo and Qiubi Tang contributed to methodology and writing, review and editing. Zhichun Xia, Aixiang Xiao and Xingbing Huang were responsible for writing, review and editing, supervision and project administration. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Ethics Statement

This study was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Ethical approval was granted by the Institutional Review Board of The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University (Approval No. 2025–051; Date of approval: June 20, 2025). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. Participants were assured that their confidentiality and anonymity would be maintained, and all identifiable information was removed during transcription and analysis. Clinical support was available if any participant experienced distress during the research procedures.

Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Qin, Y. , Zhou Y., Wang W., et al. 2026. “Abnormal Time and Space Experiences Among Transitional‐Age Youth With a Major Depressive Disorder: A Phenomenological Qualitative Study.” Journal of Advanced Nursing 82, no. 8: 7967–7975. 10.1111/jan.70362.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.