Climate change and the global spread of antimicrobial resistance in livestock systems: a comprehensive review

Abstract

Climate change and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) are converging threats to livestock systems, food security, and public health. This review synthesizes mechanistic evidence linking climate variables to the proliferation of AMR in livestock and proposes integrated mitigation strategies. Elevated temperatures compromise livestock immunity, increase disease susceptibility, and drive antimicrobial use, while enhancing horizontal gene transfer (HGT) through increased plasmid stability, integrase activity, and bacterial stress responses. Altered precipitation and humidity influence biofilm formation, pathogen survival, and the mobilization of resistant bacteria and antimicrobial residues from manure into soil and water. Floods and droughts further concentrate or disperse resistance determinants across environmental reservoirs, creating transmission bridges between livestock, wildlife, and humans. Key evidence gaps include understudied climate variables (humidity, soil temperature), geographic blind spots (Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia), and a scarcity of field data validating laboratory-based HGT mechanisms. Addressing these challenges requires climate-smart livestock practices (improved housing, adaptive breeding), enhanced antimicrobial stewardship (vaccination, probiotics, biosecurity), and sustainable waste management (anaerobic digestion, composting). Global coordination under a One Health framework, supported by robust policy mechanisms and targeted research funding, is essential to safeguard animal and public health from AMR in a changing climate.

Introduction

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as one of the most persistent global health challenges, threatening the efficacy of life-saving antimicrobials across the human, animal, and environmental domains worldwide [1]. Livestock systems are considered epicenter to this crisis due to their substantial reliance on antimicrobials for growth promotion, disease prevention, and treatment [2]. This heavy usage, along with improper practices, like overuse and misuse, has accelerated the development and dissemination of resistant pathogens to humans and the environment [3]. Aside from the activities on farms, rapidly changing climatic conditions significantly amplify of global threat to livestock systems (Table 1).

Table 1.

Impact of climate-induced stressors on antimicrobial usage in livestock systems

Climate Stressor	Livestock Impact	Increased Antimicrobial Usage	Geographic Examples	References
Heat Stress	Reduced immunity, decreased productivity, increased susceptibility to infections	Prophylactic use of antibiotics for heat-stress-related diseases	Dairy herds in India (mastitis cases)	[4]
Disease Outbreaks	Climate-driven expansion of vector-borne diseases and pathogen survival	Higher use of antibiotics and trypanocides	Trypanosomiasis in sub-Saharan Africa	[5, 6]
Extreme Weather Events	Increased pathogen load in soil and water sources	Increased use of tetracyclines and beta-lactams	Bovine respiratory disease in Brazilian beef cattle	[7–9]
Humidity Fluctuations	Enhanced transmission of respiratory and enteric pathogens	Metaphylactic administration of macrolides and aminoglycosides	Poultry farms in Southeast Asia	[10, 11]

Note: The data extracted are qualitative for a narrative review

Climate change has has emerged as a significant human activity affecting global health as a result of technological advancement. It manifests as rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and an increasing frequency of extreme weather events. These changes exert direct and indirect effects on livestock health, microbial ecosystems, and the environment, all of which influence the trajectory of AMR [4]. Heat stress, a critical consequence of global warming, weakens the immune system of livestock. This makes them more susceptible to infections, and increases the demand for antimicrobial interventions [12]. Simultaneously, rising temperatures alter the composition and activity of microbial communities, creating environments that are conducive to the proliferation of resistant bacteria. For instance, high temperatures can accelerate bacterial growth and facilitate horizontal gene transfer, enhancing the dissemination of resistance genes [13].

Increased disease prevalence under changing climatic conditions further drives antimicrobial use in livestock systems. Warmer climates have expanded the range and activity of pathogens and their vectors, leading to more frequent and severe disease outbreaks [14]. As livestock producers grapple with these challenges, reliance on antimicrobials as a primary disease management tool intensifies, contributing to the selection pressure that fosters AMR [15]. Moreover, climate-induced stressors such as droughts and floods disrupt ecosystems, mobilize antimicrobial residues, and affect pathogens across various environmental compartments, including soil, water, and air. These disruptions create hotspots for AMR propagation and complicate efforts to contain their spread [16].

Critically, despite the growing recognition of both climate change and AMR as global health priorities, the existing literature largely treats them as separate challenges. This conceptual solo effort has left a significant gap in understanding how these two crises interact and amplify one another, particularly within livestock systems, where the pressures of climate variability and antimicrobial dependency converge most acutely. The present review directly addresses this gap by synthesizing evidence on the mechanistic interplay between climate variables and AMR dynamics, with the explicit aim of informing integrated, climate-resilient strategies that move beyond single-issue approaches.

Global initiatives, such as the United Nations’ Conference of the Parties (COP26), have highlighted the need for integrated approaches to address climate change, with increasing attention to its intersection with AMR [17]. The concept of a One Health framework, which recognizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health, has gained prominence as a vital strategy for tackling these challenges [18]. By promoting sustainable antimicrobial stewardship, climate resilience in livestock systems, and policies that bridge the health and environmental sectors, the One Health approach offers a pathway to mitigate the dual threats of climate change and AMR [14].

This review addresses that gap by exploring how climate-induced stressors interact with livestock management and microbial ecosystems to amplify AMR risks. It synthesizes emerging evidence on mechanisms such as horizontal gene transfer, microbial community shifts, and environmental dissemination pathways, which are influenced by climate variables. The innovative contribution of this review lies in its integration of climate science, microbial ecology, and livestock management under a unified One Health framework. Our objective is to highlight knowledge gaps, propose mitigation strategies, and inform policy directions that align climate resilience with AMR containment.

In light of these complex interactions, this review explores the interplay between climate change and AMR in livestock systems, emphasizing mechanistic insights, global trends, and mitigation pathways [19]. By synthesizing the current evidence and identifying critical knowledge gaps, this study aims to inform strategies that address the intertwined crises of climate change and AMR, ensuring the sustainability and resilience of global livestock production systems.

Climate-induced changes in microbial ecosystems and horizontal gene transfer

Climate change, characterized by rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, extreme weather events, and increased humidity, profoundly affects microbial ecosystems by influencing AMR dynamics within livestock systems [20]. These climatic variables alter the structure, function, and genetic exchange volume of microbial communities in both livestock-associated microbiomes and environmental reservoirs (soil, water, manure). Understanding these mechanistic insights is essential to address the complex interplay between climate change and AMR in the livestock system (Table 2).

Table 2.

Mechanisms linking climate variables and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) proliferation

Climate Variable	Mechanistic Effect	Resulting AMR Mechanisms	Examples	References
Temperature Increase	Enhanced pathogen survival, stress-induced horizontal gene transfer (HGT)	Dissemination of resistant genes in microbial communities	Heat stress in poultry and MDR E. coli in the Middle East	[21, 22]
Humidity Changes	Increased survival and transmission of pathogens in humid environments	Amplification of resistant strains in soil and water	High humidity in poultry farms in Southeast Asia	[5, 23, 24]
Drought	Limited water resources are increasing the concentration of AMR genes in water sources	Persistence of resistance genes in arid regions	Antibiotic-resistant Salmonella in drought-affected cattle systems	[25, 26]
Extreme Rainfall	Increased runoff transports resistant bacteria to water bodies	Widespread dissemination of resistance genes	Flooding in tropical regions contributes to AMR spread	[27, 28]
Soil Temperature	Altered microbial communities influencing resistance gene expression	Selective advantage for resistant microbes	Soil microbiome studies in Canadian livestock farms	[29–32]

Temperature is a pivotal factor influencing microbial ecosystems, and rising global temperatures significantly alter microbial growth, activity, and interactions [33]. Higher temperatures accelerate the microbial metabolic rates, increase microbial population densities, and enhance the frequency of microbial interactions, all of which create favorable conditions for horizontal gene transfer (HGT) in both livestock and environmental settings [34]. This intensified microbial activity creates an ecosystem where genetic material, including antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs), is exchanged more frequently. Horizontal gene transfer mechanisms, such as conjugation, transformation, and transduction, are facilitated by proximity and higher microbial densities under elevated temperatures [35]. Moreover, certain mobile genetic elements, such as plasmids and integrons that carry ARGs, are activated under heat stress, promoting their dissemination within microbial communities (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

Mechanisms of AMR proliferation in livestock under climate change using https://biorender.com

In addition to promoting microbial growth, elevated temperatures also influence the survival and virulence of pathogens. Heat stress can increase the expression of virulence factors in certain pathogens, making them more infectious and adaptable to changing environmental conditions [36]. For example, bacteria such as Salmonella spp. and Escherichia coli exhibit enhanced survival and virulence at elevated temperatures, particularly in manure, soil, and water reservoirs [37]. This increases the risk of pathogen spillover into livestock populations and the broader environment, amplifying selective pressures for the development of resistance.

Humidity is another critical climatic factor that interacts with temperature to modulate microbial ecosystems. High humidity, often associated with warmer climates, creates favorable conditions for biofilm formation, a key driver of microbial resilience and resistance [38]. Biofilms provide a protective niche in which bacteria can exchange genetic material, including ARGs, at higher rates than in free-living populations. These structures are particularly relevant in livestock systems, where biofilms can form on equipment, feed troughs, and water systems, thereby serving as persistent reservoirs for resistant bacteria [39]. Increased humidity also influences the survival of airborne pathogens, extending their viability and range, thus increasing the risk of AMR proliferation through aerosolized transmission within and between livestock facilities.

Precipitation patterns, including increased rainfall and flooding, further exacerbate the impact of climate change on microbial ecosystems. Excessive rainfall mobilizes antimicrobial residues, resistant bacteria, and ARGs from livestock facilities (manure and soil) intosurrounding environments, such as water bodies, agricultural fields, and human settlements [16]. This redistribution creates hotspots for microbial interactions through HGT, where the convergence of pathogens, resistance genes, and antimicrobial residues fosters AMR selection and proliferation. Conversely, drought conditions concentrate these elements in limited water and soil resources, intensifying selection pressures and enabling resistant microbes to dominate these ecosystems through HGT and AMR persistence [40].

The impacts of climate variables extend beyond the external environment to livestock-associated microbiomes, including those in the gut, skin, and respiratory system. Livestock microbiomes play a crucial role in animal health, nutrition, and disease resistance, but are highly sensitive to environmental changes [41]. Heat stress and altered feeding regimes in livestock disrupt the gut microbial balance (dysbiosis), reducing microbial diversity and favoring the proliferation of opportunistic pathogens that may harbor resistance genes. For instance, heat-stressed animals often experience shifts in the gut microbiota composition, leading to an increased abundance of Escherichia coli and Clostridium spp., which often harbor ARGs on highly mobile plasmids [42]. This dysbiosis, combined with HGT, enables resistance genes to jump between commensal and pathogenic populations within the same animal. Similarly, changes in feed intake and digestion under heat stress can alter nutrient availability in the gut, thereby influencing microbial competition and resistance dynamics.

Selection pressure from climate-induced stress

Climate change has a profound impact on livestock systems, particularly through heat stress, disease outbreaks, and other environmental stressors, which collectively intensify reliance on antimicrobial agents [43]. These conditions amplify selective pressures that favor the emergence and persistence of antimicrobial-resistant strains, posing significant risks to animal and public health. The increasing frequency of extreme weather events, shifting climatic zones, and rising global temperatures exacerbate these stressors, driving antimicrobial use to levels that threaten sustainable livestock production [20].

Heat stress is one of the most direct and pervasive effects of climate change on livestock production. Elevated temperatures impair physiological homeostasis in animals, leading to reduced feed intake, lower productivity, and compromised immune function [12]. This weakened immunity makes livestock more susceptible to infections, prompting the increased prophylactic and therapeutic use of antimicrobials. For instance, in poultry, heat stress has been shown to exacerbate respiratory diseases, such as Mycoplasma gallisepticum infections, which are commonly treated with antimicrobials such as tylosin and tetracycline [44]. Similarly, dairy cattle experiencing heat stress are at higher risk of mastitis, a leading cause of antimicrobial use in the dairy industry. Studies in climate-vulnerable regions, such as sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, have reported significant increases in antimicrobial use during periods of extreme heat, underscoring the link between rising temperatures and the development of resistance [45].

Climate-induced stressors are not limited to heat but extend to an increased prevalence of diseases driven by changing ecological conditions [46]. Warmer temperatures and altered precipitation patterns expand the habitats of vectors, such as ticks, mosquitoes, and flies, resulting in higher incidences of vector-borne diseases. For example, the spread of Anaplasma and Theileria species, which cause tick-borne diseases in cattle, has been reported in previously unaffected regions owing to changing climatic conditions [47]. Such outbreaks necessitate the extensive use of antimicrobials to control secondary bacterial infections, thereby amplifying selection pressure for resistance [3]. In Southeast Asia, outbreaks of diseases, such as hemorrhagic septicemia in cattle and sheep, have surged following periods of flooding, leading to widespread use of antimicrobials to manage disease impacts [48].

Beyond direct disease impacts, climate change also exacerbates environmental stressors such as droughts and floods, which indirectly drive antimicrobial usage. Drought conditions reduce the availability and quality of water, leading to increased concentrations of pathogens and antimicrobial residues in limited water sources [49]. Livestock consuming contaminated water are more likely to develop infections, further increasing reliance on antimicrobials. Conversely, flooding events can mobilize pathogens and antimicrobial residues, creating hotspots of infection that require aggressive antimicrobial interventions [28]. In both scenarios, environmental stressors associated with climate change create feedback loops that sustain high levels of antimicrobial usage and promote development of resistance.

Case studies from climate-vulnerable regions have provided compelling evidence of these dynamics. For instance, in Bangladesh, increased antimicrobial use in poultry farms has been linked to heat stress and disease outbreaks exacerbated by rising temperatures and humidity [50]. Farmers frequently resort to broad-spectrum antimicrobials, such as ciprofloxacin and enrofloxacin, contributing to the alarming prevalence of resistant Escherichia coli and Salmonella strains in poultry products. Similarly, in Kenya, the combination of recurrent droughts and heat stress has driven the use of antimicrobials, such as oxytetracycline, in cattle to manage respiratory infections and other heat-related illnesses [51]. These practices have led to the emergence of multidrug-resistant pathogens in livestock, with significant implications for food safety and public health.

In addition to regional challenges, industrialized farming systems in developed nations are not immune to climate-induced stress [52]. In the United States, heat waves have been associated with increased antimicrobial use in swine production to manage stress-related enteric diseases caused by pathogens, such as Clostridium perfringens [53]. Similar trends have been observed in the European Union, where heat stress in poultry and pig farming has driven up the use of antimicrobials, despite regulatory efforts to limit their usage. In Canada, rising soil temperatures and unpredictable precipitation patterns have altered microbial dynamics in livestock-associated environments. Research has demonstrated that these changes disrupt nutrient cycling and prolong the environmental persistence of antibiotic residues, increasing the likelihood of resistance selection [54]. These cases illustrate that the climate-AMR link is not confined to low- and middle-income countries; it is a global challenge requiring tailored interventions across different production systems and regulatory contexts. These examples highlight the pervasive nature of climate-induced selection pressure on AMR across diverse agricultural systems.

The amplification of selective pressures favoring resistant strains under these conditions is of particular concern. Prolonged and repeated exposure to antimicrobials creates an evolutionary advantage for resistant bacteria, enabling their proliferation on livestock populations [55]. The presence of antimicrobial residues in the environment further this problem by selecting for resistance in nontarget microbial communities. For instance, studies have demonstrated that high ambient temperatures enhance the persistence and transfer of resistance genes in soil and water, thereby contributing to the broader dissemination of AMR across ecosystems [6].

Finally, climate-induced stressors, such as heat stress, disease outbreaks, and environmental disruptions, drive increased antimicrobial usage in livestock systems, particularly in climate-vulnerable regions [56]. This over-reliance on antimicrobials creates strong selective pressure for the emergence and spread of resistant strains, threatening the sustainability of livestock production and the efficacy of antimicrobials in animal and human health [1]. So, addressing these challenges requires a concerted effort to develop climate-resilient livestock systems, improve disease management strategies, and promote antimicrobial stewardship at the local, regional, and global levels.

Environmental pathways: the role of water, soil, and manure in antimicrobial resistance propagation

Environmental pathways play a critical role in the propagation of AMR within and beyond livestock systems, particularly under the influence of climate change [57]. Water, soil, and manure serve as interconnected reservoirs and conduits for resistant bacteria and genes, creating a complex web of interactions between livestock, the environment, and human populations [58]. Climate change exacerbates these dynamics by altering the persistence, mobility, and distribution of antimicrobial resistance determinants, amplifying the risks of their dissemination across ecological and geographic boundaries [7]. Also, water bodies contaminated with antimicrobial residues from livestock runoff serve as breeding grounds for resistant bacteria, particularly under warmer and stagnant conditions [59]. These reservoirs act as critical interfaces between livestock, wildlife, and human populations, thereby facilitating the spread of AMR across ecosystems.

Water is a central vector in the spread of AMR, especially in livestock-intensive regions where antibiotics are heavily used. Surface and groundwater bodies are frequently contaminated by runoff from agricultural lands, which often carries resistant bacteria and antimicrobial residues from manure and wastewater [3]. Climate-induced changes, such as increased rainfall intensity and flooding, increase this risk by facilitating the transport of contaminants into broader water systems [16]. For instance, flooding events in Southeast Asia have been linked to higher levels of resistance genes, such as bla_CTX−M, in aquatic environments, underscoring the role of extreme weather on the spread of resistance [60]. Conversely, drought conditions concentrate contaminants in water sources, creating hotspots for resistant bacteria and enhancing the selection pressure for AMR development.

Soil acts as both a long-term reservoir and a dynamic reactor for antimicrobial resistance genes [61]. Its physicochemical properties, particularly pH, soil organic carbon (SOC), clay content, and moisture, critically determine ARG persistence, mobility, and horizontal transfer potential of ARG [62]. Climate change directly alters these properties. Rising temperatures accelerate microbial decomposition of organic matter, reducing SOC and thereby decreasing the adsorption capacity for extracellular ARGs and antibiotic residues, leaving them more bioavailable for transformation by competent bacteria [63]. Elevated temperatures also lower soil pH in many agricultural systems through increased nitrification rates, and acidic conditions (pH 4.5–5.5) have been shown to enhance the transformation efficiency of free ARGs by increasing membrane permeability in environmental bacterial species [63]. In contrast, drought conditions increase salt concentration and decrease soil moisture, which raises ionic strength. This process promotes the desorption of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) from clay and organic particles, enhancing their mobility and uptake by competent bacterial cells [64]. Studies have shown that elevated temperature regimes further contribute to this phenomenon. The persistence half-life of tet (M) and sul1 in soils with high organic carbon is significantly prolonged compared to low-carbon soils, due to protection within organic microaggregates that shield ARGs from enzymatic degradation [65]. Thus, climate-driven changes in soil pH, organic carbon, and moisture regimes do not merely influence microbial communities indirectly; they directly modulate the physicochemical environment that governs the persistence, mobility, and horizontal transfer of ARGs. These soil-mediated pathways create persistent environmental reservoirs of resistance that can be mobilized back to livestock via grazing, feed crops, or water, completing a transmission loop that requires integrated climate-adaptive soil management.

Manure management practices are critical for determining the extent of AMR propagation through environmental pathways. Livestock manure contains high concentrations of antimicrobial residues, resistant bacteria, and mobile genetic elements, making it a potent source of resistance [66]. Climate change exacerbates this issue by influencing the microbial composition and genetic exchange rates within manure. Elevated temperatures accelerate microbial metabolism and promote proliferation of resistance genes [67]. Additionally, changes in precipitation patterns influence the leaching of resistant bacteria and antimicrobials into the surrounding soils and waterways, creating additional pathways for the spread of resistance [68]. Studies from Europe have documented increased leaching of blaTEM and erm(B) genes from manure-treated fields following heavy rainfall events, illustrating the complex interplay between manure management and climate variability.

The interconnectedness of these environmental reservoirs, water, soil, and manure forms a network that facilitates the movement of resistance determinants between livestock, environmental reservoirs, and human populations [69]. A. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria from livestock can contaminate water and soil, which humans and wildlife might ingest or inhale, continuing the One Health Cycle of antimicrobial resistance [70]. For example, aquifers used for irrigation or drinking water may become contaminated with resistant pathogens, leading to direct exposure of the human population [71]. Similarly, food crops grown in soils treated with manure or irrigated with contaminated water could serve as indirect transmission routes for resistant bacteria [72]. The role of wildlife, particularly birds and rodents that interact with livestock facilities, further complicates the dynamics by serving as vectors for the spread of resistance across ecological boundaries.

Addressing the role of environmental pathways in AMR propagation requires a comprehensive understanding of the interconnected dynamics of water, soil, and manure under changing climate conditions. Integrating environmental surveillance into AMR monitoring programs is essential for identifying hotspots for resistance gene dissemination. Additionally, sustainable livestock management practices such as improved manure treatment technologies and buffer zones around water bodies can mitigate the environmental spread of AMR. Recognizing the environmental dimension of AMR within the One Health framework is critical for developing climate-resilient strategies to safeguard livestock systems, environmental health, and public health from the escalating threat of antimicrobial resistance.

Management and mitigation strategies: addressing climate-driven AMR in livestock systems

The intersection of climate variability and livestock management presents multifaceted challenges in controlling antimicrobial resistance. Climate-induced stressors, including extreme temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, floods, droughts, and increased disease outbreaks, compound pressures on livestock health and productivity, driving greater reliance on antimicrobials and amplifying selection pressure for resistant strains [73, 74]. These challenges are further exacerbated by socioeconomic barriers, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, where smallholder farmers lack financial resources, technical knowledge, and infrastructure for climate-resilient practices [75]. The result is a self-reinforcing cycle: climate stress increases disease burden, prompting antimicrobial overuse, which accelerates AMR proliferation, which in turn complicates disease management under increasingly variable climatic conditions (Fig. 2). Breaking this cycle requires an integrated, multidisciplinary approach that simultaneously addresses the complex interplay between climate resilience, antimicrobial stewardship, livestock health, and sustainable waste management (Fig. 3). Below, we synthesize these mitigation strategies into three interconnected pillars;

Fig. 2.

Integrated pathways of climate change, livestock, and AMR proliferation using https://biorender.com

Fig. 3.

One health framework for mitigating climate-driven AMR in livestock using https://biorender.com

Pillar One: Climate-smart livestock practices to reduce antimicrobial dependency

The first and most fundamental pillar involves reducing livestock vulnerability to climate-induced stressors, thereby diminishing the need for antimicrobial interventions at source. Heat stress, for example, compromises immune function and increases susceptibility to infections [76]; therefore, improved housing designs that provide adequate ventilation, shade, and cooling systems (e.g., fans, misters, or solar-powered ventilation) can significantly reduce heat-related morbidity and the consequent demand for prophylactic and therapeutic antimicrobials [77]. In tandem with housing, optimized nutritional strategies using climate-resilient fodder crops (e.g., drought-tolerant sorghum or pearl millet) and balanced feed formulations enhance livestock immunity and gut health, reducing infection pressure without antimicrobials [78]. Breeding programs that select heat tolerance, disease resistance, and feed efficiency offer a longer-term, genetically anchored solution. While such programs require sustained investment in research and infrastructure, they have demonstrated success in tropical and subtropical regions, where locally adapted breeds (e.g., N’Dama and Muturu cattle in West Africa, which exhibit trypanotolerance) already show reduced disease susceptibility and lower antimicrobial requirements [79]. Collectively, these climate-smart practices do not merely mitigate AMR indirectly; they directly address the root driver of antimicrobial use by keeping animals healthier under climatic stress.

Pillar Two: Enhanced antimicrobial stewardship and biosecurity

Even with optimal climate-smart practices, infectious diseases will occur, and antimicrobials will remain necessary. Thus, the second pillar focuses on reducing misuse and overuse through strengthened stewardship and biosecurity. Vaccination campaigns targeting common vaccine-preventable bacterial pathogens can prevent outbreaks before they begin, substantially reducing therapeutic antimicrobial needs [80]. Probiotics offer complementary, microbial-based interventions that modulate gut microbiota, enhance natural immunity, and competitively exclude pathogens, thereby reducing colonization pressure and the need for metaphylactic antimicrobial administration [81]. Biosecurity measures, including quarantine protocols for new animals, hygiene management (e.g., disinfection of equipment and footwear), controlled farm access, and separation of livestock with different age groups, prevent the introduction and spread of infectious agents [82]. When these measures are implemented consistently, the overall pathogen burden in livestock systems decreases, breaking the transmission chains that would otherwise drive antimicrobial use. Crucially, stewardship must be supported by monitoring systems that track antimicrobial use and resistance patterns at farm, regional, and national levels, enabling targeted, evidence-based interventions rather than blanket restrictions that may be impractical in resource-limited settings.

Pillar Three: Sustainable waste management to interrupt environmental transmission

The third pillar addresses the post-excretion pathway. Even when antimicrobials are used judiciously, residues and resistant bacteria enter manure, which then contaminates soil and water if improperly managed [83]. Sustainable waste management technologies interrupt this environmental transmission. Anaerobic digestion, for example, treats livestock manure in closed reactors, reducing antimicrobial residues, killing resistant bacteria, and decreasing ARG mobility while simultaneously generating biogas as a renewable energy source [84, 85]. Composting livestock manure, when properly managed with adequate temperature and turning regimes, reduces the load of viable resistant bacteria and mobile genetic elements [86]. The integration of renewable energy technologies, solar-powered water pumps, and ventilation systems further aligns livestock systems with climate resilience by reducing greenhouse gas emissions while improving animal welfare. These waste-to-energy systems are not merely end-of-pipe solutions; they create economic co-benefits (biogas for heating or electricity) that improve farm viability, particularly for smallholder cooperatives [87]. When manure is safely treated before land application, the link between livestock and environmental reservoirs is effectively dismantled, preventing the recirculation of resistance genes back into livestock via contaminated water bodies, feed crops, or grazing lands.

Synergies and implementation pathways

The three pillars are not sequential but synergistic. Climate-smart housing reduces heat stress, which reduces disease, which reduces antimicrobial use, but when antimicrobials are used, proper stewardship ensures they are used correctly, and waste management ensures residues do not enter the environment. Conversely, failure in any pillar undermines the others: poor housing increases disease, driving antimicrobial overuse, which loads manure with resistance genes that, without proper treatment, contaminate soil and water, ultimately exposing livestock again (Fig. 2). Implementation requires capacity building and stakeholder engagement (Table 3). Training programs for farmers on best practices in livestock management, antimicrobial stewardship, and waste management are essential, as are extension services that provide technical support and access to veterinary care [97, 98]. Community engagement fosters shared understanding of AMR risks and collective action. Policy integration is equally critical: governments must develop frameworks that link AMR mitigation with climate adaptation under One Health principles, supported by targeted funding mechanisms, surveillance metrics, and cross-sectoral governance. Global coordination, through existing mechanisms such as the UNFCCC, WHO Global Action Plan on AMR, and the Quadripartite (FAO, UNEP, WHO, WOAH), can facilitate knowledge exchange, capacity building, and resource mobilization across nations. By implementing these three pillars in an integrated, climate-resilient manner, livestock systems can break the feedback loop between climate change and AMR, safeguarding animal health, food security, and public health.

Table 3.

Proposed strategies for mitigating AMR in climate-vulnerable livestock systems

Strategy	Description	Potential Impact	Implementation Example	References
Climate-Smart Livestock Practices	Incorporating heat mitigation measures (shades, cooling systems) and adaptive breeding programs	Reduced stress-induced antimicrobial usage	Canadian dairy farms implementing cooling systems	[32, 88]
Antimicrobial Stewardship	Use of vaccines, probiotics, and targeted therapies to reduce reliance on antibiotics	Minimized selective pressure for resistance	Probiotic use in poultry farms in Southeast Asia	[89–91]
Sustainable Waste Management	Integration of waste-to-energy systems and proper manure disposal	Reduced environmental reservoirs of resistance genes	Biogas production from manure in European livestock systems	[91, 92]
Capacity Building	Farmer education and stakeholder engagement on climate resilience and AMR mitigation	Improved awareness and adoption of sustainable practices	Training programs for smallholder farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa	[93, 94]
Policy Integration	Development of global frameworks linking AMR and climate resilience under One Health principles	Enhanced coordination for AMR and climate-related challenges	Regional AMR mitigation strategies in the EU	[95, 96]

Conclusion

Climate change and antimicrobial resistance are not separate crises but deeply intertwined threats to livestock systems, food security, and public health. This review has synthesized evidence demonstrating that rising temperatures, altered precipitation, and extreme weather events amplify AMR through three primary mechanisms: first, heat stress compromises livestock immunity and increases disease susceptibility, driving greater antimicrobial use and selection pressure; second, elevated temperatures and humidity enhance horizontal gene transfer by stabilizing plasmids, activating integrases, and promoting biofilm formation, thereby accelerating resistance gene dissemination; third, floods and droughts mobilize resistant bacteria and antimicrobial residues from manure into soil and water, creating environmental reservoirs that bridge livestock, wildlife, and human populations.

The evidence base, however, remains uneven. Temperature is the most extensively studied climate variable, whereas humidity and soil temperature are critically understudied despite their potential roles in airborne transmission and soil-mediated ARG persistence. Geographically, North America and Western Europe dominate the empirical literature, while Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia, regions with high climate vulnerability and intensive livestock production, exhibit the largest evidence gaps. Mechanistically, laboratory studies have robustly demonstrated temperature-dependent HGT, but field data validating these processes under real-world climatic variability are scarce, as are quantitative dose-response relationships linking specific climate stressors to ARG abundance and integrated models projecting future AMR burdens under climate change scenarios.

Addressing these gaps requires a coordinated One Health approach that integrates climate-smart livestock practices (improved housing, adaptive breeding, optimized nutrition), enhanced antimicrobial stewardship (vaccination, probiotics, biosecurity), and sustainable waste management (anaerobic digestion, composting). Policy frameworks must explicitly link climate adaptation and AMR containment through targeted funding, cross-sectoral governance, and global collaboration under existing mechanisms such as the UNFCCC and WHO Global Action Plan. Looking forward, the research community must prioritize field-based mechanistic studies in understudied regions, develop integrated climate-AMR projection models, and establish surveillance systems that capture both climate variables and resistance determinants simultaneously. Only through such an integrated, evidence-driven, and globally coordinated response can we safeguard livestock productivity, food security, and public health from the escalating dual threats of climate change and antimicrobial resistance in the decades ahead.

Author contributions

Conceptualization and outline preparation: G.M.S, and H.L.; Data collection and curation: G.M.S, S.I.S, H.L., D.D. I., I.A.M, B. G., and M.D. G. Data validation: S.I.S, M.D. G. and Y. Y. Validation: S.I.S, M.D. G. and Y. Y.; Writing- original draft preparation: G.M.S, S.I.S, H.L., D.D. I., I.A.M, B. G., and M.D. G.; Writing- review and editing: G.M.S., S.I.S., M.D.G., N.O.T and Y.Y. All authors contributed to the manuscript and approved the submitted version for publication.

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Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.