Abstract
This study investigates how learning interest influences the social-emotional competence of older adults by proposing a moderated mediation model. Self-identity acts as a mediator between learning interest and social-emotional competence, while peer relationships serve as a potential moderator. This approach enhances understanding of the link between learning interest and social-emotional competence and offers insights for promoting social-emotional development in older adults, aiding their social integration. Using a questionnaire method, 461 older adults (69% female, 31% male; aged 50–80+) were surveyed on learning interest, self-identity, peer relationships, and social-emotional competence. Results showed: (1) learning interest significantly predicts social-emotional competence (β = 0.42, p < 0.001); (2) self-identity mediates the relationship, with a mediation effect of 58.33%; (3) peer relationships moderate the impacts of learning interest on self-identity and social-emotional competence, with stronger peer relationships enhancing these positive influences.
Keywords: Learning interest, Social-emotional competence, Self-identity, Peer relationships, Older adults
Introduction
As the population continues to age, issues relating to the mental health and social adaptation of older adults are attracting increasing attention. Social-emotional competence, as a key ability enabling individuals to recognise, understand and manage emotions in social interactions [1], is widely regarded as a crucial factor in promoting active ageing. Research indicates that good social-emotional competence helps alleviate feelings of loneliness and depression, enhances psychological resilience, and improves life satisfaction and mental health levels [2]. However, the issue of insufficient social-emotional competence among older adults is becoming increasingly prominent [3], which not only affects their cognitive function and life satisfaction but may also have a negative impact on their overall health [4]. Therefore, exploring how to enhance social-emotional competence in older adults is of great significance for improving their mental health and achieving active ageing.
Learning interest, defined as a psychological inclination to acquire new knowledge and expand existing knowledge [5] and an emotional state that reflects intrinsic motivation for learning [6], is a key factor influencing social-emotional competence. Existing research generally holds that learning interest can directly promote the development of social-emotional competence. Conde-Pipó et al. found that learning interest is significantly correlated with emotional intelligence and interpersonal skills, and can consequently predict the development of social-emotional competence [7]. Shen et al. further pointed out that learning interest is a strong predictor of social-emotional competence [8]. According to self-determination theory, this relationship may be realised through the fulfilment of an individual’s basic psychological needs.
However, existing research has limitations. Firstly, there is a bias in the research sample, which overlooks the specific characteristics of the elderly population. Secondly, the mediating pathways through which learning interest influences social-emotional competence remain unclear, and the mediating role of self-identity has not yet been empirically tested. Finally, the moderating effect of peer relationships also lacks empirical support. Based on the above analysis, this study aims to address the following issues: (1) whether learning interest has a significant positive predictive effect on the social-emotional competence of older adults; (2) whether self-identity mediates the relationship between learning interest and the social-emotional competence of older adults; and (3) whether peer relationships moderate the relationships between learning interest and self-identity, as well as between learning interest and social-emotional competence. To this end, drawing upon the theory of basic psychological needs and the theory of organic integration within Self-Determination Theory, this study constructs a moderated mediation model. The model aims to examine the direct predictive effect of learning interest on social-emotional competence in older adults, the mediating role of self-identity, and the moderating role of peer relationships.
Literature review
Learning interest and social-emotional competence
Learning interest can maximise initiative and self-discipline in learning, whilst regulating an individual’s motivation and the implementation of learning strategies [9]. Social-emotional competence is a multifaceted concept. The Collaborative for Academic Success through Emotional Learning (CASEL, 1994) defines it as the ability to acquire and effectively apply knowledge, attitudes and skills to recognize and manage emotions, cultivate care for others, make responsible decisions, build positive interpersonal relationships, and adapt flexibly to various situations [10]. Drawing on previous research, this study defines social-emotional competence in older adults as the ability to perceive, manage and utilise one’s own and others’ emotions, as manifested in both individual characteristics and behavioural attitudes. It primarily comprises four dimensions: self-awareness, emotional regulation, social awareness and interpersonal interaction. Social-emotional competence is a key indicator of older adults’ overall health [11], contributing to an improvement in their quality of life.
To gain a deeper understanding of the intrinsic link between learning interest and social-emotional competence, Self-Determination Theory offers a significant theoretical perspective. The theory’s framework of basic psychological needs posits that individuals possess three innate fundamental psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness. Learning interest essentially reflects an individual’s psychological inclination to engage in learning activities driven by autonomy. When learning interest drives an individual to actively engage in learning activities, the individual first experiences a sense of autonomy, as the learning behaviour stems from their own volition rather than external pressure. Secondly, through sustained engagement driven by interest, the individual is more likely to achieve progress and receive positive feedback, thereby satisfying the need for competence. Furthermore, learning interest guides the individual to actively participate in social interactions such as peer communication and collaborative learning, thereby satisfying the need for relatedness, thus achieving the synergistic fulfilment of these three needs. According to the integrated model of social-emotional competence development in Schools, enhancing students’ sense of need fulfilment can promote the development of their abilities in emotional regulation, empathy, interpersonal conflict resolution and responsible decision-making [4], which are precisely manifestations of social-emotional competence. In addition to theoretical derivations, empirical research also supports this relationship. Studies indicate that interest is a strong predictor of social-emotional competence, playing a predictive role in three social-emotional learning skills: self-awareness, emotional regulation and social awareness [8]. Integrating theoretical frameworks with empirical research, it can be inferred that learning interest has a positive predictive effect on social-emotional competence. Accordingly, this study proposes the hypothesis that older adults’ learning interest has a significant positive predictive effect on their social-emotional competence.
Self-identity as a mediator
When older adults participate in learning activities, some experience an improvement in their social-emotional competence as a result of their engagement with the learning process, whilst others, despite showing interest, do not demonstrate any such improvement. This discrepancy suggests that there may be mediating variables influencing the effect of learning interest on older adults’ social-emotional competence. Drawing on existing research and the characteristics of older adults, self-identity emerges as a mediating variable worthy of attention. Self-identity refers to the cognitive perception of consistency and continuity in one’s self-concept, formed through self-reflection during interactions with others and one’s environment [12, 13]. Self-identity is influenced by a variety of factors, including personality traits [14], parenting styles [15], the school environment [16], peer relationships [17], and learning motivation [18]. Among these, learning motivation is a significant influencing factor. Existing research emphasises the bidirectional relationship between learning motivation and self-identity: driven by motivation, individuals experience changes in their sense of identity during the learning process, and these changes in turn reinforce or weaken learning motivation [18]. Learning interest, as a motivational variable with an emotional component [19], reflects the intensity of a learner’s motivation and may consequently influence an individual’s self-identity. Furthermore, according to emotional intelligence theory, self-identity is associated with emotional intelligence. Relevant research indicates that individuals with a higher degree of self-identity possess better levels of emotional intelligence [20]. Social-emotional competence is an acquired ability based on emotional intelligence [21], with a broader scope [22]. It can therefore be inferred that self-identity influences social-emotional competence.
Existing research has revealed the relationships between learning interest, self-identity and social-emotional competence in pairs, but the mediating pathways among the three have not yet been directly tested. The theory of organic integration within self-determination theory provides logical support for this pathway. This theory posits that when a sense of autonomy, competence and relatedness is satisfied during the learning process, the individual enters a stage of integrative regulation. External learning demands are internalised as part of one’s self-identity, thereby reinforcing the individual’s clear perception of their own value and capabilities, and consolidating a stable sense of self-identity [23]. The self-identity formed through integrative regulation enables individuals to mobilise abilities such as emotional awareness and self-reflection [24], which are precisely the core manifestations of social-emotional competence. Based on this, this study proposes the hypothesis that self-identity may mediate the relationship between learning interest and social-emotional competence.
Peer relationships as a moderator
Ecological systems theory posits that individual development is influenced by the interaction of multiple factors within the environmental system in which the individual is situated [25]. To understand the psychological and behavioural development of older adults during the learning process, it is necessary to focus on the key elements of their learning environment, and peer relationships are a crucial component of this environmental system.
Self-determination theory provides an analytical framework for understanding the specific mechanisms through which peer relationships influence older adults’ self-identity and social-emotional competence. The framework of basic psychological needs within this theory identifies the need for relatedness as one of the three fundamental human psychological needs. It refers to an individual’s desire to establish close relationships with others, to feel accepted by them, and to express care for others (that is, to experience close and intimate interpersonal relationships) [26]. Building upon this, the theory of organic integration further suggests that the extent to which an individual internalises external behavioural experiences depends on the level of fulfilment of their basic psychological needs. Specifically, the synergistic fulfilment of the three needs—autonomy, competence and relatedness—is a necessary condition for internalisation to reach the stage of integrative regulation [23]. In the context of older adults’ learning, learning interest drives individuals to actively engage in learning activities, ensuring that learning behaviour stems from personal volition. Sustained engagement makes it easier for individuals to achieve progress and receive positive feedback, thereby satisfying the needs for autonomy and competence. However, whether this internalisation process can reach the integrative regulation stage also depends on whether the need for belonging receives corresponding support, and the fulfilment of this sense of belonging is largely related to peer relationships. When older learners possess high-quality peer relationships, their need for belonging is met, promoting the synergistic fulfilment of the three fundamental psychological needs and thereby reaching the stage of integrated regulation. At the same time, external learning requirements are gradually internalised as part of one’s self-identity, further reinforcing the individual’s clear perception of their own value and capabilities, and forming a stable sense of self [23]. Furthermore, according to the integrated model of social-emotional competence development in schools discussed earlier, the fulfilment of an individual’s basic needs promotes the development of social-emotional competence. Consequently, peer relationships not only facilitate the internalisation of learning interest into self-identity but also provide the necessary conditions for learning interest to enhance social-emotional competence.
In summary, although there is currently a lack of sufficient empirical evidence regarding the moderating role of peer relationships in the pathways linking learning interest to self-identity and learning interest to social-emotional competence, this moderating role is supported at the theoretical level. Accordingly, this study proposes the following hypotheses: peer relationships moderate the relationship between learning interest and self-identity among older adults; peer relationships moderate the relationship between learning interest and social-emotional competence among older adults.
The present study
In summary, existing research provides a crucial foundation for understanding the relationship between learning interest and social-emotional competence. In terms of direct effects, learning interest can positively predict core dimensions of social-emotional competence, such as emotional regulation and interpersonal skills. Empirical studies have also confirmed the predictive role of learning interest in social-emotional competence. Regarding mediating mechanisms, based on the Organic Integration Theory grounded in Self-Determination Theory, learning interest facilitates the formation of a stable self-identity by satisfying three fundamental psychological needs, thereby enabling individuals to enter a stage of integrated regulation and promoting the development of social-emotional competence. In terms of moderating mechanisms, based on the theory of basic psychological needs, peer relationships, as a key contextual factor in satisfying the need for belonging, may moderate the influence of learning interest on self-identity and social-emotional competence.
However, although existing research has confirmed the relationship between learning interest and social-emotional competence, the following limitations remain: Firstly, there is a bias in the research subjects. Existing studies have largely focused on children, adolescents or university students, whereas older adults possess unique physical and psychological characteristics. The conditions for stimulating their learning interest, the process of satisfying their psychological needs, and the developmental pathways of their social-emotional competence may differ from those of younger groups. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct empirical research with older adults as the research subjects. Secondly, the mediating mechanisms remain unclear. Whilst Organic Integration Theory provides theoretical support for the mediating role of self-identity, and research has confirmed the promotional effects of learning interest on self-identity and of self-identity on social-emotional competence, the relationships between these three factors have not been incorporated into a mediating model for verification. Third, moderating variables have not yet been examined. The Theory of Basic Psychological Needs suggests that peer relationships, as a source of the need for relatedness, may moderate the aforementioned processes. However, whether and how they exert this influence remains to be empirically tested.
To address these research gaps, this study constructs a moderated mediation model based on the Basic Psychological Needs Theory and the Organismic Integration Theory within Self-Determination Theory. It focuses on examining the mediating role of self-identity and the moderating role of peer relationships, aiming to explore the mechanisms through which learning interest influences the social-emotional competence of older adults. Based on the above analysis, this study proposes the following four hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: Older adults’ learning interest has a significant positive predictive effect on their social-emotional competence.
Hypothesis 2: Self-identity mediates the relationship between older adults’ learning interest and their social-emotional competence.
Hypothesis 3: Peer relationships moderate the relationship between older adults’ learning interest and self-identity.
Hypothesis 4: Peer relationships moderate the relationship between older adults’ learning interest and social-emotional competence.
Against the backdrop of an ageing population, many older adults face challenges in adapting to society due to insufficient social-emotional skills. Exploring the influencing factors and underlying mechanisms can provide a theoretical basis and practical guidance for enhancing older adults’ social-emotional competence. To this end, building on previous research, this study has developed a moderated mediation model (see Fig. 1).
Fig. 1.
Conceptual framework
Methods
Participants and procedures
This cross-sectional study utilised a self-report questionnaire and was conducted among older adults in south-eastern China between October and November 2023. A cluster random sampling method was employed to select representative senior citizens’ universities in the south-eastern region, from which eligible older adults were invited to participate. Inclusion criteria were: (1) the ability to read and comprehend language, and the capacity to complete the questionnaire independently; (2) complete responses with no obvious logical errors and less than 1% missing data. Prior to the formal survey, we conducted a small-scale pilot study to gather feedback and verify that the questionnaire items were easy to understand and answer. Based on the results, necessary modifications were made accordingly before proceeding with the formal survey. The formal survey was conducted face-to-face and anonymously at the senior citizens’ universities to ensure confidentiality and minimise response bias. All participants provided informed consent and completed the questionnaire under the supervision of trained postgraduate students in education. No incentives were offered, and the voluntary nature of participation was emphasised. A total of 500 questionnaires were distributed; after excluding invalid submissions, 472 valid questionnaires were obtained, yielding a response rate of 94.4%.
Measures
Socio-demographic characteristics
The demographic characteristics of the study members included gender, age, type of household registration, education level, living conditions, physical health condition, monthly income and length of study.
Learning Interest Scale
The Learning Interest Scale designed by Zhao Lanlan was adopted [27]. This scale assesses an individual’s level of learning interest across three dimensions: exploratory interest, enjoyment, and engagement. The scale comprises 20 items, with an example item being: “I feel happy when learning new material.” It employs a 5-point Likert scale (scores from 1 to 5 representing “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”). A higher total score indicates a stronger level of learning interest. The Cronbach’s alpha for this learning interest scale is 0.96.
Self-identity scale
The Self-Concept Scale developed by Campbell et al. was employed [28]. This scale consists of 12 items, including both positively and negatively scored items. Sample items include: “In general, I have a clear sense of who I am and what I am.”a nd “My beliefs about myself seem to change very frequently.” A 5-point Likert scale was used (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Positive items were scored directly, whilst negative items were reverse-scored before being included in the total score. A higher score indicates a stronger sense of self-identity. The Cronbach’s alpha for this self-identity scale was 0.89.
Peer Relationship Scale
The Peer Relationship Scale developed by Furman and Buhrmester was adopted and adapted to suit the characteristics of the elderly participants [29]. The scale comprises 15 items across four dimensions: help and support, conflict with friends, partnership, and intimacy, and employs a 5-point Likert scale (1 = never, 5 = always). A higher total score indicates a better quality of friendship. The Cronbach’s alpha for the peer relationship scale used in this study was 0.83.
Social-Emotional competence scale
This study adapted the social-emotional competence questionnaire developed by Wang Shuqin and Mantz et al. [30, 31], modifying it to reflect the characteristics of elderly learners, thereby creating a scale suitable for this study. The scale comprises 12 items and employs a 5-point Likert scale to assess responses (1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree). The mean score across all items represents the level of social-emotional competence, with higher scores indicating greater social-emotional competence. In this study, the scale’s Cronbach’s alpha was 0.94.
Data analyses
All data analyses in this study were conducted using SPSS 26.0. Firstly, the dataset was pre-processed to ensure data quality. Outliers were identified and removed using the box-and-whisker plot method (values exceeding 1.5 times the interquartile range). These outliers accounted for 2.3% of the total data, resulting in a final valid sample of 461 participants. Descriptive statistics were calculated for the demographic variables and the four main variables. Independent-samples t-tests and one-way ANOVA were used to test for differences in key variables across different demographic groups.
Secondly, Pearson’s correlation analysis was employed to assess the pairwise correlations between learning interest, self-identity, peer relationships and social-emotional competence. Prior to conducting regression analysis, the predictor variables were assessed for multicollinearity. The calculated variance inflation factors (VIFs) for all predictor variables were less than 2.5, indicating no significant multicollinearity issues.
Thirdly, to test Hypothesis 1 (the direct effect of learning interest on social-emotional competence) and Hypothesis 2 (the mediating effect of self-identity), SPSS analysis was conducted using Model 4 of the PROCESS macro developed by Hayes [32]. Self-identity was set as the mediating variable, learning interest as the independent variable, and social-emotional competence as the dependent variable. Demographic variables (gender, age, household registration, educational attainment, housing status, physical health, monthly income, and study duration) were controlled for as covariates. A bias-corrected Bootstrap method was employed to conduct 5,000 with-replacement resamples of the raw data. If the confidence interval did not include 0, the mediating effect was considered significant.
Fourth, to test Hypothesis 3 (the moderating effect of peer relationships on the path from learning interest to self-identity) and Hypothesis 4 (the moderating effect of peer relationships on the direct path from learning interest to social-emotional competence), a moderated mediation analysis was conducted using PROCESS Model 8. This model simultaneously tested whether the first stage (learning interest → self-identity) and the direct path (learning interest → social-emotional competence) were moderated by peer relationships. Again, 5,000 Bootstrap samples were drawn and confidence intervals were calculated. The simple slope method was used to test for significant interaction effects, and relationship plots were drawn for the moderator (peer relationships) at low (M–1SD) and high (M+1SD) levels. To reduce multicollinearity, all continuous variables were mean-centred prior to creating interaction terms.
Result
Descriptive statistics and socio-demographic characteristics
Table 1 describes the socio-demographic profile of the 461 participants in the study and presents the means, standard deviations and ranges of the main study variables. The research data (Table 1) indicate that there are significant differences among participants of different income levels in terms of learning interest, self-identity and peer relationships. Specifically, older adults with an income of between 1,000 and 2,000 yuan demonstrate a higher learning interest, whilst those with an income of 4,000 yuan or more exhibit better self-identity and peer relationships. Furthermore, older adults with longer years of education tend to demonstrate stronger learning interest, a higher sense of self-identity, more harmonious peer relationships, and stronger social-emotional competence.
Table 1.
Descriptive statistics of demographic variables of older adults (N = 461)
| Variables | Socio-Demographic Characteristics | N(%) | Learning Interest | Self-identity | Peer Relationships | Social-emotional Competence |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | Mean ± SD | |||
| Gender | Male | 143(31.0) | 4.23 ± 0.62 | 4.26 ± 0.70 | 4.29 ± 0.68 | 4.15 ± 0.67 |
| Female | 318(69.0) | 4.29 ± 0.67 | 4.25 ± 0.75 | 4.38 ± 0.68 | 4.16 ± 0.62 | |
| t | −0.841 | 0.054 | −1.415 | −0.266 | ||
| p value | 0.401 | 0.957 | 0.158 | 0.790 | ||
| Age | 50–59 | 204(44.3) | 4.21 ± 0.66 | 4.26 ± 0.68 | 4.29 ± 0.71 | 4.16 ± 0.61 |
| 60–69 | 186(40.3) | 4.32 ± 0.59 | 4.24 ± 0.75 | 4.39 ± 0.64 | 4.16 ± 0.64 | |
| 70–79 | 68(14.8) | 4.34 ± 0.77 | 4.26 ± 0.84 | 4.46 ± 0.68 | 4.13 ± 0.70 | |
| Over 80 | 3(0.7) | 3.89 ± 0.51 | 4.33 ± 0.58 | 4.00 ± 1.00 | 4.33 ± 0.51 | |
| F | 1.479 | 0.025 | 1.454 | 0.139 | ||
| p value | 0.220 | 0.995 | 0.227 | 0.937 | ||
| Type of household registration | Rural | 90(19.5) | 4.36 ± 0.74 | 4.32 ± 0.78 | 4.34 ± 0.75 | 4.23 ± 0.64 |
| Urban | 371(80.5) | 4.25 ± 0.63 | 4.24 ± 0.72 | 4.36 ± 0.66 | 4.14 ± 0.63 | |
| t | 1.522 | 0.955 | −0.142 | 1.180 | ||
| p value | 0.129 | 0.340 | 0.887 | 0.238 | ||
| Education level | Less than junior middle school | 15(3.3) | 4.29 ± 0.92 | 4.33 ± 1.05 | 4.27 ± 0.59 | 4.28 ± 0.57 |
| Junior middle school | 123(26.7) | 4.30 ± 0.74 | 4.28 ± 0.75 | 4.32 ± 0.75 | 4.19 ± 0.64 | |
| High school or technical secondary school | 163(35.4) | 4.25 ± 0.62 | 4.21 ± 0.73 | 4.31 ± 0.69 | 4.16 ± 0.64 | |
| Junior college | 82(17.8) | 4.28 ± 0.59 | 4.24 ± 0.68 | 4.43 ± 0.59 | 4.09 ± 0.57 | |
| Bachelor’ s degree or above | 78(16.9) | 4.25 ± 0.60 | 4.29 ± 0.70 | 4.44 ± 0.66 | 4.14 ± 0.68 | |
| F | 0.141 | 0.276 | 0.816 | 0.444 | ||
| p value | 0.967 | 0.894 | 0.516 | 0.778 | ||
| Living conditions | Living alone | 28(6.1) | 4.38 ± 0.59 | 4.36 ± 0.68 | 4.39 ± 0.74 | 4.20 ± 0.60 |
| Living with partner only | 232(50.3) | 4.25 ± 0.67 | 4.19 ± 0.77 | 4.37 ± 0.65 | 4.12 ± 0.65 | |
| Living with children | 43(9.3) | 4.15 ± 0.81 | 4.44 ± 0.67 | 4.28 ± 0.83 | 4.23 ± 0.55 | |
| Living with a partner and children | 157(34.1) | 4.30 ± 0.58 | 4.28 ± 0.70 | 4.34 ± 0.68 | 4.19 ± 0.63 | |
| Living in a residential care facility | 1(0.2) | 5.00 ± 0.00 | 5.00 ± 0.00 | 5.00 ± 0.00 | 4.92 ± 0.00 | |
| F | 1.042 | 1.604 | 0.403 | 0.843 | ||
| p value | 0.385 | 0.172 | 0.806 | 0.498 | ||
| Physical health condition | Very good | 129(28) | 4.34 ± 0.68 | 4.36 ± 0.66 | 4.43 ± 0.69 | 4.27 ± 0.62 |
| Comparatively good | 169(36.7) | 4.24 ± 0.58 | 4.21 ± 0.70 | 4.29 ± 0.66 | 4.11 ± 0.64 | |
| Average | 151(32.8) | 4.26 ± 0.71 | 4.24 ± 0.81 | 4.36 ± 0.70 | 4.13 ± 0.63 | |
| Not so good | 10(2.2) | 3.87 ± 0.59 | 3.80 ± 0.79 | 4.30 ± 0.67 | 3.84 ± 0.75 | |
| Very bad | 2(0.4) | 4.50 ± 0.71 | 4.50 ± 0.71 | 4.50 ± 0.71 | 4.46 ± 0.65 | |
| F | 1.452 | 1.904 | 0.784 | 2.054 | ||
| p value | 0.216 | 0.109 | 0.536 | 0.086 | ||
| Monthly income | Under ¥1,000 | 17(3.7) | 3.84 ± 1.25 | 3.88 ± 1.11 | 4.06 ± 1.03 | 4.04 ± 0.72 |
| ¥1,000-¥2,000 | 62(13.4) | 4.32 ± 0.57 | 4.26 ± 0.70 | 4.29 ± 0.66 | 4.11 ± 0.55 | |
| ¥2,000-¥4,000 | 144(31.2) | 4.25 ± 0.67 | 4.17 ± 0.76 | 4.29 ± 0.66 | 4.15 ± 0.62 | |
| Over ¥4,000 | 238(51.6) | 4.30 ± 0.60 | 4.31 ± 0.68 | 4.43 ± 0.66 | 4.16 ± 0.66 | |
| F | 2.690 | 2.813 | 2.626 | 0.275 | ||
| p value | 0.046 | 0.039 | 0.050 | 0.844 | ||
| Length of study | Less than a year | 180(39.0) | 4.04 ± 0.72 | 4.09 ± 0.80 | 4.14 ± 0.75 | 4.06 ± 0.66 |
| 1–3 Years | 127(27.5) | 4.36 ± 0.57 | 4.30 ± 0.69 | 4.43 ± 0.61 | 4.16 ± 0.60 | |
| 3–5 Years | 84(18.2) | 4.45 ± 0.57 | 4.42 ± 0.62 | 4.57 ± 0.59 | 4.27 ± 0.59 | |
| Over 5 Years | 70(15.2) | 4.47 ± 0.52 | 4.40 ± 0.67 | 4.51 ± 0.56 | 4.28 ± 0.62 | |
| F | 13.740 | 5.447 | 11.306 | 3.261 | ||
| p value | < 0.000 | 0.001 | < 0.000 | 0.021 |
Correlation analysis
Table 2 describes the interrelationships between the main variables in the survey. The results show that learning interest is significantly positively correlated with social-emotional competence (r = 0.55, p < 0.01). Similarly, social-emotional competence is significantly positively correlated with self-identity (r = 0.69, p < 0.01) and peer relationships (r = 0.43, p < 0.01). Furthermore, there were significant positive correlations between learning interest and self-identity (r = 0.58, p < 0.01), between learning interest and peer relationships (r = 0.60, p < 0.01), and between self-identity and peer relationships (r = 0.46, p < 0.01).
Table 2.
Means, standard deviations, and correlation matrix for four main variables
| Variables | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1.Learning Interest | 1 | |||
| 2.Self-identity | 0.58** | 1 | ||
| 3.Peer Relationship | 0.60** | 0.46** | 1 | |
| 4.Social-emotional competence | 0.55** | 0.69** | 0.43** | 1 |
| M ± SD | 4.28 ± 0.70 | 4.23 ± 0.76 | 4.35 ± 0.69 | 4.11 ± 0.61 |
**p < 0.01
Test of moderated mediation effect
Testing the mediation effect of self-identity
Firstly, using Model 4 from the SPSS macro developed by Hayes, we tested the mediating role of self-identity in the relationship between learning interest and social-emotional competence, whilst controlling for demographic variables. Table 3 (Eqs. 1 and 2) presents the relevant results. Learning interest significantly and positively predicted social-emotional competence (β = 0.42, t = 8.59, p < 0.001). After introducing the mediating variable of self-identity, the positive predictive effect of learning interest on social-emotional competence remained significant ( β= 0.20, t = 4.83, p < 0.001), supporting Hypothesis 1. Learning interest had a significant positive predictive effect on self-identity (β = 0.53, t = 8.86, p < 0.001), and self-identity also had a significant positive predictive effect on social-emotional competence (β = 0.45, t = 11.81, p < 0.001), supporting Hypothesis 2.
Table 3.
The results of the regression analysis: Examining self-identity as a mediator and peer relationships as a moderator in the relation between learning interest and social-emotional competence
| Predictor Variables | Equation 1 | Equation 2 | Equation 3 | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Variable (Social-emotional competence) | Variable (Self-identity) | Variable (Social-emotional competence) | ||||
| β | t | β | t | β | t | |
| Learning interest | 0.42 | 8.59*** | 0.53 | 8.86*** | 0.20 | 4.83*** |
| Peer relationships | 0.21 | 4.13*** | 0.22 | 3.65*** | 0.11 | 2.58** |
| Learning interest×Peer relationships | 0.17 | 4.48*** | 0.10 | 2.21* | 0.13 | 3.86*** |
| Self-identity | 0.45 | 11.81*** | ||||
| Self-identity×Peer relationships | 0.07 | 0.13 | ||||
| R² | 0.37 | 0.38 | 0.53 | |||
| F | 17.97*** | 19.31*** | 32.48*** | |||
*p < 0.05,**p < 0.01,***p < 0.001
As shown in Table 4, the 95% Bootstrap confidence intervals for both the direct effect of learning interest on social-emotional competence and the mediating effect via self-identity do not include zero, indicating that learning interest not only directly predicts social-emotional competence but also indirectly predicts it through the mediating role of self-identity. The direct effect (0.20) and indirect effect (0.28) account for 41.67% and 58.33% of the total effect (0.48), respectively.
Table 4.
Bootstrap test of the mediating effects of self-identity
| Effect | β | SE | LLCI | ULCI | Relative Effect Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total effects | 0.48 | 0.04 | 0.40 | 0.57 | |
| Direct effect | 0.20 | 0.04 | 0.12 | 0.29 | 41.67% |
| Indirect effect | 0.28 | 0.04 | 0.21 | 0.36 | 58.33% |
N = 461. The variables of age, gender, type of household registration、education level、living conditions、physical health condition、monthly income and length of study were controlled
Testing the moderated mediation model
To test the moderated mediation model, this study employed Model 8 from the SPSS macro developed by Hayes. While controlling for demographic variables, the study analysed the moderating effects of peer relationships on the forward path (learning interest→self-identity) and the direct path (learning interest→social-emotional competence) of the mediation process. The results were consistent with the theoretical framework of this study (see Table 3). The results of Eq. 2 and Eq. 3 indicate that, following the inclusion of peer relationships in the model, the interaction term between learning interest and peer relationships significantly and positively predicted self-identity (β = 0.10, t = 2.21, p < 0.05) and social-emotional competence (β = 0.13, t = 3.86, p < 0.001), thereby confirming Hypotheses 3 and 4. This suggests that peer relationships not only moderate the effect of learning interest on self-identity but also moderate the direct predictive effect of learning interest on social-emotional competence. The moderated mediation model is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2.
The moderated mediation model of learning interest, self-identity, peer relationships, and social-emotional competence. Note.***p < 0.001
Simple slope analysis (Fig. 3) shows that, for participants with lower levels of peer relationships (M–1SD), although learning interest significantly predicted self-identity, the effect was relatively small (simple slope = 0.46, t = 7.21, p < 0.01). Whereas for participants with higher levels of peer relationships (M+1SD), the predictive effect of learning interest on self-identity was stronger (simple slope = 0.60, t = 8.44, p < 0.01). This suggests that as the quality of peer relationships improves, the predictive power of learning interest on self-identity also increases.
Fig. 3.
Moderating effects of peer relationships on the relationship between learning interest and self-identity
As shown in Fig. 4, for participants with lower levels of peer relationships (M–1SD), learning interest significantly predicted social-emotional competence (simple slope = 0.11, t = 2.30, p < 0.05). Whereas for participants with higher levels of peer relationships (M+1SD), this effect was even stronger (simple slope = 0.28, t = 5.13, p < 0.01). These results further indicate that as the level of peer relationships increases, the predictive effect of learning interest on social-emotional competence also strengthens. It is worth noting that when learning interest is at a low level, participants’ self-identity and social-emotional competence are equally low, regardless of their level of peer relationships.
Fig. 4.
Moderating effects of peer relationships on the relationship between learning interest and social-emotional competence
Discussion
This study constructed a moderated mediation model to examine the relationship between older adults’ learning interest and their social-emotional competence. The findings indicate that learning interest not only directly predicts social-emotional competence but also exerts an indirect influence through the mediating effect of self-identity. Furthermore, peer relationships act as a moderator in both the relationship between learning interest and self-identity, and between learning interest and social-emotional competence. These results validate the research hypotheses, contributing to a deeper understanding of the mechanisms through which learning interest influences social-emotional competence in older adults, and providing effective intervention strategies for enhancing their social-emotional competence.
Direct effect of learning interest on social-emotional competence
In this study, learning interest was found to have a significant positive predictive effect on social-emotional competence, indicating that older adults with a strong learning interest demonstrate greater social-emotional competence. Based on the framework of basic psychological needs in Self-Determination Theory, when older adults engage in learning out of personal interest, their behaviour itself is an expression of autonomy, thereby satisfying their need for autonomy. Simultaneously, a passion for learning motivates them to continue participating in learning activities, helps them acquire new knowledge and skills, boosts their sense of competence, and satisfies their need for relatedness through interaction with peers and teachers during the learning process. The integrated model of social-emotional competence development in schools suggests that the fulfilment of these three fundamental psychological needs promotes an individual’s social-emotional self-motivation, which in turn helps the individual recognise the value of social-emotional competence and be willing to develop and apply this competence autonomously [4]. In the context of older adults’ learning, a high level of learning interest stimulates their social-emotional self-motivation by satisfying these three basic psychological needs. Driven by this, older adults come to recognise from within the value of social-emotional competence for their later years and are more willing to put it into practice. For instance, during the learning process, they become more proactive in recognising and regulating their emotions, interact more actively with peers and teachers, demonstrate cooperative and helpful behaviour, and take the initiative to understand social changes, all of which are concrete manifestations of social-emotional competence. Consequently, to foster the development of social-emotional competence in older adults, practical efforts should focus on stimulating their learning interest. Organisations providing education for older people should identify the interests and preferences of their participants and offer tailored courses, such as those on health and wellness or smart technology, that meet their needs, whilst allowing them the freedom to choose. During course delivery, progressive learning tasks should be designed to help them experience a sense of mastery. Simultaneously, interactive groups and social communities should be established to fulfil their need for relatedness through daily collaboration, thereby promoting the enhancement of their social-emotional competence.
The mediating role of self-identity
The findings of this study indicate that self-identity plays a partial mediating role between older adults’ learning interest and their social-emotional competence. That is, learning interest can indirectly predict older adults’ social-emotional competence via self-identity. When individuals engage in learning activities out of interest, their needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness are met. The Organic Integration Theory within Self-Determination Theory suggests that once these three needs are met, an individual’s regulation of external behaviour reaches the stage of integrated regulation. At this stage, external behavioural norms are no longer external to the self but are internalised as part of the self, enabling the fusion of behaviour and identity, and becoming an expression of the individual’s core values and identity [23, 33]. Through this integration process, the individual’s self-identity is continually deepened and consolidated. Furthermore, according to the theory of integrative emotional regulation within Self-Determination Theory, a stable self-identity enables individuals to perceive their own emotional experiences with a non-judgemental attitude, actively explore the connections between emotions and their personal goals and values, and make choices consistent with their values. The abilities mobilised in this process, such as emotional awareness and self-reflection, are precisely the manifestation of social-emotional competence [24].
In the context of elderly learning, when older learners actively participate in learning activities driven by their interests, their three fundamental psychological needs are gradually met, thereby facilitating the integration of external behavioural norms into their self-system. Older adults no longer view behavioural norms such as attending classes on time or completing activities as external requirements, but rather internalise them as expressions of identity such as I am still capable of learning new things or learning keeps me connected to society. In this way, self-identity is continually deepened and consolidated through the fusion of behaviour and self-identity. Furthermore, this reinforced self-identity enables older learners, when faced with difficulties or emotional fluctuations, to better accept anxiety and feelings of frustration, reflect on the connection between their emotions and learning goals, adjust strategies or seek support, and consequently make learning choices that align with their personal values, thereby enhancing their social-emotional competence.
Older adults often face a shift in social roles upon retirement, and many struggle to demonstrate effective psychological adaptation to this change [34], whilst old age is also regarded as a period of weakened self-identity [35]. Consequently, educators in the field of elderly education should pay close attention to older people’s sense of self-identity. Teachers may design tiered tasks based on learners’ foundational knowledge, offering specific affirmation when older adults achieve their goals to reinforce their recognition of their own capabilities. At the same time, platforms for showcasing achievements and sharing experiences should be established to guide them in re-evaluating their self-worth through interaction and accepting role transitions. For those experiencing psychological disorientation, group counselling may be provided to assist them in integrating their learning experiences into a positive self-perception, thereby fostering the development of social-emotional competence.
The moderating role of peer relationships
Theory of group socialization development emphasises that as individuals undergo socialisation, the influence of the family gradually diminishes, whilst the role of peer groups becomes increasingly prominent [36]. In the context of learning among older adults, peers constitute a relatively close relationship within their daily interactions. A supportive peer group can promote the physical and mental well-being of older adults, thereby enhancing their quality of life and sense of purpose [37]. This study validates the importance of peer relationships whilst also revealing the central driving role of learning interest within this context. Specifically, peer relationships act as moderators not only in the direct pathway from “learning interest → social-emotional competence” but also in the first half of the mediating chain: “learning interest → self-identity → social-emotional competence”. However, the strength of this moderating effect is constrained by the level of learning interest among older adults. The higher the level of learning interest, the more pronounced the moderating effect of peer relationships. When learning interest is at a lower level, the moderating effect is relatively limited. Based on this, we analysed the two moderating pathways of peer relationships separately.
Compared with individuals with low peer relationships, learning interest is more likely to have a beneficial impact on the self-identity of individuals with high peer relationships, and to promote the enhancement of their social-emotional competence. This result indicates that peer relationships, as a form of social support, can play a moderating role in the influence of other variables on an individual’s cognition. Organic Integration Theory posits that when the three basic psychological needs, namely autonomy, competence and relatedness, are fully satisfied, the individual enters a stage of integrative regulation. External learning demands are assimilated as components of the self-system, deepening the individual’s recognition of their own value and capabilities, thereby strengthening self-identity. High-quality peer relationships enable individuals to feel accepted, understood and listened to [38], satisfying older adults’ relational needs. Together with the needs for autonomy and competence, this promotes the fulfilment of these three fundamental psychological needs, propelling individuals into the integration and regulation stage. At this stage, older adults are more likely to incorporate positive external experiences gained from learning activities, such as peer recognition and a sense of learning achievement, into their self-system, thereby strengthening their self-identity. At the same time, the study also found that the moderating effect of peer relationships is subject to limitations. When levels of learning interest are low, self-identity remains low even in the presence of good peer relationships. Only when levels of learning interest are high does self-identity increase in tandem with the improvement of peer relationships. This finding supports the research model of peer relationships-perceived support for basic psychological needs-learning motivation. Learning interest is a motivational variable with an emotional component [19], and the level of interest reflects the intensity of the learner’s intrinsic motivation. When learning motivation is controlled (i.e., extrinsic), peer relationships have no significant effect on learning motivation; when learning motivation is autonomous (i.e., intrinsic), peer relationships exert a significant positive effect on autonomous learning motivation via support for basic psychological needs [39]. The limited mediating effect of peer relationships suggests that older adults with low learning interest have relatively weak intrinsic learning motivation. Their participation in learning activities is more likely driven by controlled motivation, with learning being compelled by feelings of guilt or external pressure. This finding validates Baer’s theory. Those with deficiency motivation often experience ‘internal self-inconsistency’ and have low self-identity, whereas those with growth motivation aim for self-actualisation and possess high self-identity [40, 41]. When older adults are driven by controlled or deficiency-based learning motivation, their sense of self-identity remains relatively weak even if peer relationships improve.
Furthermore, compared to individuals with low-quality peer relationships, the direct predictive effect of learning interest on social-emotional competence is more pronounced among those with high-quality peer relationships. This can be explained in two ways. Firstly, the need for belonging is a crucial component of the three fundamental psychological needs. High-quality peer relationships satisfy older adults’ need for relatedness, thereby promoting the overall enhancement of the three fundamental psychological needs. According to the integrated model of social-emotional competence development in schools, the overall fulfilment of psychological needs is the core mechanism driving the development of social-emotional competence [4]. In learning contexts, this enhanced sense of fulfilment will promote the development of social-emotional competencies such as emotional regulation, empathy and interpersonal interaction among older adults. Secondly, learning interest manifests as a psychological state arising from the interaction between individual and environmental characteristics [5]. Psychological states and coping strategies are two indicators for assessing social-emotional competence [42], both of which influence social-emotional competence. Good peer relationships are more likely to generate positive psychological states, lead to greater peer acceptance, and facilitate better adaptation to the group [43]. Therefore, high-quality peer relationships play a positive role in enhancing an individual’s psychological state and, consequently, improving social-emotional competence. At the same time, we note that the moderating effect of peer relationships is, to some extent, constrained. When levels of learning interest are low, regardless of the quality of peer relationships, levels of social-emotional competence are very similar, suggesting that the learning motivation of older adults with low learning interest may be of the controlled variety. Research indicates that an individual’s social-emotional perception and motivation, namely these two key mechanisms, are the intrinsic psychological drivers underpinning the development of social-emotional competence [44]. The development of social-emotional competence is positively correlated with autonomous and reflective motivation, and is unrelated to external motivation [45]. Therefore, when older adults’ learning motivation stems from internal drives, namely, autonomous and reflective motivation, this intrinsic motivation influences the development of social-emotional competence.
Consequently, peer relationships do exert a moderating effect to some extent. However, we must not overlook the significant influence that learning interest exerts on the moderating effects of peer relationships regarding self-identity and social-emotional competence. When older adults exhibit low levels of learning interest, teachers in adult education should promptly assess their current type of learning motivation and devise appropriate strategies based on these different types, prioritising the enhancement of their interest and enthusiasm for learning. On this basis, teachers must also pay attention to the impact of peer relationships on older learners and, through organizing various activities, help them establish positive interpersonal relationships, thereby effectively enhancing their social-emotional competence.
Limitations and future directions
The current analysis and findings should also take into account certain limitations in the interpretation of our results. Firstly, the sample is limited to the developed regions of the south-eastern coast, where educational opportunities for older adults are relatively well-established. Consequently, the data lacks a certain degree of representativeness. In future research, it will be necessary to further expand the scope of the sample and conduct surveys among older adults in different regions to enhance the generalisability of the findings. Secondly, this study relied on self-reports from older adults. The reported results may be influenced by participants’ tendency to present an idealised picture. Therefore, future research could combine other evaluation models, utilising multiple measures and sources of information to cross-validate the findings.
Conclusions
(1) Learning interest is a significant positive predictor of social-emotional competence in older adults. (2) Learning interest not only directly predicts social-emotional competence in older adults, but also indirectly influences it via self-identity. Self-identity plays a partial mediating role in the relationship between learninginterest and social-emotional competence. (3) Peer relationships moderate the relationship between learning interest and self-identity in older adults, as well as the relationship between learning interest and social-emotional competence in older adults. When the level of peer relationships is high, the positive predictive effect of learning interest on both self-identity and social-emotional competence is significantly enhanced.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank all the participants for their contributions to this study.
Authors’ contributions
All authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work and have approved it for publication.
Funding
This work was funded by General Project on Pedagogy of the National Social Science Foundation Study on the Spatial Distribution and Optimisation Path of Elderly Education Resources in China (BJA240163).
Data availability
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
This study has been approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of Ningbo University. The research adhered to the ethical standards set by the Declaration of Helsinki. All participants voluntarily participated in this study and signed an informed consent form prior to completing the questionnaires.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Footnotes
Publisher’s Note
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Change history
9/25/2026
The affiliations of author Jinyi Wu have been updated.
Contributor Information
Ruirang Zeng, Email: zengruirang@nbu.edu.cn.
Lixin Sun, Email: sunlixin80@163.com.
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Associated Data
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Data Availability Statement
The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.