Combined jump rope and elastic resistance band training improves agility, body balance and neuromuscular performance in young male basketball players

Abstract

The main aim of the present investigation was to explore the effect of eight weeks combined training program based on jump rope and elastic resistance band on agility, body balance, and neuromuscular performances among young male basketball players. Twenty-four young male basketball players (Age ≃ 9 years; Height ≃ 138 cm; Body mass ≃ 34 Kg; Training experience≃ 3.5 years) participated in the current investigation and were randomly assigned to two groups: a combined group (INTER; n = 12), and an active control group (CON; n = 12). INTER completed the 8-week training programs with two weekly sessions while the CON continued their usual training as control group. The static and dynamic balance tests, the T–change of direction (CoD) test, the vertical jump tests, the sprint test were performed by participants before and after the intervention period. A significant time × group interaction was observed for YBT, SBT, T-CoD, 5 m, and 10 m sprint times, as well as for SJ and CMJ performance (p < 0.001). Post-intervention analysis revealed greater improvements in the INTER compared to the CON across all tested variables (from-4.27% to 20.76%; p < 0.001; ES= from 1.57 to 3.87), The adopted training program was associated with improvements in basketball-specific fitness parameters in young male players; however, these findings should be interpreted with caution given the study design and participant characteristics.

Introduction

Basketball for young children should be viewed as part of a developmental stage that emphasizes core motor skills, enjoyment, and progressive skill gain above competition^1,2. According to sports science research, basketball-based exercises can greatly improve children’s motor development by boosting movement speed, coordination, strength, and spatial awareness, all of which are required at this age to lay the groundwork for physical literacy^1,2. Structured yet age-appropriate basketball training has been demonstrated to improve overall physical fitness, including strength, endurance, and coordination, as well as promote healthy growth and development². Research findings also suggest that early childhood training should be tailored to children’s developmental traits, such as simplified regulations, smaller playing areas, and adjusted equipment to fit their cognitive and physical capacities³. Furthermore, research shows that immersing youngsters in a variety of fun basketball activities promotes long-term skill learning and prevents early fatigue, while also encouraging social interaction and collaboration abilities. Overall, the scientific research suggests that youth basketball players should prioritize enjoyable learning environments that promote motor development, physical fitness, and favorable attitudes toward lifelong physical activity³. Previous studies reported the importance of sprints with change of direction (CoD) among basketball players^4–9. Additionally, the nature of basketball games requires players to jump (i.e., layup, jump-shot, rebound, block shot, and so on^{10, 11}). Since they have good correlations with performance in basketball^12–14. Besides, male and elite level youth basketball players had a good predictability on multidirectional speed and agility performance¹⁵. In particular, Rope-jump training has demonstrated significant benefits for male youth basketball players aged 13–15, markedly improving explosive power, sprint speed, agility, and balance over short-term interventions^16–19. In a randomized study, Cengizel et al.¹⁷, compared a 4-week jump rope program (10 sessions) to plyometric training in adolescent male basketball players and found that the jump rope group exhibited superior gains in squat jump, horizontal jump, plyometric jump, and hexagon agility, as well as increases in body mass index and quadriceps circumference—suggesting notable neuromuscular and morphological adaptations¹⁷.

Furthermore, a meta-analysis specifically targeting youth basketball players (ages 5–17.99) reported that plyometric-oriented interventions—which include rope-based training modalities—yielded moderate to large improvements in vertical jump, 5–10 m and 20–30 m sprint performance, change-of-direction speed, and dynamic balance²⁰. Importantly, subgroup analyses indicated that, for male players, straight-line sprinting and change-of-direction abilities improved significantly, emphasizing the relevance of rope-induced plyometric benefits for basketball-specific athleticism²⁰.

The mechanisms underpinning these performance enhancements include enhanced stretch-shortening cycle efficiency, inter- and intra-limb coordination, and tendon stiffness—attributes critical to basketball movement patterns such as jumping, cutting, and rapid acceleration^17,20. Collectively, these findings could support the inclusion of structured rope-jump sessions—approximately 15–20 min per session, 2–3 times weekly over 4–8 weeks—as a practical, low-cost, and low-risk adjunct to traditional basketball conditioning programs for adolescent male athletes.

Resistance training using elastic bands has been shown to significantly enhance performance variables critical to male U18 basketball players²¹. In an eight-week intervention involving adolescent male basketball players, the group that performed band-resisted exercises in conjunction with regular training exhibited substantial improvements in shooting outcomes: ball-release speed increased by 9.13%, vertical jump height rose by 24.96%, upper-limb movement speed improved by 8.24%, and shooting accuracy improved by 29.52%, all relative to a control group (Medical Journal of Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, 2024). Additionally, Kamandulis et al.²², demonstrated that five weeks of high-velocity hamstring curls using elastic bands led to increased hamstring strength, enhanced movement velocity, adjusted neuromuscular co-activation, and improved 30-m sprint times among college-aged male basketball players. Therefore, acute potentiation effects have also been observed when combining elastic bands with back squats; collegiate basketball players performing squats at 85% 1-RM supplemented by 30–40% band resistance showed enhanced countermovement jump (CMJ) height peaking approximately three minutes post-exercise, indicative of post-activation potentiation benefits²³. Collectively, these findings highlight that elastic-band training—whether focused on upper-body shooting mechanics, lower-body power development, or acute potentiation protocols—could meaningfully enhance speed, power, neuromuscular coordination, and skill execution in adolescent male basketball players²⁴. In the same context, Joy et al.²⁵, added elastic band tension to traditional resistance exercises and reported greater rate of power development and vertical jump improvements compared to conventional training alone among NCAA Division II male basketball Players. In Addition²⁶, demonstrated that strength training increases performance in young athletes, but these gains diminish with detraining and vary with maturity status. Racil²⁷, discovered that rhythmic activities improve motor abilities, balance, and reaction time in children. Overall, integrating regular strength and coordination training is critical to improve youth basketball performance and development.

Even though research shows that separate training programs based on rope jump or elastic band could improve performance, we still don’t fully understand how these methods affect young basketball players specifically—or how the combination of these two training methods may affect performance. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first of its kind to look at how these two types of basketball-specific training programs could improve overall performance in young male basketball players. Therefore, the main objective of the present study was to explore the effects of eight weeks combined training program based on jump rope and elastic resistance band on agility, body balance, and neuromuscular performances among young male basketball players. Considering previous literature^20,24, we hypothesized that the adopted training program would significantly enhance neuromuscular performances and body balance.

Results

All participants completed the intervention protocols without major injuries and in accordance with the established methodology. Adherence rates were high (99.3% for INTER, 99.1% for CON), with no significant differences between groups. Baseline comparisons revealed no significant between-group differences in any measured variables. Reliability was acceptable, with ICCs ranging from 0.82 to 0.99 and CVs between 2.4% and 5.1%. Maturity offset analysis confirmed no significant differences in biological maturation or pubertal status, indicating a comparable level of physical development across the sample.

Main effects

Significant main effects for time were observed; however, these were driven by the INTER, which showed small-to-moderate improvements from pre- to post-test, while the CON exhibited no changes across all variables (Table 1).

Table 1.

Performances determined before (pre-test) and after (post-test) training program.

Groups									p-values (effect size)
Variables			INTER (n = 12)			CON (n = 12)			Time	Group	Group × time
			Pre test	Post test	Δ%	Pre test	Post test	Δ%
SBT (s)	R		16.18 ± 0.86	19.40 ± 1.08	19.93 ± 1.35	16.46 ± 0.82	16.51 ± 0.75	0.33 ± 0.83	0.000(0.99)	0.000(0.82)	0.000(0.99)
	L		16.06 ± 0.83	19.54 ± 0.84	21.75 ± 1.79	16.91 ± 0.86	16.89 ± 0.85	−0.10 ± 0.61	0.000(0.99)	0.000(0.79)	0.000(0.99)
YBT (cm)	R	Ant	60.86 ± 1.11	64.68 ± 0.98	6.28 ± 1.28	61.91 ± 0.99	61.92 ± 0.91	0.02 ± 0.64	0.000(0.95)	0.027(0.37)	0.000(0.96)
		Post/Md	86.02 ± 1.81	89.07 ± 1.63	3.56 ± 1.01	86.28 ± 2.15	86.21 ± 2.24	−0.09 ± 0.18	0.000(0.92)	0.138(0.20)	0.000(0.94)
		Post/Lat	84.68 ± 1.33	87.83 ± 1.41	3.13 ± 0.57	85.91 ± 1.13	85.83 ± 1.06	−0.10 ± 0.19	0.000(0.97)	0.763(0.009)	0.000(0.97)
	L	Ant	59.83 ± 1.15	63.66 ± 1.05	6.40 ± 0.96	60.44 ± 1.02	60.53 ± 1.04	0.14 ± 0.21	0.000(0.98)	0.000(0.83)	0.000(0.97)
		Post/Md	85.22 ± 1.33	88.61 ± 1.32	3.97 ± 0.73	85.68 ± 1.43	85.66 ± 1.39	−0.02 ± 0.15	0.000(0.96)	0.026(0.38)	0.000(0.97)
		Post/Lat	83.77 ± 1.24	86.57 ± 1.44	3.33 ± 0.70	84.71 ± 1.59	84.66 ± 1.60	−0.05 ± 0.15	0.000(0.95)	0.262(0.11)	0.000(0.96)
T-test (s)			10.44 ± 0.18	10.07 ± 0.17	−3.59 ± 0.41	10.28 ± 0.45	10.29 ± 0.44	0.02 ± 1.43	0.000(0.87)	0.845(0.004)	0.000(0.86)
Sprint (5 m)			1.21 ± 0.02	1.15 ± 0.03	−4.27 ± 0.25	1.27 ± 0.03	1.27 ± 0.04	−0.01 ± 0.82	0.000(0.96)	0.000(0.86)	0.004(0.96)
Sprint (10 m)			2.11 ± 0.05	2.03 ± 0.05	−3.76 ± 0.23	2.42 ± 0.02	2.43 ± 0.04	0.00 ± 0.43	0.000(0.97)	0.000(0.98)	0.000(0.99)
SJ (cm)			18.47 ± 0.72	20.97 ± 1.21	13.49 ± 3.54	18 ± 0.56	18.04 ± 0.52	0.19 ± 0.69	0.000(0.93)	0.000(0.72)	0.000(0.94)
CMJ (cm)			28.48 ± 0.71	30.22 ± 0.83	6.08 ± 0.60	27.17 ± 1.77	26.77 ± 2.44	0.65 ± 1.04	0.005(0.31)	0.005(0.53)	0.005(0.52)

Data are reported as means and standard deviations. SBT: Stork balance test; YBT: Y-balance test; R: right leg; L: left leg; Ant: anterior; Post/Md: postero-medial; Post/Lat: T-test: CoD T test; SJ: squad jump test.

Interactions

Body balance

Significant group × time was observed for SBT test performance on both legs (right leg: P < 0.001, ES = 0.99, moderate; left leg: P < 0.001, ES = 0.99, moderate). Bonferroni corrected post-hoc test for both legs revealed significant pre-to-post improvements only for INTER (Right: 19.93%, P < 0.001, ES = 3.30, very large; and Left: 21.75%, P < 0.001, ES = 3.87, very large; respectively).

Significant group × time interaction was observed for YBT test performance for the right leg support (anterior: P < 0.001, ES = 0.96, moderate; posteromedial: P < 0.001, ES = 0.94, moderate; posterolateral: P < 0.001, ES = 0.97, moderate). Bonferroni corrected post-hoc test revealed significant pre-to-post improvements only for INTER (anterior: 6.28%, P < 0.001, ES = 3.65, very large; posteromedial: 3.56%, P < 0.001, ES = 1.77, large; posterolateral: 3.13%, P < 0.001, ES = 1.93, large). For the left support leg, we found similar results (anterior: P < 0.001, ES = 0.97, moderate; posteromedial: P < 0.001, ES = 0.97, moderate; posterolateral: P < 0.001, ES = 0.96, moderate).

Bonferroni corrected post-hoc test revealed significant pre-to-post improvements for INTER (anterior: 6.40%, P < 0.001, ES = 3.47, very large; posteromedial: 3.97%, P < 0.001, ES = 2.58, very large; posterolateral: 3.33%, P < 0.001, ES = 2.08, very large).

Change of direction

Significant group × time interaction was observed for the T-test (P < 0.001, ES = 0.86, moderate). Bonferroni corrected post-hoc test revealed significant pre-to-post improvements only in favor of INTER (−3.59%; P < 0.001, ES = −2.14, very large).

Sprints performances

Significant group × time interaction was observed for the 5 m sprint (P < 0.001, ES = 0.96, moderate). Bonferroni corrected post-hoc test revealed significant pre-to-post improvements only in favor of INTER (−4.27%; P < 0.001, ES = −1.70, large). Significant group × time interaction was observed for the 10 m sprint (P < 0.001, ES = 0.99, moderate). Bonferroni corrected post-hoc test revealed significant pre-to-post improvements only in favor of INTER (−3.76%; P < 0.001, ES = −1.57, large).

Jump performances

Significant group × time interaction was observed for the SJ (P < 0.001, ES = 0.94, moderate). Bonferroni corrected post-hoc test revealed significant pre-to-post improvements in favor of INTER (13.49%; P < 0.001, ES = 2.51, very large). Significant group × time interaction was observed for the CMJ (P = 0.005, ES = 0.54, small). Bonferroni corrected post-hoc test revealed significant pre-to-post improvements only in favor of INTER (6.08%; P < 0.001, ES = 2.25, very large).

Discussion

This study examined the effects of an 8-week combined jump rope and elastic resistance training program on agility, balance, and neuromuscular performance in young male basketball players. The results showed that only the intervention group demonstrated significant improvements across all tested variables, whereas no meaningful changes were observed in the control group. These findings suggest that the training program may be effective in enhancing selected performance-related measures in this population. Within-subject effect sizes were large to very large (ES = 1.57–3.87) and consistent with previous youth basketball studies^{28, 29}, indicating meaningful improvements in basketball-specific fitness likely driven by enhanced stretch–shortening cycle function, tendon stiffness, and intermuscular coordination.

In the present study, the most notable improvements were observed in both static and dynamic balance measures. Indeed, the INTER group showed significant increases in the Stork Balance Test for the right and left legs (20–22%; ES = 3.30–3.87, p < 0.001) and in all Y-Balance Test reach directions for both legs (anterior = + 6.3–6.4%, posteromedial = + 3.6–4.0%, posterolateral = + 3.1–3.3%; ES = 1.77–3.65, p < 0.001). These findings are consistent with previous studies reporting improvements in dynamic balance following jump rope interventions^{17, 20}.

Such improvements may be partially explained by enhanced proprioceptive feedback and ankle joint stability associated with repetitive jumping activities. The cyclic and rhythmic foot contacts involved in rope jumping may stimulate the stretch–shortening cycle and contribute to improved neuromuscular coordination between agonist–antagonist muscle groups. In addition, the elastic resistance component may introduce multi-planar perturbations that increase proprioceptive demands. However, these interpretations should be considered with caution, as factors such as growth, maturation, and potential familiarization with balance testing procedures may also have contributed to the observed changes.

Importantly, such adaptations are particularly relevant to basketball, where maintaining postural stability under variable force directions, such as during rebounds, defensive slides, or directional fakes/changes, is essential. The magnitude of improvement identified in static balance (~ 20%) is comparable to gains reported after proprioceptive-balance training in elite youth basketball populations³⁰, further demonstrating the efficacy of the combined stimulus in promoting sensorimotor control and lower-limb stability.

The combined program in the present study was associated with a significant 3.6% reduction in T-test time (ES = − 2.14, p < 0.001), suggesting improved change-of-direction (CoD) performance. Previous studies have reported that rope-based plyometric drills may enhance eccentric–concentric transition efficiency, while elastic resistance training may improve stop–start capabilities, potentially through adaptations in the posterior chain and hip stabilizers^{20, 22}. In this context, the current findings may indicate that combining these training modalities could provide complementary neuromechanical stimuli. The magnitude of improvement (~ 3–4%) observed in the present study is generally consistent with changes reported following 6–8 weeks of plyometric or resisted-sprint training in adolescent athletes. While such improvements may be relevant for basketball performance, where CoD ability is considered an important physical component³¹, caution is warranted when extrapolating these findings to sport-specific performance outcomes. Similarly, Şimşek and Koç³², reported significant improvements in agility following an 8-week rope jumping program in pre-adolescent taekwondo athletes, suggesting potential benefits for neuromuscular coordination, footwork speed, and reactive ability. The rhythmic and repetitive nature of rope jumping may contribute to enhanced lower-limb quickness and CoD efficiency. Nevertheless, these findings should be interpreted within a developmental context that accounts for potential influences such as growth-related developmental processes and test familiarity effects.

Sprint times significantly improved in the INTER group at both 5 m (− 4.27%; ES = − 1.70, p < 0.001) and 10 m (− 3.76%; ES = − 1.57, p < 0.001). These findings are in line with previous research reporting sprint performance improvements following plyometric-based interventions in youth basketball players²⁰ and are consistent with the proposed role of elastic resistance training in developing lower-limb force production, particularly through adaptations in the posterior chain that may support acceleration performance. Jump rope activity may contribute to improved neuromuscular activation patterns and inter-limb coordination relevant to early acceleration phases, while band-resisted squats and split squats may enhance concentric force production in the hip and knee extensors, potentially reducing ground-contact time^20,24. However, these mechanisms remain speculative within the context of the present study.

Overall, the observed reductions in short-sprint performance indicate a consistent positive training response. Nevertheless, these findings should be interpreted in light of developmental and measurement-related factors, particularly given the age of the participants and the possibility of natural performance changes over time. While small improvements in sprint capacity may be relevant in basketball contexts where acceleration is important³³, direct translation to competitive performance should be considered with caution.

The INTER group showcased a 13.49% improvement in squat jump (SJ; ES = 2.51, p < 0.001) and a ~ 6% gain in countermovement jump (CMJ; ES = 2.25, p = 0.005), confirming the neuromuscular benefits of the combined protocol. Jump rope activity can elicit high-frequency, low-amplitude stretch-shortening cycles, promoting increased muscle–tendon stiffness and elastic energy reutilization¹⁷. Concomitantly, band-resisted lower-body exercises provide variable resistance throughout and extended range of motion, and is mechanically similar to the take-off in vertical jumping. The dual emphasis on reactive and maximal strength likely explains the larger relative gains in SJ compared with CMJ. The present findings align with previous studies showing notable vertical-jump improvements after short-term rope-based or elastic-resistance interventions³⁴. Importantly, improved vertical jump performance is not only an indicator of neuromuscular adaptation but also a key determinant of successful rebounding and shooting actions in basketball³¹.

Previous studies have reported independent benefits of either jumping rope¹⁷ or elastic-band training^22,34 on youth basketball performance. The present results extend the literature base by demonstrating that a hybrid program induces simultaneous improvements in balance, agility, sprinting, and jumping, all representing key pillars of basketball performance (Triguero et al., 2019). Moreover, the improvements occurred within a relatively short duration (eight weeks, two sessions per week), suggesting that the combination is both time-efficient and practical during in-season periods. The magnitude of improvements across all domains (3–22%) also supports the concept of concurrent neuromuscular transfer, where gains in coordination and stabilization enhance power output efficiency²⁰. Importantly, in the present study, no adverse events were reported, confirming the program’s safety and feasibility for adolescent athletes (Leon et al., 2025). The aforementioned performance enhancements observed in the present study may be attributable to a milieu of physiological and neuromechanical mechanisms. Indeed, repeated ground contacts during jumping rope could lead to improved tendon stiffness and elastic recoil efficiency²⁰. Moreover, elastic resistance, which introduces variable tension, could enhance motor-unit recruitment and synchronization, particularly in hip and knee extensors²². The alternation between resisted and ballistic activities may also elicit transient neural facilitation, consistent with acute potentiation effects observed in elastic-band squat studies (Peng et al., 2021). Collectively, these mechanisms support the notion that multi-modal, task-specific training could elicit broader neuromuscular and coordinative adaptations than isolated modalities alone.

Limitations

Although this study provides some promising results, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the current sample size precludes statistical power for subgroup analyses (e.g., by maturity offset) without analysis for biological maturity or bone age; clearly offering an avenue for further elucidatory research. Second, we only included male players from a single competitive level, reducing generalizability to female or elite youth populations. Third, although functional performance measures were assessed, no biomechanical or electromyographic analyses were conducted, reducing our ability to provide inferences regarding neural mechanisms. Besides Lack of objective quantification of band resistance. Anyway, the neuromuscular response depends heavily on the relative load, and this omission limits reproducibility. Absence of fatigue measures or recovery monitoring (e.g., daily CMJ or weekly RPE) to contextualize adaptations as well. Finally, young male basketball players (~ 3.5 years of experience), represents intermediate level and it is no extrapolatable to elite or women. Moreover, the present study is that the training load and early specialization applied in this population may be considered relatively high for children aged 8–9 years. Although such practices are common in competitive youth sport contexts, they may not fully align with Long-Term Athlete Development (LTAD) principles, potentially limiting the pedagogical generalizability of the findings. This should be considered when interpreting and applying the results. Finally, although the intervention improved isolated motor skills, the reduction in game-based play (30 min per week) and its potential impact on tactical skills and basketball-specific game intelligence were not assessed. This limits the understanding of how such training may affect game-related performance. Future studies should include measures of tactical and decision-making skills to provide a more comprehensive evaluation of these interventions in young athletes.

• -Strengths: Randomized: active control.

• -Future research: It should explore dose–response effects, including training frequency and resistance intensity utilized, and compare combined versus isolated modalities, stratified across sexes, age categories, and competitive level.

Methods

Study design and setting

This study looked at how a combined training method based on jump rope and elastic resistance band can help young basketball players improve skills that are important for basketball, like quick changes of direction, explosive jumping, sprint speed, and body control. Players trained for eight weeks during their regular season (from November to December 2023) and were tested before and after to see how their balance, sprint performance, and leg power improved. The athletes were randomly placed into two groups: a combined training group (INTER), and a control group (CON) that continued with normal basketball practice. The random allocation sequence, enrolled, and assigned participants to the intervention groups was generated by two independent researchers³⁵. Participants were assigned using Research Randomizer (http://www.randomizer.org). The present study was conducted in nonexperimental conditions (ecological validity), so the coaching staff and participants did not receive any input from the research team. Training data, competitive schedule and fixture outcomes were supplied by the coaching staff of the team. This helped researchers understand how the adopted training could make difference in game-related athletic skills.

Participants

This study involved 24 young male basketball players (U9) (see Table 2), all competing in Tunisia league. The participants were drawn from two teams at the same competitive level. On average, they had 3.5 ± 2.3 years of training experience and trained approximately 6 h per week at that level. Before starting the study, a power analysis was conducted using G*Power software³⁶ to ensure that the number of participants would be statistically sufficient. Assuming a Type I error rate of 0.01 and a statistical power of 90% (Type II error rate of 0.10), the analysis determined that a sample size of 24 players would be adequate to detect a medium interaction effect in the Y-Balance Test, which was used to assess dynamic balance. Participants were randomly assigned into two equal groups: a combined training group (INTER; n = 12), and an active control group (CON; n = 12). To be eligible, players had to be free from any musculoskeletal, neurological, use of drugs or orthopedic conditions that could interfere with their performance during high-intensity physical testing.

Table 2.

Anthropometric characteristics of the participating young basketball players.

Groups	Age (years)	Height (cm)	Body mass (kg)
INTER (n = 12)	8.82 ± 1.60	137.65 ± 1.60	33.23 ± 2.93
CON (n = 12)	8.94 ± 1.73	137.91 ± 1.70	32.08 ± 3.09

Data are reported as means and standard deviations. INTER: Intervention group; CON: Control group; BMI: Body mass index.

A detailed overview of the study design and participant flow is presented in Fig. 1. This study was approved by the ethics committee of the local university (approval no. 06/2022). The experimental protocol was conducted according to the latest version of the Declaration of Helsinki³⁷. All participants and parents provided their written informed consent before study participation.

Fig. 1.

Study design flow chart.

Procedure

Before the start of the experimental period, participants performed some familiarization sessions to understand all the tests protocols. During the test session participants were instructed to wear the same sports equipment and the same time of the testing was respected all over the experimental period to minimize any effects of diurnal variations³⁸. The experiment was carried out in a Municipal Sports Centre (surface parquet).

Throughout the experimental period, the INTER and CON groups completed the same training volume (~ 90 min per session) in which training sessions started with a 15-minute warm-up followed by technical drills based on basic basketball movements and a simulated game at the end of every session (Table 3). Before (T1) and after (T2) the intervention, three testing sessions were distributed as follows: the first testing session was devoted to vertical jump tests, the second testing session was devoted to CoD, and the third testing session was devoted to the sprint and the balance tests. Testing sessions were conducted following at least 48 h of abstention from strenuous physical activity and were separated by a minimum of 48 h. The order of the tests within each session was randomize.

Table 3.

Weekly training program during the experimental period for intervention and control groups.

Days	Training program for intervention groups (INTER)	Training program for the active control group (CON)
Monday	-Warm up (15 min); Passing drills (15 min): Bounce pass, overhead pass, “pass and move”; Shooting drills (15 min); Footwork (15 min): Jump stops, pivoting games; Fun Games (20 min); Cool Down (10 min)	-Warm up (15 min); Passing drills (15 min): Bounce pass, overhead pass, “pass and move”; Shooting drills (15 min); Footwork (15 min): Jump stops, pivoting games; Fun Games (20 min); Cool Down (10 min)
Tuesday	-Warm up (15 min); The training intervention (min15); free throw shooting (10 min); Ball-handling & dribbling drills (15 min); Fun Games (25 min); Cool Down (10 min)	-Warm up (15 min); Ball-handling and dribbling drills (15 min); Scrimmage (15 min); free throw shooting (10 min); Fun Games (25 min); Cool Down (10 min)
Wednesday	-Recovery day	-Recovery day
Thursday	-Warm up (15 min); The training intervention (min15); free throw shooting (10 min); Ball-handling & dribbling drills (15 min); Fun Games (25 min); Cool Down (10 min)	-Warm up (15 min); Ball-handling and dribbling drills (15 min); Scrimmage (15 min); free throw shooting (10 min); Fun Games (25 min); Cool Down (10 min)
Friday	-Warm up (15 min); Review of the week (40 min): quick stations (dribbling, passing, shooting); Defense basics: (Defensive stance, shuffling) Mini-Game (20 min); Cool Down (10 min)	-Warm up (15 min); Review of the week (40 min): quick stations (dribbling, passing, shooting); Defense basics: (Defensive stance, shuffling) Mini-Game (20 min); Cool Down (10 min)
Saturday	-Recovery day	-Recovery day
Sunday	-Game day	-Game day

Training program interventions

During the experimental period, participants were encouraged to give their maximal effort. The training weeks, sets, repetitions and duration were matched between groups to ensure an equal training volume and were controlled by a professional strength and conditioning coach. The training intervention for INTER consisted of 3 sets of 10 reps (Squat pulls) or (Squat holds) or (Split squats) using a heavy band (≈ 3.2 kg resistance) (Thera-Bands; Hygenic Corporation, Akron, OH, United States); each set was directly followed by 60 s jump rope. The recovery between sets was 30 s (Fig. 2). the number of jump rope contacts was monitored by a member of the staff. This allowed us to ensure that the intended training volume was achieved and to minimize potential variability due to execution errors.

Fig. 2.

Training program interventions.

Training load monitoring

The training load during the present investigation was measured according to the methods described by³⁹. Participants were asked to rate the global intensity of the entire workout session using the category ratio-10 (RPE) scale 30-minute following each session. Daily training intensity was created by multiplying the training duration (minutes) by the session RPE and the weekly training load was determined by summing the daily training loads for each athlete during each week (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.

Training load all over the experiment.

Measures

Anthropometrics and maximal oxygen consumption

For the anthropometrics, the collected measurements were: Body mass (kg) was measured with an electronic scale (Pharo, 200 Analytic^®, Germany), body mass index (BMI) and height (m) measured with a portable stadiometer (Seca^®, Maresten, UK). Concerning the estimation of maximal oxygen consumption (VO_2Max), Participants performed the 20-m shuttle run test before the beginning of the experimental intervention and the VO_2Max was calculated according to the equation of Léger and Gadoury⁴⁰.

Maturity status

Biological maturity status was assessed using the method proposed by Mirwald et al.⁴¹. The maturity offset was calculated using the following formula: Maturity offset = −9.236 + (0.0002708 × leg length × sitting height) + (−0.001663 × age × leg length) + (0.007216 × age × sitting height) + (0.02292 × body mass/height ratio). This calculation enabled the classification of participants into three groups based on PHV offset: Pre-PHV (−3 to > −1 years), Circa-PHV (−1 to + 1 years), and Post-PHV (> + 1 to + 3 years).

Balance tests

To assess the participants’ static and dynamic body balance, the Stork and the Y-balance balance tests were used respectively^42]43. The Stork balance test protocol consisted of standing with both hands on your hips then the participants place the sole of the non-standing foot against the inside knee of the other leg and raise the heel from the floor. The assistant coaches start the stopwatch as soon as your heel is off the floor⁴². The test was terminated when the heel of the supporting leg touched the ground, or the foot moved away from the kneecap⁴². Concerning the Y-balance test, participants were instructed to maintain single-leg balance while reaching as far as possible with the other leg in three different directions (anterior, posteromedial and posterolateral) performed on each leg following the previously described protocol⁴⁴. The composite score for each participant was calculated as the average maximum reach across the three directions⁴⁵. For Both balance tests participants performed three trials interspaced by 2 min recovery trials and the best of trials was used for data analysis.

T–change of direction test

The CoD T-test was performed with four cones forming a T and an electronic timing system (Brower Timing Systems^®, Salt Lake City, UT, USA) was used to record times following the previously described protocol⁴⁶. This adapted test requires sprinting, lateral shuffling, and back pedaling with 4 directional changes representing the typical movements of basketball⁴⁶. Two trials interspaced by 2 min were completed and the fastest trial was taken for further analysis.

Sprint test

Athletes performed maximal sprints over 5 m and 10 m on a flat synthetic surface. Starting from a standing position, participants sprinted at maximum effort following a verbal “Go” command. Sprint times were recorded using photocell timing gates positioned at the start line, 5 m, and 10 m for accurate measurement (Scanlan et al., 2015). Each athlete completed three trials with 2–3 min rest between attempts; the fastest time was used for analysis. This method reliably assesses acceleration and short-distance sprint performance in young elite athletes.

Vertical jump tests

Countermovement jump (CMJ) and squat jump (SJ) were assessed using an optoelectrical system (Opto-Jump Microgate^®, Italy). Jump height was calculated as: 1/8 × g × t²^{47, 48}. Participants were familiarized and received standardized instructions. For the SJ, participants held a static ~ 90° knee flexion position⁴⁹ for 2–3 s (controlled with an adjustable rope) before jumping, with no countermovement allowed; invalid trials were repeated. For the CMJ, a rapid downward movement was followed immediately by a maximal jump. All trials were supervised. Three trials were performed with 2 min rest, and the best result was retained.

Statistical analysis

All the data were presented as mean and standard deviation (SD). The Shapiro-Wilk (< 30) test identified all variables as normally distributed. The baseline between group differences was computed using one-way ANOVA. The training effects were evaluated using a 2 (groups: INTER, and CON) × 2 (time: Pre-test, Post-test) mixed model ANOVA. If a statistically significant interaction effect was found, Bonferroni corrected post-hoc tests were calculated. Additionally, effect sizes (ES) were determined from ANOVA output by converting partial eta-squared to Cohen’s d. In addition, within-group ES were computed using the following equation: ES = (mean post–mean pre)/SD⁵⁰. Following Hopkins et al.⁵¹, ES were considered trivial (< 0.2), small (0.2 to < 0.6), moderate (0.6 to < 1.2), large (1.2 to < 2.0) and very large (2.0 to 4.0). Additionally, intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and coefficients of variation (CV) were computed to assess relative and absolute test-retest reliability (Table 4). ICCs were classified as ICC < 0.50 weak, 0.50 to 0.79 moderate and ≥ 0.80 strong. The level of significance was set at P < 0.05. All statistical analyses were computed using SPSS for Windows, version 20.0 (SPSS^® Inc., Chicago).

Table 4.

Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) for relative reliability and coefficients of variation for absolute reliability of the applied physical fitness tests.

Measures			ICC	95%CI	%CV
SJ (cm)			0.98	0.91–0.98	3.5
CMJ (cm)			0.97	0.90–0.98	3.7
5 m			0.98	0.88–0.97	3.3
10 m			0.97	0.85–0.97	3.5
T_test (s)			0.98	0.91–0.98	3.6
STB (s)	R		0.90	0.82–0.94	3.4
	L		0.89	0.83–0.93	3.2
YBT (cm)	R	Ant	0.97	0.85–0.97	5.1
		Post/Md	0.98	0.86–0.98	5.2
		Post/Lat	0.98	0.85–0.98	5.1
	L	Ant	0.97	0.84–0.98	5.3
		Post/Md	0.96	0.86–0.97	5.1
		Post/Lat	0.98	0.84–0.98	5.1

Conclusions

Overall, the present study suggests that an 8-week combined jump-rope and elastic resistance-band training program may contribute to improvements in balance, agility, sprint performance, and vertical jump height in young male basketball players. The intervention group showed notable improvements, including increases in static balance, faster 5–10 m sprint times, and gains in squat-jump performance. These findings indicate that multi-modal, low-cost, and time-efficient training strategies may be beneficial for enhancing selected performance-related capacities in youth athletes. However, these results should be interpreted in light of developmental and measurement-related factors, including the potential influence of growth, maturation, and familiarization effects. From a practical perspective, this approach may be considered by coaches as a supplementary training option during the season, although further research with larger samples and more controlled designs is needed before strong recommendations can be made regarding performance optimization or injury risk reduction.

Practical applications

The findings of our study have practical relevance for coaches, strength and conditioning professionals, teachers, and application to youth basketball development programs. Indeed, we noted that a twice-weekly 20–25 min combined session of jump-rope and elastic-band drills can be integrated into warm-up or skill-development periods, without implicating total training volume. Moreover, improvements of 3–6% in sprint and CoD performance and > 10% in jump and balance capacities could plausibly enhance explosiveness, defensive stability, and rebounding ability; thereby giving performative benefits. Additionally, regarding to financial burden, both jump ropes and elastic bands are inexpensive and portable, making this protocol feasible for schools, academies, or community-level programs.

Practically, this training approach may also positively contribute to enhanced balance and proprioception, which may conceivably reduce lower-limb injury risk, particularly ankle sprains, which are prevalent in youth basketball.

Author contributions

Conceptualization, S.B., A.D, G.B, C.T.C, F.H.Y, C.C S.M.E. and J.C.G.; methodology, S.B., A.D, G.B, C.T.C, F.H.Y, C.C S.M.E. and J.C.G.; software, A.D and G.B; validation, S.M.E., M.M.K., and L.M.; formal analysis, S.B, A.B and J.C. G.; investigation, S.B., S.M.E. and F.H.Y; resources, S.B; data curation, S.B., C.T.C and A.M.; writing—original draft preparation, S.B. S.M.E. and G.G.; writing—review and editing, C.C., A.D, G.B, C.T.C, G.G, S.M.E., F.H.Y, and J.C.G.; visualization, S.B.; supervision, S.B, J.C.G; project administration, S.M.E.; Funding acquisition, S.M.E. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was funded by the Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Sup-porting Project number (PNURSP2026R145), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to confidential information about the participants but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

All the procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and with the Helsinki declaration for ethical standards. The present study was approved by the local clinical research committee of the high institute of sports and physical education of Kef, university of Jendouba, Kef, Tunisia. (Approval No. 06/2022).

Informed consent

All participants and parents provided their written informed consent before study participation.