ABSTRACT
Physical education (PE) plays an important role in improving the psychological well‐being (PWB) and cognitive ability of college students (CS). In this study, a six‐week intervention based on PE was applied to investigate its influence on psychological and cognitive variables of CS by employing the experimental method. Three‐hundred CS were randomly selected as participants, an experimental group, and a control group, each containing 150 participants. Students in the experimental group underwent the PE intervention program, whereas the control group did not experience any such intervention. Data were collected by means of pre‐post test questionnaires and interviews. Data analysis was done using Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) and NVivo. Results show that the experimental group performed significantly better than the control group in terms of the levels of PWB, self‐esteem (SE), cognitive functioning, problem‐solving skills (PSS), and resilience and adaptability (RA). Effects of intervention with respect to moderate‐to‐large magnitude were evident, RA (d = 0.988), PE‐related PWB (d = 0.890), cognitive function (CF) (d = 0.785), and PSS (d = 0.715). The novelty lies in the use of both psychological and cognitive measures within a longitudinal mixed‐methods research design. The results indicate that well‐designed PE interventions effectively promote the psychological and cognitive development of students.
Keywords: cognitive functions, physical activity, physical education, psychological well‐being, self‐esteem
1. Introduction and Literature Review
Physical and mental health are imperative for college students (CS), and physical education (PE) is an important facilitator of their psychological and cognitive development (Han et al. 2025; Li and Huang 2025). Regular physical activity (PA) helps CS cope with stress, regulate their emotional state, enhance cognitive processes, and stay physically fit (Akram and Oteir 2025; Wang et al. 2025). PE is beneficial for building self‐confidence, emotional stability, cooperation, and social interaction and hence contributes to psychological well‐being (PWB) (Nie et al. 2025; Gasser et al. 2025). Moreover, PA stimulates neurochemicals such as serotonin and dopamine, which help to enhance one's mood and reduce levels of anxiety and depression (Kaur et al. 2025). However, little research using mixed‐methods and experimental designs has examined these outcomes in Chinese CS.
Much prior research has shown the psychological advantages of PA. Jiang and Wang (2025) found that PA led to reduced levels of anxiety and mental stress among CS. Ahsan and Abualait (2025) found a positive and statistically significant relationship between PA and mental health (r = 0.343, p < 0.001); however, effect sizes remained small (η 2 = 0.002–0.020). Liu et al. (2024) showed that there was an inverse correlation between PA and depression, anxiety, and stress, although the effect size was modest (d = 0.211–0.255). Additionally, Lin et al. (2025) found that exercising contributed to better psychological capital and social support, whereas Jia et al. (2025) suggested that physical exercise reduces the link between childhood abuse and depression (R 2 = 0.262). Al‐Wardat et al. (2024) and Deng and Wang (2024) also affirmed that PA reduced depression, anxiety, and social anxiety.
Furthermore, existing studies correlate PE with academic achievement and cognitive development. Cheng et al. (2025) revealed a positive correlation between PA and subjective well‐being (β = 0.0579, p < 0.001). In addition, Zarazaga‐Peláez et al. (2024) and Teuber et al. (2024) revealed that regular PA boosted academic success, concentration, and stress coping ability among university students.
While past research has found a correlation between exercise and mental well‐being and academic achievement, these studies mainly used cross‐sectional approaches and have paid less attention to academic results. Also, there is an insufficient number of investigations that have explored both the PWB of CS and their academic achievements, applying experimental mixed methodology to the analysis. Besides, limited studies have compared the impact of different types of PE on Chinese CS' PWB and academic achievements. As such, a clear research gap exists in relation to the holistic psychological and cognitive impact of PE.
Thus, the purpose of this research is to examine the impact of a six‐week PE intervention on the PWB and cognitive function (CF) of Chinese CS using a mixed‐methods experimental design. And assess the effects of different PAs via quantitative, qualitative, and longitudinal analyses.
1.1. Research Objectives
To investigate the association between participation in PE and PWB development with particular focus on self‐esteem, resilience, and stress reduction.
To assess if engagement in PE activities contributes to the formation of effective strategies helping CS cope with the academic and social stressors.
To evaluate the influences of participation in PE on CS's cognitive processes and problem‐solving skills.
1.2. Research Questions
In what way can regular involvement in PE affect CS's PWB?
What coping strategies do CS develop through PE participation to manage academic and social stress effectively?
In what ways does PE impact CS's cognitive functions, including memory, attention, and overall academic performance?
1.3. Research Contribution and Novelty
This research contributes to existing literature by evaluating the impact of a six‐week PE intervention on PWB and cognitive development using a mixed‐methods experimental design. In contrast to previous studies that have been solely on mental health outcomes, this research aims to investigate self‐esteem (SE), academic and social stress (ASS), CF, and problem‐solving skills (PSS), resilience and adaptability (RA), and overall PWB. These findings provide empirical evidence in the context of Chinese CS, where there have been inadequate studies investigating the psychological and cognitive effects of structured PE intervention through mixed‐methods experimental research.
The novelty lies in the combination of quantitative and qualitative methods using longitudinal analysis to gain a better understanding of participants' statistical and personal experiences. Also, it uniquely evaluates the impact of various forms of PA, such as aerobics, team sports, yoga, mindfulness practice, and others, on the psychological and cognitive development of students. This research adds specific insights for the Chinese CS that have been rarely studied in the context of the combined psychological and cognitive effects of structured PE interventions.
2. Theoretical Framework and Hypothesis Development
2.1. Theoretical Foundation
To elucidate the mechanisms through which PE influences psychological and cognitive outcomes among CS, the conceptual framework is grounded in psychological and educational theories such as Self‐Determination Theory (SDT) and Cognitive Load Theory (CLT). SDT states that when an individual's three primary psychological needs, autonomy, competence, and relatedness, are met, they achieve better psychological functioning. Meanwhile, the CLT provides insight into how structured activities could optimise cognitive processing by reducing extraneous cognitive load and enhancing focus. Hence, it contributes to effective cognitive development outcomes, which include memory, attention, and problem‐solving. Within this framework, PE is considered an important factor that enhances PWB and, in turn, influences various psychological and cognitive outcomes.
Students who practice exercises consistently are psychologically well and emotionally stable and experience fewer instances of anxiety and depression (Campoamor‐Olegario et al. 2025). SDT explains this by suggesting that PE meets basic psychological needs, hence enhances well‐being. Additionally, the physiological effects of exercising, such as the secretion of endorphins, result in improved moods and reduced stress levels (Cheng et al. 2025). Based on the SDT perspective, the improvement of PWB results in positive feelings about one's self‐worth and competence as PE helps students to utilise their strengths, cope with difficulties, develop self‐efficacy, and improve SE (Gumusgul et al. 2025). Higher PWB also helps individuals manage stress more effectively. PE further supports emotional regulation, teamwork, and coping skills, enhancing stress management and resilience in CS (Li 2025; Xu et al. 2025).
Physical Education participation has a significant positive effect on the psychological well‐being of college students.
Psychological well‐being significantly enhances self‐esteem among college students.
Psychological well‐being significantly reduces academic and social stress among college students.
Consistent with CLT, improved PWB reduces mental fatigue and enhances cognitive efficiency. PE is associated with better memory, focus, and cognitive adaptability, which support academic performance (Sun et al. 2024; Vega‐Ramírez 2024). Improved sleep quality and emotional balance further strengthen cognitive functioning. Engagement in PA and team‐based exercises also develops critical thinking and decision‐making skills under pressure, improving PSS (Donnelly et al. 2024). Due to sustained engagement in PE, resilience and adaptive capacity also develop. According to SDT, when competence and relatedness are fulfilled, individuals can cope with difficulties and adapt to a new, changing environment. Through PE, students learn persistence, emotional regulation, and coping mechanisms, thus becoming resilient (Piepiora et al. 2025; Qiu et al. 2025).
Psychological well‐being significantly improves cognitive functions such as memory and attention among college students.
Psychological well‐being significantly enhances problem‐solving skills among college students.
Psychological well‐being significantly increases resilience and adaptability among college students.
These hypotheses ([Link], [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link]) are theoretically supported by SDT and CLT because they explain the connection between PE and PWB and the impact of this link on different psychological and cognitive aspects. With the help of such a connection, the theoretical support provided by the two theories helps make the investigation more precise.
The conceptual framework for the current investigation (Figure 1) demonstrates that engagement in PE is positively correlated with PWB in relation to students (H1). The SE increases (H2), and both ASS are decreased (H3), while the development of CF (H4), PSS (H5), and RA (H6) improves. In accordance with SDT, participation in PE encourages motivation, autonomy, confidence, and social interactions among others, while according to CLT, PE is vital to form concentration, mental processes, and cognitive effectiveness. Thus, the framework proves that PE is conducive to PWB and cognitive development on CS.
FIGURE 1.
Research framework.
3. Methodology
This Section provides detailed information on the research design and approach, target population, sampling, participant demographics, tools employed to collect data, and methods of data analysis.
3.1. Research Design and Approach
The design employed is a mixed‐method experimental design that includes both qualitative and quantitative approaches (Östlund et al. 2011). While the quantitative approach measures change in psychological and cognitive outcomes, the qualitative approach measures the experience of participants in relation to their participation in PE. Combining these approaches enhances the results.
An experimental research method was adopted, using a pre‐test and post‐test design, within a six‐week intervention program. This lengthy intervention period helped in measuring changes in PWB and CF over time. At week 0, pre‐test data were obtained from both groups, and post‐test results were acquired at the end of week 6 from both groups. The experimental group participated in the intervention, while the control group carried out their daily activities without participating in any intervention. The independent variable is PE intervention, while PWB and cognitive outcomes are dependent variables.
3.2. Target Population and Sampling
The participants comprise CS from various universities within China. The participants are 300 CS evenly divided between the experiment (n = 150) and the control groups (n = 150). Participants should also be aged over 18 years with varying levels of PA involvement, ranging from low to high. Such criteria ensure the participation of both less physically active and physically active students, thereby reducing bias in participant selection.
According to gender, age, level of education, and PA level, the participants were first stratified. Then, based on this stratification, random allocation to the experimental or control group was conducted through a simple random sampling method. This ensures comparability between the two groups while improving generalizability.
3.3. Participant Profile
Participants' demographic details are provided in Table S1. Both groups (experimental and control) have similar demographic characteristics concerning gender, age, educational level, and PA status, indicating equivalence between the two groups. In particular, within the experimental group, there were 78 males and 72 females, whereas within the control group, there were 81 males and 69 females. The majority of the CS respondents were aged 21–23 years, while some were aged 18–20 years and above 23 years.
As regards respondents' educational level, more respondents had been bachelor's degree students than those who had a master's degree or other educational programs. With respect to PA status, differences existed among respondents concerning their high, moderate, and low levels of PA status, showing variation among individuals based on their involvement in PA. Also, the respondents differed in the type and frequency of PA undertaken. These types include aerobics, strength training, yoga, and walking for various motives like general health improvement, weight loss, and stress management. The demographics provide strength to the applicability of the results.
3.4. Data Gathering Tool and Procedures
3.4.1. Quantitative Analysis Procedures
For quantitative data, a structured questionnaire was utilised to measure PWB and other cognitive variables. There were two sections in this questionnaire, where the first section focused on gathering demographic information and the second section evaluated SE, ASS, CF, PSS, resilience, and PWB (refer to Table A1 of the appendix in the Supporting Information for the detailed questionnaire).
There were 300 copies of questionnaires distributed in each group, and all completed questionnaires from the two groups were validated, giving rise to 150 questionnaires analysed per group. Questionnaire administration was performed personally to each participant and required approximately 20 min to complete, ensuring accurate and complete data collection.
Data gathering was carried out before the intervention (baseline, pretest) and after 6 weeks of the PE intervention (post‐test).
3.4.2. Qualitative Data Collection Tool
In addition to the statistical data, qualitative information was collected via semi‐structured interviews (refer to Table A2 of the appendix in the Supporting Information for the detailed interview questionnaire). Purposive sampling was used to select 50 participants, including 25 participants each from the experimental and control groups, for the semi‐structured interviews. The duration of each interview was between 25 and 40 min. The interview aimed to explore participants' experiences, perceptions, and attitudes towards PE and its psychological effects. With the participants' consent, qualitative data were recorded, transcribed, and systematically analysed.
3.5. Analysis of Data
Quantitative data analysis was done using the Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS). The mean, standard deviation, skewness, and kurtosis were used as descriptive statistics to analyze the distribution of the data. Statistical inferential methods, including pre and post‐test comparison analysis, paired samples t‐test, and independent samples t‐test, were applied in analyzing change within and between groups. The relationship between PWB and cognitive outcomes is predicted through an analysis of hierarchical regression.
Table S2 presents the descriptive statistics for both groups (experimental and control) before and after the PE program (see Supporting Information). Findings depict a noticeable improvement in all psychological and cognitive aspects, notably within the experimental group. Greater improvement was observed among the participants who underwent PE compared to others, in which the post‐test mean scores for PE, PWB, SE, CF, PSS, and RA were higher. ASS score decreased after intervention. The standard deviation values show moderate variability in participants' responses across groups. Moreover, the skewness and kurtosis values for each variable are within acceptable ranges, indicating that the distributions are normal and appropriate for further parametric statistical analysis. Together, these statistics show that being involved in structured PE positively impacted PWB, CF, resilience, and stress management skills among CS.
3.6. Qualitative Analysis and Data Triangulation
Qualitative data were analysed through thematic analysis using NVivo qualitative data analysis software. Data coding, theme identification, and pattern interpretation associated with PWB and cognitive development were done during the analysis of the collected data. Some of the identified themes include increased emotional stability, stress management, concentration, and resilience among the individuals who participate in PE activities.
Both quantitative and qualitative findings obtained from the analyses are integrated by using data triangulation. The consistency between the statistical results and participants' experiences adds to greater insight into the impact of PE on CS.
3.7. Ethical Considerations
We conducted this study in accordance with established ethical standards for research involving human participants. Prior to data collection, all participants were informed about the objectives of the study, the voluntary nature of their participation, their right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty, and the confidentiality of their responses. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants before their involvement in the research. To ensure participant privacy, all questionnaire responses and interview transcripts were anonymized, and no personally identifiable information was included in the analysis or reporting of the findings. Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Institutional Ethics Committee under Approval Number 202503006.
4. Results
The effectiveness of the 6‐week PE intervention on the CS's PWB and their cognitive development is extensively analyzed. The combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches analysis results gives a comprehensive and triangulated evaluation of the effects of the PE.
4.1. Quantitative Results
4.1.1. Reliability and Validity Analysis
Table S3 shows the findings of the analysis of reliability and validity across all constructs, including both pre‐test and post‐test constructs. Internal consistency reliability for each construct has been confirmed, with Cronbach's Alpha coefficients falling in the range of 0.829 and 0.936, far above the threshold value of 0.70. Furthermore, composite reliability (CR) for all constructs ranges between 0.880 and 0.951, proving the consistency and stability of all measurement constructs.
In terms of convergent validity, Average Variance Extracted (AVE) was found to be between 0.594 and 0.843 for all constructs. Since they all exceed the acceptable level of 0.50, the measurement items have proven effective in measuring the corresponding latent variables. Overall, the results of reliability and validity testing affirm that the scales used to assess PE, PWB, SE, ASS, CF, PSS, RA, and involvement in PE are psychometrically valid and suitable for the following statistical analyses.
4.2. Post‐Test Differences Between Groups (Experimental vs. Control)
The findings from the independent‐samples t‐test on post‐test responses for both groups after 6 weeks of implementing the PE program are presented in Table S4. From these results, it is evident that there was a significant difference between the two groups across all variables considered, implying that the experimental participants showed more positive results than those in the control group. Specifically, the experimental group exhibited higher mean values for PE (M = 3.83), PWB (M = 2.92), SE (M = 3.06), CF (M = 3.25), PSS (M = 2.98), and RA (M = 3.44) than the control group. However, the mean ASS among participants in the experimental group was low (M = 2.24), indicating lower stress among participants after participating in PE.
The effect size analysis also confirms the results. The value of Cohen's d varies from −0.298 to 0.658. This shows a small‐to‐moderate effect size. RA and CF show the largest effect sizes with d = 0.658 and 0.499, respectively. The next group that exhibited moderate effect sizes included PE and PWB. Small‐to‐moderate effect sizes were also observed for SE and PSS, while ASS showed a small negative effect size due to the reduction in stress level in the experimental group participants. Thus, a well‐designed PE program had a positive effect on PWB, emotional resilience, CF, and stress management among students as compared to those in the control group.
These observed changes are theoretically and practically in line with the structured nature of the 6‐week PE intervention, involving aerobic exercises, strength training, and team‐based activities. Multidimensional PE programs are normally related to positive psychological and cognitive changes, especially in CS. In addition, some actions were undertaken to reduce possible confounders, such as randomisation, baseline equivalency through pretest, and inclusion of a control group not exposed to the intervention. The obtained results seem to be quite reliable due to these controls, and thus, it is concluded that the observed changes were primarily associated with participation in the structured PE program.
4.3. Paired Sample t‐Tests
Paired sample t‐tests between the control and experimental groups for the differences observed in pre‐test and post‐test in relation to all the variables investigated are provided in Table S5. The findings stated that all the differences between pre‐tests and post‐tests are statistically significant (p < 0.05). However, the experimental group had a larger effect size compared to the other group, showing a stronger impact of the structured PE program. Thus, considerable changes have been noticed in PE, PWB, SE, CF, PSS, and RA in the experimental group, and a reduction is noted in ASS in the experimental group. Moreover, the analysis of the effect sizes shows that small‐to‐moderate effects were found in the control group, while moderate‐to‐large effects were found in the experimental group. The highest effect sizes have been observed for RA (d = 0.988), PE (d = 0.890), CF (d = 0.785), and PSS (d = 0.715). At the same time, it is possible to note that the effect size is small for PWB and ASS compared to others. Therefore, it becomes clear that the proposed PE intervention has brought considerable benefits for the psychological and cognitive performance of CS.
4.4. Predictive Relationships Among Variables
Hierarchical regression was carried out to analyze how much influence demographic and behavioural control variables exert on post‐test psychological and cognitive outcomes for both groups (experimental and control), as presented in Table S6. Model 1 (M1) consists of control variables like gender, age, educational level, and PA level, while Model 2 (M2) also incorporates the primary predictor variable related to the intervention (PE_post) effect. For each dependent variable like PWB_post, SE_post, ASS_post, CF_post, PSS_post, and RA_post, the regression model displayed good statistical explanatory power in terms of having R 2 values from 0.703 to 0.904.
The findings indicate that the control variables contributed to variations in post‐test scores in both groups. For instance, age, education, and PA level were positively correlated with psychosocial and cognitive factors, while negative beta scores in ASS_post among the experimental participants revealed reduced stress due to the greater engagement in the intervention. Furthermore, adding the primary predictor to model 2 gave additional explanatory variance in all models (ΔR 2 = 0.008–0.114), reflecting that the intervention effect was greater than the effects of demographic and behavioural controls.
The hierarchical regression analysis results indicate that the changes in PWB, CF, PSS, and RA are statistically significant despite controlling for demographic characteristics like gender, age, education, and level of PA. These results confirm the effectiveness of the intervention and reduce the possibility that demographic factors are responsible for these results.
4.5. Comparative Interpretation of Group Differences
The comparative analysis interpretation results highlight the intervention's effectiveness among all variables. Those who participated in PE achieved greater change in both the degree of change itself and the magnitude of change compared to those who did not participate.
The mean score‐based evaluation (Figure 2) shows that the improvement made by the experimental group is remarkable and large, particularly in PWB, SE, RA, PSS, and CF. Notably, the experimental group exhibits lower ASS scores than the control group. The consistency of this trend observed in various analyses strengthens the reliability of the findings.
FIGURE 2.
Comparison results of experimental and control groups.
4.6. Longitudinal Analysis: Latent Growth Modelling (LGM)
Figure 3 illustrates Latent Growth Modelling (LGM) results for the experimental group concerning comparisons of initial status, final status, and rates of change relating to the psychological and cognitive outcome variables after a 6‐week PE intervention. Noticeable changes in most variables at the post‐test phase were indicated. PE, PWB, SE, CF, RA, and PSS showed immense positive growth from pre‐track to post‐track. In the perception of change for these variables, the PSS, SE, RA, CF, and PE exhibited the highest rate of change, reflecting an improved contribution of the work done in emotional adaptation and PWB. Meanwhile, ASS revealed downward changes in post means relative to its initial status, hence showing decreasing stress levels of participants after the intervention, so the rate of change is in a negative direction. Overall, the LGM results stress the positive longitudinal changes in the psychological and cognitive outcomes of subject groups that were produced through the structured PE intervention.
FIGURE 3.
LGM of psychological and cognitive outcomes among variables after a 6‐week PE intervention.
4.7. Qualitative Analysis Results
The qualitative analysis related to the analysis results is tabulated as follows: They are thematic analysis and psychological changes depending on the type of PE activity.
4.7.1. Thematic Analysis
Results from the thematic analysis that has been done based on participants' interview responses are provided in Table 1. This analysis compared the experimental and control group participants' responses concerning psychological and cognitive dimensions. CS from the experimental group experienced a positive outcome due to their constant participation in PE. As for SE and PWB, the experimental subjects stated that their confidence, self‐worth, and emotional stability were positively affected by their participation in PE lessons, whereas control group members expressed relatively moderate or lower levels of these attributes.
TABLE 1.
Results of thematic analysis.
| Theme | Group | Key Observation |
|---|---|---|
| Self‐esteem | Experimental | Greater confidence and self‐worth due to consistent PE. |
| Control | Relatively unchanged and moderate perception of self. | |
| Academic & Social Stress | Experimental | Increased stress management and emotional control. |
| Control | High levels of stress and poor coping strategies. | |
| Cognitive Functions | Experimental | Increased concentration, memory, and attention. |
| Control | Average cognitive functioning with occasional difficulty | |
| Problem‐Solving Skills | Experimental | Better decision‐making and analytical thinking skills |
| Control | Inconsistent problem‐solving ability | |
| Resilience & Adaptability | Experimental | Good adaptability and coping with challenges |
| Control | Average resilience when stressed | |
| Psychological Well‐being | Experimental | Positive attitude and emotional balance |
| Control | Low emotional well‐being |
Regarding the issues of ASS, stress management and emotional regulation were mentioned more by the experimental group, while high stress and limited coping strategies were mentioned by the control group. In addition, there were similar findings with themes of CF and problem‐solving, where the experimental group showed better focus, memory, and decision‐making skills than the control group, which exhibited an average or inconsistent performance.
In summary, the thematic analysis findings reveal the positive impacts of participating in organized PE on RA and psychological functioning. It gives qualitative support for the study's proposed relationships.
4.8. Data Triangulation
Data triangulation is applied to merge results from both qualitative and quantitative methods, thereby increasing validity. Obtained results from quantitative analyses, including descriptive statistics, t‐test, regression, and LGM, demonstrated that the experimental participants perceived improvement in PWB, SE, CF, resilience, and stress reduction. Further, these results were validated through a qualitative thematic analysis in which participants reported improvement in emotional stability, concentration, confidence, and coping abilities after undergoing the PE program. The consistency between findings in both approaches states that PE has a positive effect on CS's cognitive and psychological growth.
5. Discussion
PE is important for enhancing PWB and CF among CS. The effect of an organized 6‐week PE intervention on CS psychological as well as cognitive outcomes is extensively analyzed by comparing experimental and control groups through a mixed‐methods approach. Results show that students who participated in structured PE experienced greater development in PWB, CF, PSS, resilience, and stress management than students from the control group. The results support H1, which suggests that participation in PE significantly contributes to PWB in CS.
All variables in the experimental group show significant improvement according to the quantitative results. Analyses such as the independent and paired sample t‐tests supported that the PE intervention made great contributions to substantial improvements in PWB and cognitive outcomes. Moreover, the effect sizes for psychological and cognitive outcomes improvement were larger in the experimental group. These findings stated that continuous participation in PE activities positively affects emotional stability, confidence, and mental adaptability among CS. The increase in SE observed also provides support for H2, which suggests that PWB has a significant impact on the SE of CS. These findings are supported by existing studies, such as Jiang and Wang (2025), as well as Ahsan and Abualait (2025), who suggested that PE enhances students' emotional resilience, social interaction, and psychological development.
Furthermore, findings of the present study show that engaging in PE decreases ASS among CS. The participants in the PE intervention perceived less stress after intervention compared with the control group, thus proving that PE serves as an effective mechanism in alleviating CS's ASS. This supports H3 that PWB could greatly alleviate the ASS of CS. Additionally, the results of the qualitative analysis confirmed these findings by demonstrating that participants experienced enhanced emotional regulation and stress‐management abilities after engaging in regular PE activities. The results are in line with the findings of previous research, like Liu et al. (2024) and Lin et al. (2025). These studies revealed that daily PA promotes mental health among learners and helps them to cope with ASS.
Another notable finding is related to cognitive development. Students participating in the PE program demonstrated greater improvement in concentration, memory, and cognitive development than those engaged in the normal daily activities. In addition, improvements were noted in PSS and decision‐making skills. Furthermore, the results of hierarchical regression analysis revealed that these improvements are statistically significant despite controlling for demographic and behavioural factors, including gender, age, educational status, and PA level. The results support H4 and H5, suggesting that PWB is directly related to CF and PSS of CS. Previous studies carried out by Al‐Wardat et al. (2024) have also revealed that PE positively leads to better development of cognitive flexibility, concentration, and academic functioning.
In addition, this investigation finds that PE is a strong predictor of RA. Students participating in the intervention program showed greater emotional stability and better adaptability to academic and personal challenges. The qualitative thematic analysis findings further support these quantitative findings by exhibiting that participants of the experimental group showed increased ability to cope with stress, higher emotional balance, and increased self‐confidence when facing stressful situations. The findings in this study align with the findings of H6, which stated that PWB may have a significant influence on the degree of RA among CS. Previous studies like Zarazaga‐Peláez et al. (2024) and Teuber et al. (2024) have noted that PE helps increase psychological RA among learners.
Additionally, the results from the LGM analysis show continued improvement in SE, PWB, CF, and resilience over the 6‐week intervention period, which suggests that structured PE has positive effects on the psychological and cognitive development of CS in the long term. Moreover, the qualitative method provided evidence to statistical analysis results, as participants reported improved emotional stability, concentration, social interaction, and stress management. The results supported all of the proposed hypotheses ([Link], [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link], [Link]), suggesting the positive effects of PE on PWB and the effect on SE, reduction in stress, CF, PSS, and resilience for CS.
5.1. Theoretical Implications
Findings support CLT and SDT, which help explain the psychological and cognitive effects of organized PE on CS. In particular, improvements in CF, PSS, and a decrease in levels of stress reflect the positive as well as beneficial role of PE in assisting CS in managing cognitive load while developing emotional regulation. Additionally, increased SE, resilience, and PWB are consistent with SDT; thereby demonstrating that PE contributes to improving students' competence, motivation, and social interactions. The convergence between findings of the quantitative and qualitative approaches further clarifies the theoretical understanding of the consequences of structured PE on learners' psychological and cognitive development.
5.2. Practical Implications
This research's outcomes suggested the need for incorporating structured PE into college curricula to improve learners' PWB and CF. Regular involvement in structured PE has a positive impact on students' emotional well‐being, CF, and psychological health. Hence, universities and educators have to encourage students to engage in PE classes regularly as part of mental health and wellness programs at universities. Furthermore, PE programs can be used as a tool to mitigate ASS and promote resilience, emotional stability, and cognitive performance among CS.
6. Conclusions
The impact of the 6‐week structured PE intervention is analyzed on the PWB and cognitive development of CS, adopting a mixed‐methods experimental design. The results consistently confirm that participants in the experimental group experience significant improvement in PWB, SE, CF, PSS, and RA and are exposed to less ASS than the participants in the control group. Results derived from independent and paired samples t‐tests, hierarchical regression, comparative group analysis, and LGM have together demonstrated the effectiveness of the intervention. Furthermore, these results are supported by qualitative findings, as respondents from the experimental group experience greater emotional stability, stress management, confidence, concentration, and coping abilities. Thus, the current investigation confirms that a well‐structured PE program positively affects psychological and cognitive outcomes of CS, thus highlighting the significance of incorporating PE programs into higher education institutions for promoting well‐being among students.
6.1. Limitations and Future Scope
Despite providing some notable findings, this study has some limitations. The duration of this intervention was only 6 weeks, which may not have been sufficient to measure the effect of PE on the psychological and cognitive development of participants over time. The participants included are CS in China, which may hinder the generalizability of findings to different cultures and learning contexts. Moreover, there have been instances where the quantitative data collected through self‐reporting methods may introduce bias in the responses. Furthermore, the impact of exercise intensity, lifestyle habits, motivation levels, quality of sleep, and the effect of social support is not completely understood. Thus, further research can be conducted using longitudinal research on different subjects and learning environment settings. The effects of PE programs, such as technology and personalized PE programs, on PWB and cognitive performance of learners can be studied further.
Author Contributions
Shuguang Song: project administration, supervision, writing – review and editing, investigation. Chen Ye: data curation, validation, writing – original draft, visualization.
Funding
This work was supported by Postgraduate Teaching Reform Project, China University of Petroleum (East China) Project (YJG2025040).
Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Supporting information
Table S1: Participants' demographic details.
Table S2: Descriptive statistics analysis results.
Table S3: Reliability and validity.
Table S4: Independent sample t‐test.
Table S5: Paired sample t‐tests.
Table S6: Hierarchical regression model.
Table A1. Sample questionnaire of participants.
Table A2. Sample interview questions.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Supplementary Materials
Table S1: Participants' demographic details.
Table S2: Descriptive statistics analysis results.
Table S3: Reliability and validity.
Table S4: Independent sample t‐test.
Table S5: Paired sample t‐tests.
Table S6: Hierarchical regression model.
Table A1. Sample questionnaire of participants.
Table A2. Sample interview questions.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.