Skip to main content
NCBI home page
NIHPA Author Manuscripts logoLink to NIHPA Author Manuscripts
. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2026 Jul 21.
Published in final edited form as: Psychiatry Res. 2026 Mar 31;361:117135. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2026.117135

Early Life Adversity, Inhibitory Control, and Behavioral Dysregulation Among Individuals with OCD

Erick J Fedorenko 1,2,3, Anna L Sherman 4, Gerald Nestadt 5, Marco Grados 5, Jack Samuels 5, James T McCracken 6, Susanna Chang 7, Benjamin D Greenberg 1,2,8, Nicole C R McLaughlin 1,2
PMCID: PMC13384530  NIHMSID: NIHMS2192488  PMID: 41936155

Introduction

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by intrusive, ego-dystonic, disturbing thoughts (i.e., obsessions) and repetitive, time-consuming behaviors (i.e., compulsions) aimed at eliminating the distress caused by the obsessions (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Affecting between 2-3% of the population (Ruscio et al., 2010), OCD is one of the leading causes of disability worldwide (Whiteford et al., 2013). Obsessive-compulsive symptoms can diminish the quality of life of individuals with the disorder (Remmerswaal et al., 2020) and can be burdensome to family and caregivers, who can often become entangled in their loved ones’ compulsions (Vikas et al., 2011).

One factor that may be relevant to the etiology and maintenance of OCD is inhibitory control, or the ability to stop an initiated action given changes in goals, context, or task demand (Bari & Robbins, 2013). Individuals with OCD exhibit dysfunction in the neural networks involved in inhibitory control (Chamberlain et al., 2005; De Wit et al., 2012; Graybiel & Rauch, 2000) and exhibit poorer performance on behavioral tasks assessing inhibitory control (Lipszyc & Schachar, 2010). One such task is the stop-signal task (SST), which requires participants to stop an initiated response following a stop cue (Aron et al., 2003; Logan et al., 1984). The stop-signal reaction time (SSRT) is an estimate of the amount of time it takes individuals to inhibit a response, with longer SSRTs representing poorer inhibitory control. Results of several studies have indicated that individuals with OCD exhibit longer SSRTs than healthy controls (Mar et al., 2022; N. C. R. McLaughlin et al., 2016; Schachar et al., 2022). Although deficits in inhibitory control can be found in other psychiatric disorders, individuals with OCD exhibit among the greatest deficits as assessed by the SST (Lipszyc & Schachar, 2010), and greater OCD symptom severity is associated with poorer inhibitory controls (Abramovitch et al., 2019). In the context of OCD, dysfunctions in inhibitory control may manifest as difficulty disengaging from compulsive behaviors (Van Den Heuvel et al., 2016), a critical part of OCD symptomatology.

Cognitive deficits in OCD are not limited to inhibitory control, however, and have been found across a range of executive function domains, of which inhibitory control is only one (Abramovitch et al., 2013). The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function – Adult Version (BRIEF-A; Roth et al., 2005) is a self-report measure of perceived executive dysfunction that has been posited to capture aspects of everyday executive dysfunction that behavioral tasks do not (Gioia et al., 2000; Samuels et al., 2018). Individuals with OCD report greater executive dysfunction on the BRIEF-A than do healthy controls (Fournet et al., 2019), and greater OCD symptom severity is associated with greater executive dysfunction (Fournet et al., 2019; McNamara et al., 2014).

Beyond psychopathology, factors such as age can also influence executive functioning, where older age is associated with poorer executive functioning (Diamond, 2013) and inhibitory control (Borella et al., 2008; Smittenaar et al., 2015). However, it is notable that among adults, an individual’s current age does not appear to influence OCD symptom severity (Hunt, 2020; Storch et al., 2015). Individual differences in life experiences can also affect executive functioning. Early life adversity (ELA; i.e., the experience of stressful or traumatic events in childhood or adolescence that might have lasting impacts on physical and psychological health; K. A. McLaughlin, 2016), has been shown to have detrimental effects on executive functioning (Johnson et al., 2021). Children and adolescents who experienced ELA exhibit deficits in inhibitory control (Taylor & Barch, 2022; Van Der Bij et al., 2020). However, results of studies among adults who experienced ELA have been mixed, with some indicating deficits in inhibitory control persisting into adulthood (Lim et al., 2015; Marshall et al., 2016), and others indicating no association between ELA and inhibitory control (Compton et al., 2024; Elton et al., 2023; Quidé et al., 2018). The studies examining effects of age on inhibitory control have also been mixed in terms of the samples they involved (i.e., individuals with or without psychiatric diagnoses), thus, it remains unclear how psychiatric diagnosis affects the relationship between ELA and inhibitory control.

Early life adversity might also contribute to the etiology of OCD. Children with OCD experienced more traumatic life events compared to those without OCD (Bey et al., 2017; Gothelf et al., 2004) and the experience of trauma in childhood is associated with greater OCD symptom severity (Destrée et al., 2021). However, it is less clear whether the broader category of ELA (i.e., which includes adverse experiences that might not rise to the level of significant trauma) is related to OCD symptomatology, particularly given that relationship might be nonspecific, as ELA appears to contribute to increased risk of psychopathology broadly (K. A. McLaughlin et al., 2010). Some studies have found evidence of an association between ELA severity and OCD symptom severity (Briggs & Price, 2009; Grisham et al., 2011), but this relationship might no longer be present when controlling for anxiety and depressive symptoms (Briggs & Price, 2009). Other studies found no relationship between ELA and OCD severity (Visser et al., 2014), thus warranting further exploration.

The purpose of the current study was to evaluate the association between ELA and neuropsychological functioning, including inhibitory control (indexed by SSRT). Given that greater ELA severity is associated with greater self-reported executive dysfunction on the BRIEF-A, even when behavioral task performance is not associated with ELA (Compton et al., 2024), we also tested the association between ELA and self-reported executive dysfunction (indexed by scores on the BRIEF-A), among individuals with OCD. Given the relevance of behavioral dysregulation to OCD symptoms (Chamberlain et al., 2005), we focused on the Behavioral Regulation Index (BRI) of the BRIEF-A, which includes subscales assessing dysfunction in domains of emotional control, inhibitory control, task shifting, and self-monitoring (Roth et al., 2005). We hypothesized that a greater number of ELA events experienced would predict slower SSRTs and greater self-reported behavioral dysregulation.

Methods

Participants

Participants were 78 adults with a lifetime diagnosis of OCD recruited from the OCD Collaborative Genetic Association Study (OCGAS; Mattheisen et al., 2015), a multisite genome-wide multi-center association study of individuals with early-onset OCD and their families. Inclusion criteria for were meeting criteria for OCD, with onset of symptoms prior to the age of 18. Exclusion criteria were the presence of schizophrenia, severe intellectual disability, Tourette disorder, and OCD occurring exclusively in the context of depression. Participants in the current study all met criteria for OCD. Participant demographics are reported in Table 1 and clinical characteristics are reported in Table 2.

Measures

Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-IV (SCID-IV).

The SCID-IV (First et al., 2002) is a semi-structured clinical interview which was used to determine the presence of past and present DSM-IV psychiatric disorders.

Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS).

The Y-BOCS (Goodman et al., 1989) is a semi-structured clinical assessment used to determine the severity of OCD symptoms. Participants were asked to identify a time in their life when their OCD symptoms were most severe and the Y-BOCS interview focused on assessing symptom severity at that time. The YBOCS includes 10 items that assess the time occupied, interference due to, distress associated with, resistance against, and degree of control over obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors. Each item is rated from 0-4. The total YBOCS score is the sum of the ratings of the 10 item and ranges from 0-40.

Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function – Adult Version (BRIEF-A; Roth et al., 2005).

The BRIEF-A is a 75-item self-report measure used to assess perceived executive function. Items are rated on a 3-point Likert scale whereby higher scores indicate poorer executive functioning. The BRIEF-A consists of three indices, the Behavioral Regulation Index (BRI; an assessment of an individual’s ability to regulate their behavioral and emotional responses), the Metacognition Index (MCI; an assessment of an individual’s problem-solving, planning, and organizational abilities), and the Global Executive Composite (GEC; an assessment of overall executive functioning composed of the other two indices). The BRI consists of four subscales assessing inhibitory control (inhibit), attention shifting (shift), emotional control, and self-monitoring. The MCI consists of four subscales assessing task initiation (initiate), working memory, planning and organizational ability (plan/organize), task monitoring, and organization of materials.

Early Life Adversity (ELA).

ELA was assessed using nine items inquiring about the presence of potential early life stressors before the age of 16. These items included 1) death of one’s mother, 2) death of one’s father, 3) significant conflict between parents, 4) parents’ divorce, 5) inappropriate sexual contact by an adult, 6) excessive physical discipline, 7) frequent home break-ins, 8) illness necessitating a hospital stay greater than one week, and 9) illness necessitating bed rest at home for at least several weeks. Participants were asked to indicate if they experienced the nine types of ELA; scores were summed for a measure of early life adversity, whereby higher scores indicated experiences of a greater variety of types of ELA.

Stop Signal Task.

An adapted version of the stop signal task (SST) (Aron et al., 2003; Logan et al., 1984) was used to assess response inhibition. During each trial, participants were presented with either a left or right arrow on the computer screen. They were instructed to respond as quickly as possible by pressing the designated left or right keyboard key which corresponded with the direction of the stimulus arrow. The order in which the arrows were presented was randomized, and the arrow direction was distributed evenly such that half of the trials presented a left arrow and half presented a right. During 25% of trials, an auditory tone, called a “stop signal”, occurred after the stimulus presentation. Participants were instructed to halt their response if they heard the tone during any given trial. The time between stimulus onset and stop signal onset varied between trials. This delay, known as the stop-signal delay (SSD), was algorithmically adjusted throughout the task until the participant was able to successfully stop their response on 50% of stop trials. The stop-signal reaction time (SSRT) is the difference between the mean reaction time on non-stop trials and the SSD at which participants stop 50% of the time. Greater SSRTs indicate longer times required to inhibit motor responses.

Procedure

Diagnostic assessments were completed by psychiatrists or clinical psychologists. The SSRT was completed in person in a laboratory setting.

Data Analysis

We performed hierarchical linear regressions to test predictors of inhibitory control (SSRT) and self-reported behavioral regulation (BRI) score of the (BRIEF). Separate models were tested with SSRT, the BRI, and the four BRI subscales as outcomes. In each model, the total number of ELA types was entered in step one, and peak OCD symptom severity (Y-BOCS score) and age were added in step two. Bivariate correlations were used to test associations between the SSRT and BRIEF scores.

Results

Means and standard deviations for study variables are reported in Table 2. Bivariate correlations between study variables are reported in Table 3.

Early Life Adversity and Inhibitory Control

Full regression results are reported in Table 4. In step one, greater ELA predicted greater SSRT, β = 0.287, p = 0.028, however when current age and peak lifetime OCD severity were added to the model in step two, ELA no longer predicted SSRT, β = 0.162, p = 0.189. In step two, OCD severity did not predict SSRT, β = 0.125, p = 0.285; however, older current age predicted greater SSRT, β = 0.426, p = 0.001.

Early Life Adversity and Executive Functioning

Full regression results are reported in Table 5. In step one, ELA predicted BRI score, β = 0.383, p = 0.009. This relationship remained significant when current age and peak lifetime OCD severity were added to the model in step two, β = 0.365, p = 0.018. In step two, neither OCD severity, β = 0.011, p = 0.940, nor current age, β = 0.069, p = 0.647, predicted BRI score.

In analyses of the BRI subscales, ELA did not predict emotional control in step one, β = 0.283, p = 0.057; however, this relationship became significant in step two, β = 0.325, p = 0.040. ELA also predicted inhibition (step one β = 0.327, p = 0.023; step two β = 0.353, p = 0.021) and self-monitoring (step one β = 0.375, p = 0.008; step two β = 0.366, p = 0.014). ELA did not predict shifting (step one β = 0.111, p = 0.449; step two β = 0.149, p = 0.331). Peak OCD severity and current age did not predict any of the BRI subscale scores.

Discussion

The current study tested the relationships between early life adversity (ELA) and inhibitory control, indexed by the stop signal reaction time (SSRT), and self-reported executive dysfunction, indexed by scores on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function – Adult Version (BRIEF-A). Partially consistent with our hypotheses, greater ELA among individuals with OCD predicted poorer inhibitory control on a self-report, however this relationship was no longer significant when age and OCD symptom severity were added to the model. Consistent with our hypotheses, greater ELA among individuals with OCD was associated with poorer perceptions of behavioral regulation ability, particularly perceptions of inhibition, emotion control, and self-monitoring ability.

Our finding that ELA was associated with poorer inhibitory control is consistent with the results of some studies (Lim et al., 2015; Marshall et al., 2016) but contradicts others (Compton et al., 2024; Elton et al., 2023; Quidé et al., 2018). Notably, prior studies have not examined the effects of ELA on inhibitory control in individuals with OCD. Thus, ELA might exacerbate deficits in inhibitory control that individuals with OCD already possess, but which are not reliably found in the broader population of individuals who have experienced ELA. It is also notable that prior studies that have not found associations between ELA and SSRT (e.g., Compton et al., 2024; Lim et al., 2015) included participants younger than those in the current sample.

Further, there was no longer an association between ELA and SSRT in our sample when age and peak lifetime OCD symptom severity were added to the model. Consistent with prior results (Mar et al., 2022; Silveira et al., 2020), we found that older age was associated with higher SSRT among people with OCD. Although prior studies have demonstrated that older age can negatively impact SSRT (e.g.,Borella et al., 2008; Hsieh & Lin, 2017; Smittenaar et al., 2015), given the relatively younger age of the current sample, we would not expect that age-related deficits in inhibitory control would manifest. However, it has been suggested that OCD might exacerbate age-related declines in inhibitory control (Silveira et al., 2020), leading to the associations between age and greater SSRTs in this population that have been found in the current study and others (Mar et al., 2022; Silveira et al., 2020). Our finding that the relationship between ELA and SSRT was no longer significant once age was added to the model, suggests shared variance between the effects of ELA and age on SSRT. Indeed, there was an association between the number of endorsed ELA events and age in our sample, suggesting that older participants both reported more ELA and had higher SSRTs. There is evidence that the rates of occurrence of ELA have been diminishing over time (Finkelhor, 2020), which supports the finding that older individuals in this sample might have experienced greater ELA. However, further research is needed to clarify such potential cohort effects on both ELA and its associations with inhibitory control.

We found no associations between SSRT and peak OCD symptom severity. This is consistent with prior studies that also found no association between SSRT and current OCD symptom severity (Conelea et al., 2023; Lei et al., 2015; N. C. R. McLaughlin et al., 2016) nor lifetime OCD symptom severity (Lei et al., 2015). To our knowledge, at least one study found that SSRT is associated with Y-BOCS compulsion scores, but not overall severity scores (Berlin & Lee, 2018). However, in the current study, SSRT was not associated with total Y-BOCS severity scores, obsession severity scores, or compulsion severity scores, though notably the current study only assessed peak lifetime symptom severity.

Our finding that ELA is associated with self-reported executive control dysfunction is consistent with prior studies (Compton et al., 2024; Johnson et al., 2021). Thus, it appears that the detrimental effect of self-reported or recollected ELA is not exclusive to inhibitory control, and is present for self-reported executive functioning generally. Given that the BRIEF is a self-report measure of executive dysfunction, it is possible that this effect is due to perceptions of executive dysfunction and is mediated by, for example, diminished self-efficacy. However, research utilizing objective measures of executive functioning has found similar associations with ELA (Johnson et al., 2021; Lim et al., 2015; Trossman et al., 2022), suggesting that this effect is not solely due to perceived functioning. Alternatively, self-report measures and task-based measures might assess different constructs (Toplak et al., 2013; Van Aken et al., 2023), leading to discrepancies in results between different modes of assessment of ostensibly the same processes.

Our results suggest that, among individuals with OCD, ELA may be associated with overall behavioral dysregulation, emotion control, inhibition, and self-monitoring, but not task shifting. Such deficits might exacerbate OCD severity and further impair functioning. For example, given that deficits in inhibitory control have been proposed to underlie compulsive symptoms in OCD (Chamberlain et al., 2005; Van Den Heuvel et al., 2016), ELA-driven exacerbations in inhibitory control deficits might result in more severe or intractable compulsive symptoms. Individuals with OCD and comorbid PTSD report greater OCD symptom severity than individuals with OCD alone (Pinciotti & Orcutt, 2020), however, the extent to which this is related to ELA specifically remains unclear.

In the current study, ELA was associated with poorer inhibitory control as indexed by scores on the Behavioral Regulation Index (BRI) of the BRIEF-A, even when controlling for age and lifetime OCD symptom severity, whereas ELA was only associated with poorer inhibitory control as indexed by SSRT when not controlling for these variables. Further, SSRT and scores in the inhibitory control subscale of the BRIEF-A were not correlated. These results suggest that task-based performance measures and self-report measures might capture different aspects of cognitive functioning and there might be benefits to utilizing both.

Future Directions

The results of the current study suggest several future directions. First, further research is warranted to investigate how ELA might affect particular aspects of executive functioning, and perceptions of executive functioning, among individuals with OCD, compared to those without OCD. Second, further research is needed to clarify whether different forms of early life adversity or trauma have differential effects on inhibitory control and executive functioning. This might be particularly relevant as different forms of early life adversity might not confer risk equally (K. A. McLaughlin, 2016). Third, although the use of the SST provide insight into baseline inhibitory control dysfunction among people with OCD, it remains unclear how these dysfunctions manifest when OCD symptoms are provoked (e.g., when an individual engages in compulsions). Our understanding of the role of inhibitory control in OCD can be furthered by testing inhibitory control in studies which provoke OCD symptoms. Finally, other relevant factors such as psychiatric diagnoses, personality, and later-life traumatic experiences should be tested as moderators of the relationship between ELA and inhibitory control.

Limitations

The current study had several limitations. First, we did not use a previously validated measure of early life adversity. Although the types of ELA we queried about corresponded to items on validated scales such as the Adverse Childhood Experiences Questionnaire (Dube et al., 2003), it did not comprehensively cover the variety of early life adversity individuals might experience. Comparison of the results of the current study with those of others should be done in light of these potential differences in how ELA is assessed. Second, the current study took a cumulative risk approach to assessing ELA, which although common, might incorrectly equate different types of adversity by assigning each type of event endorsed the same weight in a sum score (K. A. McLaughlin, 2016). Additionally, the summary score captured the variety of events but not the frequency of the events, further diminishing the sensitivity of the measure. Third, we did not assess OCD symptom severity at the time of the stop-signal task, and peak lifetime OCD symptom severity was based on retrospective report and thus liable to bias. Finally, this study sample was predominately White and highly educated, limiting the generalizability of these results.

Conclusion

The current study tested the associations between ELA, inhibitory control, and executive dysfunction among individuals with OCD. The results suggest that individuals with OCD who experienced greater ELA reported impaired inhibitory control, emotion control, and self-monitoring. Further, research is required to better understand how ELA contributes to executive dysfunction and its role in the development of OCD.

Funding

The OCD Collaborative Genetics Association Study was supported by the National Institutes of Health award numbers MH079487, MH071507, and P20GM130452. Dr. Fedorenko’s time was supported by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development of the National Institutes of Health under Award Number T32HD101392. Research reported in this publication is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Appendix

Table 1.

Participant Demographics

Gender, n (%)
 Male 34 (43.6%)
 Female 44 (56.4%)
Race/ethnicity, n (%)
 Black, non-Hispanic 1 (1.3%)
 Latinx/ Hispanic 1 (1.3%)
 White, non-Hispanic 76 (97.4%)
Education, n (%)
 GED 1 (1.3%)
 High School Graduate 7 (9%)
 Trade or Tech School 2 (2.6%)
 Some College 23 (29.5%)
 College Graduate 23 (29.5%)
 Some Graduate School 7 (9%)
 Advanced Degree 12 (15.4%)
 Unknown 3 (3.9%)
Open in a new tab

Table 2.

Variable Distributions

M (SD) Range
SSRT 185.63 (45.88) 91.25 – 291.71
Behavioral Regulation Index t-score 1.55 (2.34) 36 – 88
Emotional Control t-score 60.84 (12.67) 39 – 88
Inhibition t-score 56.82 (12.26) 36 – 84
Shift t-score 63.12 (12.25) 39 – 91
Self-Monitoring t-score 54.08 (12.37) 37 – 84
Number of early life adversities (ELA) 1.19 (1.14) 0 – 4
Lifetime OCD symptom severity (YBOCS) 28.96 (6.83) 10 – 40
Age 36.42 (13.23) 18 – 64
Open in a new tab

Table 3.

Correlations among study variables

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. SSRT -
2. Behavioral Regulation Index .136 -
3. Emotional Control Subscale .153 .890* -
4. Inhibition Subscale .012 .822* .565* -
5. Shift Subscale .098 .806* .683* .507* -
6. Self-Monitoring Subscale .134 .839* .608* .713* .579 -
7. OCD Severity .144 .121 .128 .052 .213 .070 -
8. Obsession Severity .134 .337* .332* .220 .392* .212 .762* -
9. Compulsion Severity .073 −.093 −.076 −.101 .002 −.073 .868*
Open in a new tab
*

p < 0.05

Table 4.

Predictors of SSRT

SSRT
Model R2 F p Predictor β t sr 2 p
1 .082 5.11 .028 ELA .287 2.260 .082 .028
2 .273 6.88 .001 ELA .162 1.330 .023 .189
YBOCS Score .125 1.080 .015 .285
Age .426 3.492 .161 .001
Open in a new tab

Table 5.

Predictors of BRIEF scores

BRIEF Behavioral Regulation Index
Model R2 F p Predictor β t sr 2 p
1 .123 6.18 .017 ELA .351 2.49 .123 .017
2 .136 2.20 .103 ELA .383 2.57 .135 .014
YBOCS Score .022 0.15 <.001 .878
Age −.117 −0.78 .012 .443
BRIEF Emotional Control Subscale
Model R2 F p Predictor β t sr 2 p
1 .080 3.84 .057 ELA .283 1.96 .080 .057
2 .100 1.55 .215 ELA .324 2.12 .097 .040
YBOCS Score .052 0.35 .003 .725
Age −.143 −0.93 .018 .357
BRIEF Inhibition Subscale
Model R2 F p Predictor β t sr 2 p
1 .107 5.52 .023 ELA .327 2.35 .107 .023
2 .118 1.97 .113 ELA .353 2.40 .116 .021
YBOCS Score −.020 −0.14 <.001 .887
Age −.105 −0.72 .010 .478
BRIEF Shift Subscale
Model R2 F p Predictor β t sr 2 p
1 .012 0.58 .449 ELA .111 0.76 .021 .449
2 .037 0.58 .633 ELA .149 0.98 .021 .331
YBOCS Score .112 0.76 .013 .450
Age −.126 −0.83 .015 .412
BRIEF Self-Monitoring Subscale
Model R2 F p Predictor β t sr 2 p
1 .141 7.69 .008 ELA .375 2.77 .141 .008
2 .142 2.49 .073 ELA .366 2.55 .125 .014
YBOCS Score .009 0.06 <.001 .950
Age .039 0.27 .001 .787
Open in a new tab

References

  1. Abramovitch A, Abramowitz JS, & Mittelman A (2013). The neuropsychology of adult obsessive–compulsive disorder: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(8), 1163–1171. 10.1016/j.cpr.2013.09.004 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Abramovitch A, McCormack B, Brunner D, Johnson M, & Wofford N (2019). The impact of symptom severity on cognitive function in obsessive-compulsive disorder: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 67, 36–44. 10.1016/j.cpr.2018.09.003 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. American Psychiatric Association (Ed.). (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed). American Psychiatric Association. [Google Scholar]
  4. Aron AR, Fletcher PC, Bullmore ET, Sahakian BJ, & Robbins TW (2003). Stop-signal inhibition disrupted by damage to right inferior frontal gyrus in humans. Nature Neuroscience, 6(2), 115–116. 10.1038/nn1003 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bari A, & Robbins TW (2013). Inhibition and impulsivity: Behavioral and neural basis of response control. Progress in Neurobiology, 108, 44–79. 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2013.06.005 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Berlin GS, & Lee H-J (2018). Response inhibition and error-monitoring processes in individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, 16, 21–27. 10.1016/j.jocrd.2017.11.001 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Bey K, Lennertz L, Riesel A, Klawohn J, Kaufmann C, Heinzel S, Grützmann R, Kathmann N, & Wagner M (2017). Harm avoidance and childhood adversities in patients with obsessive–compulsive disorder and their unaffected first-degree relatives. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 135(4), 328–338. 10.1111/acps.12707 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Borella E, Carretti B, & De Beni R (2008). Working memory and inhibition across the adult life-span. Acta Psychologica, 128(1), 33–44. 10.1016/j.actpsy.2007.09.008 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Briggs ES, & Price IR (2009). The relationship between adverse childhood experience and obsessive-compulsive symptoms and beliefs: The role of anxiety, depression, and experiential avoidance. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23(8), 1037–1046. 10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.07.004 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Chamberlain SR, Blackwell AD, Fineberg NA, Robbins TW, & Sahakian BJ (2005). The neuropsychology of obsessive compulsive disorder: The importance of failures in cognitive and behavioural inhibition as candidate endophenotypic markers. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 29(3), 399–419. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.11.006 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Compton RJ, Kopczynski E, Sanchez K, Severtson K, Gengo J, Ahart O, & Handler L (2024). Does early adversity predict executive functioning difficulties among undergraduates? Dissociations among self-report, performance, and EEG measures. Neuropsychology, 38(1), 27–41. 10.1037/neu0000921 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Conelea CA, Morris S, McLaughlin N, Mamaril E, Benito K, Case B, & Garcia A (2023). Response inhibition in youth undergoing intensive treatment for obsessive compulsive disorder. Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, 36, 100764. 10.1016/j.jocrd.2022.100764 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. De Wit SJ, De Vries FE, Van Der Werf YD, Cath DC, Heslenfeld DJ, Veltman EM, Van Balkom AJLM, Veltman DJ, & Van Den Heuvel OA (2012). Presupplementary Motor Area Hyperactivity During Response Inhibition: A Candidate Endophenotype of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169(10), 1100–1108. 10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12010073 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Destrée L, Brierley M-EE, Albertella L, Jobson L, & Fontenelle LF (2021). The effect of childhood trauma on the severity of obsessive-compulsive symptoms: A systematic review. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 142, 345–360. 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2021.08.017 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Diamond A (2013). Executive Functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Dube SR, Felitti VJ, Dong M, Chapman DP, Giles WH, & Anda RF (2003). Childhood Abuse, Neglect, and Household Dysfunction and the Risk of Illicit Drug Use: The Adverse Childhood Experiences Study. Pediatrics, 111(3), 564–572. 10.1542/peds.111.3.564 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Elton A, Allen JH, Yorke M, Khan F, Xu P, & Boettiger CA (2023). Sex moderates family history of alcohol use disorder and childhood maltreatment effects on an fMRI stop-signal task. Human Brain Mapping, 44(6), 2436–2450. 10.1002/hbm.26221 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Finkelhor D (2020). Trends in Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) in the United States. Child Abuse & Neglect, 108, 104641. 10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104641 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. First M, Spitzer R, Gibbon M, & Williams J (2002). Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders, Research Version, Non-patient Edition. In (SCID-I/P). [Google Scholar]
  20. Fournet N, Achachi O, Roy A, Besnard J, Lancelot C, Le Gall D, & Bouvard M (2019). Impaired Executive Function in Everyday Life: A Predictor of OCD Relapse? Journal of Behavioral and Brain Science, 09(03), 90–107. 10.4236/jbbs.2019.93008 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  21. Gioia GA, Isquith PK, Guy SC, & Kenworthy L (2000). Behavior rating inventory of executive function: BRIEF. Psychological Assessment Resources; Odessa, FL. [Google Scholar]
  22. Goodman WK, Price LH, Rasmussen SA, Mazure C, Fleischmann RL, Hill CL, Heninger GR, & Charney DS (1989). The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale. I. Development, use, and reliability. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46(11), 1006–1011. 10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810110048007 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Gothelf D, Aharonovsky O, Horesh N, Carty T, & Apter A (2004). Life events and personality factors in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder and other anxiety disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 45(3), 192–198. 10.1016/j.comppsych.2004.02.010 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Graybiel AM, & Rauch SL (2000). Toward a Neurobiology of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Neuron, 28(2), 343–347. 10.1016/S0896-6273(00)00113-6 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Grisham JR, Fullana MA, Mataix-Cols D, Moffitt TE, Caspi A, & Poulton R (2011). Risk factors prospectively associated with adult obsessive-compulsive symptom dimensions and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychological Medicine, 41(12), 2495–2506. 10.1017/S0033291711000894 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Hsieh S, & Lin Y-C (2017). Stopping ability in younger and older adults: Behavioral and event-related potential. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 17(2), 348–363. 10.3758/s13415-016-0483-7 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. Hunt C (2020). Differences in OCD symptom presentations across age, culture, and gender: A quantitative review of studies using the Y-BOCS symptom checklist. Journal of Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders, 26, 100533. 10.1016/j.jocrd.2020.100533 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  28. Johnson D, Policelli J, Li M, Dharamsi A, Hu Q, Sheridan MA, McLaughlin KA, & Wade M (2021). Associations of Early-Life Threat and Deprivation With Executive Functioning in Childhood and Adolescence: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 175(11), e212511. 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.2511 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Lei H, Zhu X, Fan J, Dong J, Zhou C, Zhang X, & Zhong M (2015). Is impaired response inhibition independent of symptom dimensions in obsessive-compulsive disorder? Evidence from ERPs. Scientific Reports, 5(1), 10413. 10.1038/srep10413 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Lim L, Hart H, Mehta MA, Simmons A, Mirza K, & Rubia K (2015). Neural Correlates of Error Processing in Young People With a History of Severe Childhood Abuse: An fMRI Study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 172(9), 892–900. 10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14081042 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Lipszyc J, & Schachar R (2010). Inhibitory control and psychopathology: A meta-analysis of studies using the stop signal task. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 16(6), 1064–1076. 10.1017/S1355617710000895 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Logan GD, Cowan WB, & Davis KA (1984). On the ability to inhibit simple and choice reaction time responses: A model and a method. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 10(2), 276–291. 10.1037/0096-1523.10.2.276 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Mar K, Townes P, Pechlivanoglou P, Arnold P, & Schachar R (2022). Obsessive compulsive disorder and response inhibition: Meta-analysis of the stop-signal task. Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science, 131(2), 152–161. 10.1037/abn0000732 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Marshall DF, Passarotti AM, Ryan KA, Kamali M, Saunders EFH, Pester B, McInnis MG, & Langenecker SA (2016). Deficient inhibitory control as an outcome of childhood trauma. Psychiatry Research, 235, 7–12. 10.1016/j.psychres.2015.12.013 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Mattheisen M, Samuels JF, Wang Y, Greenberg BD, Fyer AJ, McCracken JT, Geller DA, Murphy DL, Knowles JA, Grados MA, Riddle MA, Rasmussen SA, McLaughlin NC, Nurmi EL, Askland KD, Qin H-D, Cullen BA, Piacentini J, Pauls DL, … Nestadt G (2015). Genome-wide association study in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Results from the OCGAS. Molecular Psychiatry, 20(3), 337–344. 10.1038/mp.2014.43 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. McLaughlin KA (2016). Future Directions in Childhood Adversity and Youth Psychopathology. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 45(3), 361–382. 10.1080/15374416.2015.1110823 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. McLaughlin KA, Conron KJ, Koenen KC, & Gilman SE (2010). Childhood adversity, adult stressful life events, and risk of past-year psychiatric disorder: A test of the stress sensitization hypothesis in a population-based sample of adults. Psychological Medicine, 40(10), 1647–1658. 10.1017/S0033291709992121 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. McLaughlin NCR, Kirschner J, Foster H, O’Connell C, Rasmussen SA, & Greenberg BD (2016). Stop Signal Reaction Time Deficits in a Lifetime Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Sample. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 22(7), 785–789. 10.1017/S1355617716000540 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. McNamara JPH, Reid AM, Balkhi AM, Bussing R, Storch EA, Murphy TK, Graziano PA, Guzick AG, & Geffken GR (2014). Self-Regulation and Other Executive Functions Relationship to Pediatric OCD Severity and Treatment Outcome. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 36(3), 432–442. 10.1007/s10862-014-9408-3 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  40. Pinciotti CM, & Orcutt HK (2020). Common Symptom Presentations in Individuals With Probable Comorbid Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease, 208(10), 777–784. 10.1097/NMD.0000000000001211 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Quidé Y, O’Reilly N, Watkeys OJ, Carr VJ, & Green MJ (2018). Effects of childhood trauma on left inferior frontal gyrus function during response inhibition across psychotic disorders. Psychological Medicine, 48(9), 1454–1463. 10.1017/S0033291717002884 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Remmerswaal KCP, Batelaan NM, Hoogendoorn AW, Van Der Wee NJA, Van Oppen P, & Van Balkom AJLM (2020). Four-year course of quality of life and obsessive–compulsive disorder. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55(8), 989–1000. 10.1007/s00127-019-01779-7 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Roth RM, Gioia GA, & Isquith PK (2005). BRIEF-A: Behavior rating inventory of executive function—Adult version. Psychological Assessment Resources. [Google Scholar]
  44. Ruscio AM, Stein DJ, Chiu WT, & Kessler RC (2010). The epidemiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Molecular Psychiatry, 15(1), 53–63. 10.1038/mp.2008.94 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Samuels J, Bienvenu OJ, Krasnow J, Wang Y, Grados MA, Cullen B, Goes FS, Maher B, Greenberg BD, McLaughlin NC, Rasmussen SA, Fyer AJ, Knowles JA, McCracken JT, Piacentini J, Geller D, Pauls DL, Stewart SE, Murphy DL, … Nestadt G (2018). Self-reported executive function and hoarding in adults with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 81, 53–59. 10.1016/j.comppsych.2017.11.009 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Schachar RJ, Dupuis A, Anagnostou E, Georgiades S, Soreni N, Arnold PD, Burton CL, & Crosbie J (2022). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and youth: Neurocognitive function in clinic and community samples. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 63(8), 881–889. 10.1111/jcpp.13533 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Silveira VP, Frydman I, Fontenelle LF, Mattos P, De Oliveira-Souza R, Moll J, Hoexter MQ, Miguel EC, McLaughlin NCR, Shephard E, & Batistuzzo MC (2020). Exploring response inhibition and error monitoring in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 126, 26–33. 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.04.002 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Smittenaar P, Rutledge RB, Zeidman P, Adams RA, Brown H, Lewis G, & Dolan RJ (2015). Proactive and Reactive Response Inhibition across the Lifespan. PLOS ONE, 10(10), e0140383. 10.1371/journal.pone.0140383 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Storch EA, De Nadai AS, Conceição Do Rosário M, Shavitt RG, Torres AR, Ferrão YA, Miguel EC, Lewin AB, & Fontenelle LF (2015). Defining clinical severity in adults with obsessive–compulsive disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 63, 30–35. 10.1016/j.comppsych.2015.08.007 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Taylor RL, & Barch DM (2022). Inhibitory control within the context of early life poverty and implications for outcomes. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 140, 104778. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104778 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Toplak ME, West RF, & Stanovich KE (2013). Practitioner Review: Do performance-based measures and ratings of executive function assess the same construct? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(2), 131–143. 10.1111/jcpp.12001 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Trossman R, Mielke JG, & McAuley T (2022). Global executive dysfunction, not core executive skills, mediate the relationship between adversity exposure and later health in undergraduate students. Applied Neuropsychology: Adult, 29(3), 405–411. 10.1080/23279095.2020.1764561 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Van Aken BC, Rietveld R, Wierdsma AI, Voskes Y, Pijnenborg GHM, Van Weeghel J, & Mulder CL (2023). Self-report versus performance based executive functioning in people with psychotic disorders. Schizophrenia Research: Cognition, 34, 100293. 10.1016/j.scog.2023.100293 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Van Den Heuvel OA, Van Wingen G, Soriano-Mas C, Alonso P, Chamberlain SR, Nakamae T, Denys D, Goudriaan AE, & Veltman DJ (2016). Brain circuitry of compulsivity. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 26(5), 810–827. 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.12.005 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Van Der Bij J, Den Kelder RO, Montagne B, & Hagenaars MA (2020). Inhibitory control in trauma-exposed youth: A systematic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 118, 451–462. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.06.001 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Vikas A, Avasthi A, & Sharan P (2011). Psychosocial Impact of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder on Patients and Their Caregivers: A Comparative Study With Depressive Disorder. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 57(1), 45–56. 10.1177/0020764009347333 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Visser HA, Van Minnen A, Van Megen H, Eikelenboom M, Hoogendoorn AW, Kaarsemaker M, Balkom AJ, & Van Oppen P (2014). The Relationship Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Symptom Severity, Chronicity, and Comorbidity in Patients With Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 75(10), 1034–1039. 10.4088/JCP.13m08825 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Whiteford HA, Degenhardt L, Rehm J, Baxter AJ, Ferrari AJ, Erskine HE, Charlson FJ, Norman RE, Flaxman AD, Johns N, Burstein R, Murray CJ, & Vos T (2013). Global burden of disease attributable to mental and substance use disorders: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. The Lancet, 382(9904), 1575–1586. 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61611-6 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

RESOURCES