Interdisciplinary Development of 3D-Printed Anatomical Models for Human Gross Anatomy Education

Abstract

Purpose

To describe the interdisciplinary development of two 3D-printed anatomical models—a trigeminal nerve model and a lower airway model—and to explore their perceived usefulness in the teaching of human gross anatomy. This study presents an interdisciplinary experience of design, fabrication, and initial educational evaluation of 3D-printed anatomical models developed to support anatomy teaching in an institutional context with limited access to cadaveric material.

Methods

This methodological and educational study was conducted in three phases. First, teaching and learning needs in human gross anatomy were identified through classroom-based inquiry and faculty input. Second, two anatomical models were designed and fabricated from medical imaging data using segmentation, computer-aided design, and additive manufacturing workflows. Third, the models were evaluated in educational settings through structured user feedback focused on usability, physical design, integration with study materials, and perceived contribution to learning.

Results

Two 3D-printed anatomical models were developed to represent complex anatomical structures relevant to anatomy teaching. Participants rated the models positively across usability, design features, integration with other learning resources, and perceived support for anatomical understanding. The questionnaire showed acceptable internal consistency, and the findings suggest that the models were well received as complementary educational resources in the classroom.

Conclusion

This study supports the feasibility of an interdisciplinary workflow for the development of 3D-printed anatomical models to support the teaching of human gross anatomy in contexts with limited access to cadaver-based resources. The preliminary assessment indicates positive user perception and supports their use as complementary teaching tools. Future studies should include controlled comparisons and objective learning outcomes to assess their educational impact more robustly.

Introduction

The Fourth Industrial Revolution has driven digital transformation across various sectors, including healthcare and education. In anatomy education, this transformation has been reflected in the increasing use of digital imaging, three-dimensional modeling, and additive manufacturing to support the representation of complex anatomical structures and complement traditional teaching resources.^1–5

Human Gross Anatomy (HGA) refers to the study of body structures that can be examined without a microscope. It is primarily based on teaching the anatomical position, planimetry, terms of reference, and comparison of these structures.⁶ Its teaching is organized by systems, such as the musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, genitourinary, and endocrine systems, among others,⁷ or by regions, such as the head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis, and limbs. The theories about the functioning of organs, regions, and body systems taught through HGA form the basis for medical treatment, so the advancement of anatomical knowledge has facilitated an understanding of both the standard and abnormal functions of the human body. A solid understanding of anatomy is essential for the interpretation of clinical images and for safe decision-making in health care practices.

McHanwell et al consider learning HGA crucial for making diagnoses and carrying out clinical procedures safely and effectively.⁸ Advances in diagnostic examinations have increased the importance of anatomical knowledge since radiological techniques require a deep understanding of the structure to achieve a complete interpretation.⁵ To understand this area of expertise, it is essential to locate oneself spatially, identify the relevant structures, and appropriately use the terms of reference. It is necessary to understand different representations, with cadaveric dissections being the most valued.⁹

However, access to cadavers or anatomical specimens is often limited, which highlights the need for complementary resources that approximate the shape, size, and spatial relationships of real body structures. Anatomical models can serve as complementary resources for representing the shape, size, and spatial relationships of structures that are difficult to visualize using only two-dimensional materials.^10–12

For students to understand human anatomy, it is necessary to represent physical structures mentally, rotate images in the three spatial planes, and imagine movements and functions.^3,4 For the study of this area of knowledge, cadaveric dissection is considered the primary technique.^13–15 In recent years, 4D and 3D printing has been increasingly incorporated into anatomy education as a complementary strategy for producing detailed physical models that may support spatial understanding and repeated classroom use.^16–22

In Colombia, access to cadaver donations for medical practice is difficult. The National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, in Resolution 382 of 2015, regulates the registration of entities that collect cadavers, anatomical components, and tissues for research and teaching purposes. Institutions must have a modern Morphology Laboratory, comply with all biosafety standards, and be responsible for the custody and burial process.^22,23 These provisions are costly and difficult to maintain, which has led institutions to not include dissection in their curricula due to lack of resources, limit their practices to prosection (studying already dissected cadavers), and/or work with anatomical models that fail to represent the size, shape, relationship, and function of the structures. In this sense, 3D models that support the teaching and learning of HGA are needed. Such models should provide a faithful representation of relevant anatomical features, particularly shape, size, and spatial relationships, in order to complement existing teaching resources.

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is gaining widespread use and is increasingly applied in medical education.^21,22 However, its teaching of human anatomy needs further evaluation.^11,16 Given the ongoing limitations in access to anatomical specimens, physical and digital alternatives have been explored to complement anatomy instruction and support student understanding of complex spatial relationships.^23,24

Previous studies and reviews have reported that 3D-printed models can support anatomy learning, particularly by improving visualization of spatial relationships and providing reusable physical resources for teaching.^18–22 At the same time, the literature also highlights limitations related to material fidelity, color reproduction, and the balance between production cost and anatomical realism.^23–26

Although the educational potential of 3D-printed models has been increasingly recognized, there remains a need for studies that document practical workflows for the design, fabrication, and classroom-based evaluation of anatomically focused models in specific institutional contexts. In settings where access to cadaver-based resources is limited, describing how such models are developed and initially evaluated may provide useful guidance for anatomy educators and interdisciplinary teams.

This study aimed to describe the interdisciplinary development of two 3D-printed anatomical models for human gross anatomy teaching and to explore their perceived educational usefulness in a classroom setting. Rather than proposing a new theoretical framework, the study documents a practical workflow for model design, fabrication, and initial educational evaluation in a context with limited access to cadaver-based resources. The use of Elastic 50A resin for simulating airway flexibility and the interdisciplinary co-design process (Engineering-Medicine) as a model for low-resource settings.

Materials and Methods

This was an exploratory interdisciplinary methodological and educational study conducted in a natural academic setting. It involved professors from the HGA area of the Faculty of Health and students from the Medicine and Surgery academic program at University of the Valley (UV), as well as faculty and students from the Biomedical Engineering program of the Faculty of Engineering and Basic Sciences at Autonomous University of the West (UAO), both located in Cali, Valle del Cauca, Colombia.

The study was informed by a qualitative, interpretive, and naturalistic perspective, particularly during the needs-assessment phase, to understand the teaching–learning process in its real-world context, namely the classroom, through the meanings and experiences constructed by professors and students in relation to the practices analyzed.²⁷

It combined a classroom-based needs-assessment phase with the design and fabrication of anatomical models, followed by a descriptive user evaluation of their educational use. This approach preserved the real-world setting of anatomy teaching while allowing the research team to document the development process and participants’ initial perceptions of the models.

Participants were involved according to the objectives of each study phase. The overall academic context included 79 students from the Medicine and Surgery program at UV, 10 students from the Biomedical Engineering program at UAO, four professors from the Human Anatomy area of the Department of Morphology at UV, and three professors from the Faculty of Engineering and Basic Sciences at UAO. Anatomy professors held postgraduate training in Biomedical Sciences and Pedagogy and had more than five years of experience teaching HGA. Engineering professors had postgraduate training in Electronics and Biomedical Sciences and experience in biomedical device design and teaching and learning processes.

The needs-assessment and design phases involved faculty members and students participating in regular academic activities related to HGA and biomedical engineering. The classroom-based user evaluation was conducted with a convenience sample of students available during the scheduled teaching sessions. Because the evaluation was exploratory and descriptive in nature, no priori power calculation was performed, and no hypothesis-testing comparisons were planned.

The study received the necessary approvals from the Department of Morphology, the Medicine and Surgery academic program at UV, the Biomedical Engineering academic program at UAO, and the Human Anatomy Ethics Review Committee of the Faculty of Health at UV. Written informed consent was obtained from all students participating in educational activities.

The study was organized into three phases.

Phase I: Identification of Difficulties and Needs for Teaching and Learning Human Gross Anatomy

A needs-assessment phase was conducted using semi-structured interviews based on the Content Representation (ReCo) methodological instrument originally proposed by Loughran et al²⁸ and later adapted by Candela.²⁹ This instrument has been used in multiple educational studies to support reflection on teaching and learning processes.^30–33 The interviews were used to identify recurrent difficulties in the teaching and learning of HGA and to inform the design requirements of the anatomical models. Responses were reviewed by the research team to identify recurring themes relevant to model development and classroom use.

Classroom observations and faculty discussions were also used to refine the selection of anatomical structures to be modeled.

Phase II: Design and Development of Two 3D Anatomical Models

The design process followed a user-centered approach and was organized using the Design Thinking methodology. It integrated medical imaging, digital modeling, augmented reality-based visualization in selected cases, and additive manufacturing tools in order to respond to the educational needs identified in Phase I.

During Phase II, interdisciplinary collaboration between the medical and engineering teams was actively fostered. Biomedical engineering students (UAO) trained in digital design and anatomical modeling worked together with medical students and faculty members (UV) with expertise in HGA. This interaction helped align the technical development of the models with the educational needs identified in the classroom context.

The design and development process was organized around four key stages of the Design Thinking methodology, each of which is described in detail below.

Empathise: Contextual Needs Assessment

Building on the needs identified in Phase I, additional input from anatomy professor and medical students was used to further characterize difficulties in teaching and learning complex structures. The main challenges reported included limited tactile access to anatomical specimens and difficulties in understanding three-dimensional spatial relationships using only two-dimensional resources. Classroom observations and faculty discussions contributed to refining the selection of anatomical structures to be modeled, particularly those characterized by complex branching patterns and spatial organization.

Define: Problem Statement and Technical Specifications

The information gathered in the previous stage was synthesized into two model-design requirements.

Model 1 (Trigeminal Nerve)

For Model 1 (trigeminal nerve), the model was required to represent the main branching pattern of the trigeminal nerve (ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular divisions) and its spatial relationship with relevant cranial structures, including skull foramina and adjacent anatomical landmarks (Table 1).

Table 1.

Identification of the Different Branches of the Trigeminal Nerve, Which Comprises 38 Nerves in Total

Nerve Division	Ophthalmic Nerve	Maxillary Nerve	Mandibular Nerve
Nervous Branches	Recurrent.	Zygomatic.	Deep temporal.
	Frontal.	Zygomatic facial.	Masseteric.
	Supraorbital.	Zygomatic temporal.	Buccal.
	Supratrochlear.	Pharyngeal.	Inferior alveolar.
	Nasociliary.	Greater and lesser palatine.	Auriculotemporal.
	Posterior ethmoidal.	Nasopalatine.	Mental.
	Anterior ethmoidal.	Superior alveolar.	Lingual.
	Internal nasal.	Middle meningeal.	Mylohyoid.
	External nasal.	Infraorbital.	Lateral pterygoid.
	Infratrochlear.	Pterygopalatine ganglion.	Medial pterygoid.
	Lacrimal.	Sphenopalatine.	Tensor veli palatini.
	Zygomatic communicating.	Inferior palpebral.	Otic ganglion.
		Superior labial.	Lateral pterygoid.
			Labialis.

Model 2 (Lower Airway)

For Model 2 (lower airway), the model was required to represent the main tracheobronchial branching pattern and distinguish key morphological features of the trachea and bronchi in a way that would be meaningful for anatomy teaching. These requirements guided the subsequent digital modeling, material selection, and fabrication processes.

Digital Modeling and Print Preparation

The first stage of the digital conversion was carried out using Blue Sky Plan^® software; it is free medical software for dental planning. In this phase, the main branches of the trigeminal nerve were identified, including a total of 38 nerves and four ganglia: the trigeminal, sphenopalatine, otic, and submandibular ganglia.

Because Blue Sky Plan allowed a limited number of tubular structures to be added within a single file, the trigeminal nerve model had to be developed in sections. The ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular divisions were therefore processed separately, and four STL files were exported: one corresponding to the skull and the others to the nerve structures.

A second stage of digital refinement was carried out in open-source software Blender^®. After importing the STL files, the meshes were examined, edited, and refined to improve their anatomical representation and prepare them for fabrication. Mesh-repair and sculpting tools were used to complete discontinuities, refine surface morphology, and incorporate anatomical structures such as the sphenopalatine, otic, submandibular, and trigeminal ganglia.

Additional editing and topology-refinement operations were applied to improve the morphology of the skull and nerve pathways. Remeshing was used to homogenize mesh structure, while Boolean and solidify modifiers were applied to define intra- and extraosseous nerve pathways and generate internal channels that were later filled with colored resin to highlight the course of the nerves. A digital hemisection of the skull was also performed to expose the full length and branching pattern of the trigeminal nerve without interference from surrounding structures (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Transparent resin model of the trigeminal nerve and skull, developed to facilitate visualization of the apparent origin, main branches, and spatial relationships of the nerve pathways.

Third stage was carried out in ChituBox© software; which is a slicing software for resin 3D printing, where the STL files were prepared for printing. Model boundaries were adjusted according to the dimensions of the resin tank, drainage holes were incorporated to facilitate the removal of residual resin during post-processing, and support structures were designed to stabilize the model during printing. Support placement was configured to avoid direct contact with relevant base surfaces and to preserve important anatomical details.

Ideation: Material Selection

The analysis of manufacturing materials, in comparison with the biological materials of the tracheobronchial tree, established a relationship between their mechanical properties, particularly Young’s modulus and tensile strength, these properties are as shown in Table 2. Based on this analysis, materials with lower rigidity and greater flexibility were considered more suitable for approximating the behavior of soft tissues in a simulation context. Analysis also allowed the definition of a performance index as M = E/σ. For the biological reference tissues of the trachea, this index ranged from 0.3*10⁻³ to 5.3*10⁻³, whereas flexible technological materials such as industrial silicone, Elastic Resin 50A, and silicone rubber showed the closest values among the materials reviewed (Table 2). In contrast, rigid materials such as PLA, ABS, and clear rigid resin exhibited substantially higher performance-index values.

Table 2.

Tensile Strength (σ), Young’s Modulus (E), and Performance Index (M = E/σ) of Manufacturing Materials and Biological Reference Tissues Used for Lower Airway Model Material Selection

Material Description	Tensile Strength, (MPa)	Young’s Modulus, E (GPa)	Material Index, M (GPa/MPa) (10−3)
Synthetic polymers
Rigid Resin Clear v4	65.00	3.0000	46.1
PLA	55.00	3.5000	63.6
ABS	45.00	2.0000	44.4
Silicone Rubber	9.00	0.0100	1.1
Elastic Resin 50A	3.00	0.0010	0.3
Industrial Silicone	4.00	0.0008	0.2
Biological tissues
Trachea (Circumferential, Final)	0.15	0.0008	5.3
Trachea (Axial, Final)	0.12	0.0003	2.5
Trachea (Axial, Initial)	0.08	0.0003	3.7
Trachea (Circumferential, Initial)	0.09	0.00003	0.3
Small Bronchi (Axial, Initial)	0.03	0.0005	16.6
Small Bronchi (Circumferential, Final)	0.03	0.0002	6.6
Small Bronchi (Axial, Final)	0.04	0.00008	2.0
Small Bronchi (Circumferential, Init.)	0.04	0.00001	0.2
Large Bronchi (Circumferential, Final)	0.02	0.00015	7.5
Large Bronchi (Axial, Final)	0.02	0.0001	5.0
Large Bronchi (Axial, Initial)	0.03	0.00003	1.0
Large Bronchi (Circumferential, Init.)	0.02	0.000002	0.1

In practical terms, this indicated that flexible materials were more suitable for representing soft airway structures in the model, even though none of them fully matched all the values of the biological reference tissues. This was not considered critical, since the printed models were intended for didactic use rather than functional replacement.

The materials initially used during the prototyping stage and subsequently analyzed in the Ashby diagram were PLA, rigid resin, and flexible resin. Among the materials reviewed, flexible resin was considered the most suitable for the lower airway model because its mechanical behavior was more consistent with the representation of soft airway structures in an educational context. This approach allowed the first prototypes to be developed using readily available laboratory resources.

For the lower airway model, medical image segmentation was performed using 3D Slicer (v5.6.2). A chest CT scan (0.7 mm slice thickness) from a healthy 20-year-old adult with no reported history of respiratory disease or thoracic pathology was selected to represent the anatomical morphology of the lower airway. Segmentation was carried out in 3D Slicer using the MedSAM extension.

MedSAM (Medical Segment Anything Model) is an open-source tool derived from the Segment Anything Model (SAM) and adapted for medical imaging applications. It was selected because it is specifically intended for medical image segmentation and supports the delineation of anatomical structures with limited manual input.³⁴

Virtual model review sessions were also conducted as part of the co-creation process. During these sessions, faculty members and students examined the 3D meshes in computational environments to review anatomical proportions and spatial relationships before fabrication.

Materialization

For the trigeminal nerve model, transparent photosensitive resin (Creality^®) was used to facilitate visualization of internal spatial position of the trigeminal nerve. Printing was performed using Form 3 and Elegoo Saturn printers. The reported print time was 8 hours and 27 minutes and corresponded to the printing stage only; it did not include post-processing. The final print volume was 125 mL and the model weight was 137 g.

After printing, the model was manually cleaned using isopropyl alcohol, brushes, and fine paintbrushes. The internal channels were pressure-washed to remove residual resin, and support structures were subsequently removed.

To highlight the course of the nerve branches, a mixture of liquid white resin and yellow fluorescent dye was prepared. This mixture was loaded into a 5 cc syringe and injected under controlled pressure through the internal channels of the model.

The model then underwent post-curing (30 minutes) using Anycubic Cure equipment to complete resin polymerization. After fabrication, the models were stored under standard laboratory conditions and handled during supervised classroom sessions.

Prototype: Additive Manufacturing Implementation

The fabrication pipeline incorporated the parameters summarized in Table 3.

Table 3.

Optimized Additive Manufacturing Parameters

Technology	Application	Parameters Optimized
Formlabs Form 3	Trigeminal nerve model	Material: Elastic Resin 50A V1 Layer Thickness: 0.100 mm Scale: 0.201 Raft Type: Full Rafts Touchpoint Density: 0.50 Touchpoint Size: 0.35 mm
Formlabs Form 3	Lower airway	Material: Elastic Resin 50A V1 Layer Thickness: 0.100 mm Scale: 6.6 Raft Type: Mini Rafts Touchpoint Density: 1.00 Touchpoint Size: 0.50 mm

Two anatomical prototypes were developed, one representing the trigeminal nerve and the other the lower airway. The anatomical regions of interest were reviewed in detail to guide the representation of shape, spatial relationships, and relevant structural features in the models. Prosection and dissection-based observations were performed using a cadaver dissection guide.

Phase III: Classroom-Based User Evaluation of the 3D Anatomical Model

Classroom sessions were conducted focusing on the trigeminal nerve and the lower airway. During these sessions, two-dimensional visual resources were used together with cadaveric specimens, when available, and the 3D anatomical models. Photographic and video records were collected to document the classroom activities. A field journal was also maintained to record participants’ comments regarding morphology, spatial relationships, texture, and perceived anatomical detail of the models.

A structured questionnaire was administered after classroom sessions to obtain participants’ perceptions of the models. The instrument included 20 items grouped into four domains: usability and functionality, physical features and design, integration with study materials, and perceived contribution to learning. Responses were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 indicated the lowest level of agreement and 5 was the highest.

Because this phase was exploratory and descriptive, the evaluation focused on user perception rather than comparative effectiveness. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, and Cronbach’s alpha was calculated to examine the internal consistency of the questionnaire domains.

Results

Identification of Difficulties and Needs for Teaching and Learning Human Gross Anatomy

Participants identified two significant aspects that hinder the learning of HGA. One was related to teaching aspects, such as course methodology and the content covered during the course. The other was associated with learning-related elements, including study methodology, spatial orientation, identification of anatomical structures, concentration during classes, teaching approach, and the interpretation of academic materials, in line with previous observations reported in this field.³⁵

Regarding students’ needs for learning of HGA, participants emphasized the importance of support in study methodology, formative assessment, cross-curricular work on the main ideas of HGA, integration of anatomical knowledge with other subjects, the inclusion of practical classroom activities, and the provision of educational support throughout the learning process. These findings highlight the complexity of learning of HGA and the need for complementary educational resources capable of supporting anatomical identification and spatial understanding, particularly in contexts where three-dimensional representation may facilitate the learning process.

Development of the Trigeminal Nerve and Lower Airway 3D Model

Two 3D anatomical models were developed, one representing the trigeminal nerve and the other the tracheobronchial tree. Both models were designed to support the teaching of Human Gross Anatomy by representing anatomically complex structures that are difficult to visualize using only two-dimensional resources.

The trigeminal nerve model represented the apparent origin and branching pattern of the fifth cranial nerve, including its ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular divisions. The course of the nerve was visually differentiated from the skull through color contrast, which facilitated identification of its main branches and their spatial relationships within the craniofacial complex.

The lower airway model represented the human tracheobronchial tree, including the trachea, main bronchi, lobar bronchi, segmental bronchi, and respiratory bronchioles. The model allowed differentiation of relevant morphological features of the airway and supported the visualization of anatomical relationships within this region. In selected cases, augmented reality-based visualization was also incorporated as a complementary representation of the tracheobronchial tree to support in situ observation of its location within the thorax and the anatomical organization of the main, lobar, and segmental bronchi.

Overall, the developed models provided tangible representations of anatomical structures with educational relevance, supporting the observation of branching patterns, spatial relationships, and selected morphological features in the classroom setting.

Trigeminal Nerve Model

A 3D anatomical prototype of the fifth cranial nerve was developed to represent its apparent origin and main branching pattern. The course of the nerve was visually differentiated from the skull through color contrast, which facilitated the identification of its main anatomical pathways in the educational setting (Figure 1). The model included the three principal divisions of the trigeminal nerve: ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular.

Tracheobronchial Tree Model

A 3D model of the human tracheobronchial tree was developed, including the trachea, main bronchi, lobar bronchi, segmental bronchi, and respiratory bronchioles. The model allowed differentiation of relevant morphological and textural features of the trachea and bronchi and supported the visualization of their anatomical organization within the lower airway region, shown in Figure 2a. In selected cases, a complementary augmented reality-based visualization of the tracheobronchial tree was also obtained for illustrative purposes (Figure 2b).

Figure 2.

3D model of the human tracheobronchial tree. (a) Physical model and (b) Virtual model.

Educational Evaluation of the Models

Participants’ responses showed an overall positive perception of the models, with a mean score of 4.53/5.0. The highest-rated domain was Impact on Learning (4.60/5.0), while physical characteristics and design received the lowest, although still favorable, rating (4.39/5.0). Cronbach’s alpha values ranged from 0.74 to 0.78 across domains, indicating acceptable internal consistency of the questionnaire.

Overall, the results suggest that the models were positively perceived as complementary educational resources. Participants rated them favorably in relation to usability, integration with other study materials, and perceived support for anatomical understanding.

Figure 3 illustrates the interaction of students with the 3D-printed models and their use alongside conventional two-dimensional resources. These sessions included the trigeminal nerve model and the tracheobronchial tree model and provided a classroom context for observing participants’ responses to the models as complementary educational resources.

Figure 3.

Educational use of 3D anatomical models. (a) Students interact with a 3D-printed model during a practical session together with two-dimensional images. (b) Classroom use of the trigeminal nerve model. (c) Additive manufacturing stage of the model development process. (d) Classroom use of the tracheobronchial tree model.

Discussion and Conclusion

This study describes the interdisciplinary development of two 3D-printed anatomical models a trigeminal nerve model and a lower airway model and their initial educational evaluation in a classroom setting. The main contribution of the work lies in documenting a practical workflow that integrated needs assessment, digital modeling, additive manufacturing, and educational use in a context with limited access to cadaver-based resources. The study provides an applied experience of how interdisciplinary collaboration can support the development of anatomically focused teaching resources.

Learning HGA is fundamental in the training of students in health-related programs.^13,36 Its correct understanding and use of anatomical language are closely linked to the interpretation of clinical information and safe health care practice.^8,37 In this context, the ability to identify structures, understand spatial relationships, and three-dimensional forms is especially important.^3,4,20,38 The findings of this study are consistent with those demands, since participants emphasized difficulties related to spatial orientation, identification of structures, study methodology, and the interpretation of academic materials.^21,35 These difficulties suggest that the challenge of learning HGA does not depend only on anatomical complexity itself, but also on how knowledge is organized, represented, and mediated in the classroom.

From this perspective, the development of complementary educational resources such as 3D anatomical models may help address some of the challenges identified by students. In HGA, instructor-developed materials and textbooks may combine scientific terminology with colloquial expressions, and in some cases may assume prior knowledge that students do not yet fully possess.^9,35 This may hinder the understanding of anatomically complex topics and reinforces the need for teaching strategies that support the progressive interpretation of structures, terminology, and spatial relationships. In this study, the trigeminal nerve and lower airway models were conceived as complementary resources intended to support those aspects of learning, particularly where two-dimensional materials alone may be insufficient.

The models developed in this study responded to the educational needs identified in Phase I. The trigeminal nerve model supported the visualization of branching patterns and craniofacial spatial relationships, while the tracheobronchial tree model supported the representation of airway organization and relevant morphological features. In selected cases, augmented reality-based visualization was also used as a complementary representation of the tracheobronchial tree. Taken together, these resources provided additional ways of observing anatomical structures that are often difficult to understand using only two-dimensional materials.

An important aspect of this work was the interdisciplinary collaboration established between biomedical engineering students, faculty members from UAO, and students and faculty members from health-related programs at UV. This collaboration was relevant not only to the technical development of the models, but also to the strengthening of collaborative work between disciplines that approach anatomy from different but complementary perspectives. Within this context, the Biomedical Applications Research Student Group (BASG) of G-BIO at UAO and the student research group of TEBLAMI at UV have promoted activities that contribute to the development of collaborative and interdisciplinary strategies for anatomy teaching and biomedical applications. In this sense, BASG contributed not only through digital modeling and fabrication processes, but also by supporting the creation of educational strategies aimed at improving students’ experience in the classroom.

The educational evaluation showed that participants perceived the models positively, particularly in relation to their contribution to learning, usability, and integration with other study materials. These findings suggest that the models were considered useful as complementary educational resources in the classroom. However, these results should be interpreted within the scope of the study design. The evaluation was exploratory and descriptive, based primarily on user perception, and did not include a control group, objective learning outcomes, or longitudinal follow-up. Therefore, the findings support the educational acceptability of the models rather than demonstrating comparative effectiveness.

The results also reinforce the importance of integrating technological resources within a pedagogically meaningful framework. Although 3D models may support spatial understanding,^11,21,22 their educational value depends on how they are incorporated into teaching practice.^39,40 In this study, the models were used together with two-dimensional resources and, when available, cadaveric specimens, which supports the view that their role is complementary rather than substitutive. This perspective is especially relevant in institutional contexts where students require not only access to resources, but also guidance in study methodology, formative feedback, and teaching strategies that respond to the complexity of anatomy learning.³⁵

This study has several limitations. The evaluation was conducted with a convenience sample in a specific academic context, and the evidence is based mainly on participants’ perceptions during short-term classroom use. No formal comparison with traditional methods was performed, and no objective assessment of anatomical knowledge or retention was included. In addition, the study did not evaluate clinical applications. Future work should therefore examine these models through controlled comparisons, objective learning measures, and broader educational settings. It would also be valuable to explore how interdisciplinary collaboration between biomedical engineering and health sciences can continue to expand the development of teaching resources that respond to local academic needs.

In conclusion, this study documents an interdisciplinary and context-sensitive experience in the development of two 3D-printed anatomical models for HGA teaching in a setting with limited access to cadaver-based resources. The findings suggest that these models were positively perceived as complementary educational resources, particularly for supporting the visualization of complex anatomical structures and spatial relationships. Their development also highlights the value of collaboration between biomedical engineering and health sciences in the creation of teaching strategies adapted to local academic needs. Although the educational evaluation showed favorable user perception, the study was exploratory and descriptive in nature; therefore, the results should be interpreted as evidence of feasibility and educational acceptability rather than as proof of comparative effectiveness. Future studies should include controlled comparisons, objective learning outcomes, and a broader educational context.

Funding Statement

This work was supported by project number 24INTER-477 by UAO and project number 11307 by UV.

Data Sharing Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The Legacy data policies is type 2.

Ethics Approval

The study received the necessary approvals from the Department of Morphology, the Medicine and Surgery academic program at UV, the Biomedical Engineering academic program at UAO, and the Human Anatomy Ethics Review Committee of the Faculty of Health at UV number 089-023. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Consent to Participate Declarations

All students participating in the study signed the informed consent form provided by the UV.

Author Contributions

All authors contributed to data analysis, drafting or revising the article, have agreed on the journal to which the article will be submitted, gave final approval of the version to be published, and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

Disclosure

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.