The effect of badminton training on the attention and motor skills performance of integrated students: a study including children with specific learning disorders (SLD)

Abstract

Background

The present study aims to examine the impact of badminton training programs on the attention and motor skills performance of students with specific learning disorders (SLDs).

Methods

The study was carried out with students at a public middle school. The study group consisted of a total of 44 volunteer students with SLD, with 22 participants in the experimental group (mean age 12.41 ± 0.90) and 22 participants in the control group (mean age 11.64 ± 0.49). Over a 12-week period, the experimental group regularly participated in two hours of badminton training per week in addition to their daily activities. Meanwhile, the control group was not included in any additional physical activity program and maintained their daily routines. Prior to the start of the study, information regarding the participants was recorded using a personal information form. The Bourdon Attention Test, Togu Balance Test, and Sit-and-Reach Flexibility Test were administered to the participants prior to the study and following the badminton training. To isolate the impact of differences in pre-test scores between the groups on the post-test, an Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for Repeated Measures was conducted.

Results

Following the 12-week badminton training program, a statistically significant difference was observed in terms of the pre- and post-test results for balance and attention performance in the experimental group (p < 0.05), while no statistically significant difference was found in terms of the pre- and post-test results for flexibility performance (p > 0.05). In the control group, no statistically significant differences were identified in the pre- and post-test results for any of the parameters (p > 0.05).

Conclusions

It can be concluded that the 12-week badminton training program is an effective method for improving static balance and selective attention skills in students with SLD. However, it is thought that more long-term or specific exercise content may be needed to achieve changes in flexibility.

Introduction

Today, the education of children with SLD and inclusive education are increasingly gaining importance [1]. In general, children with SLD tend to experience challenges in academic performance and demonstrate a lower aptitude for adaptive life skills. For example, these difficulties manifest themselves as a lack of cognitive flexibility, a failure to accurately comprehend complex problems, and a marked slowness in problem-solving [2]. Teachers note that, compared to their peers, children with SLD show delays in reading and writing skills and face certain challenges in the field of mathematics [3].

Beyond academic difficulties, children with SLD often face issues such as poor physical fitness, postural abnormalities, low cognitive ability, and motor development issues due to certain congenital or developmental deficiencies [4]. Given these challenges faced by children with SLD, it is noteworthy that recent research in sports science and neuropsychology has focused on the impact of sports and physical activity on children’s cognitive development, particularly their levels of attention [5–7]. Consistent with this line of research, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and experimental research have demonstrated that regular physical activity improves children’s attention span and executive skills when compared to their physically inactive peers. Indeed, even a single acute exercise session has demonstrated an increase in children’s attention and cognitive control skills [8, 9].

In addition, it has been suggested that physical activity enhances cognitive functioning and improves cognitive performance in those with attention deficit and learning difficulties [10]. Various strategies are available for improving motor skills, performance, and attention [11]. It can be said that physical interventions are one of the effective methods among these strategies [12, 13]. Previous studies show that, compared to their peers, children with SLD generally perform more poorly in areas such as working memory, attention, and problem-solving [14, 15]. This condition not only has a severe impact on the quality of daily life for children with SLD but also becomes a factor that significantly limits their ability to adapt to society. Recent studies have been conducted to explore the link between children’s motor performance and cognitive functions [16]. One study on gross motor development in children aged 7–11 with learning disabilities found that, excluding 7-year-olds, these children performed at a lower level than their peers, and it was also observed that 11-year-olds exhibited a three- to four-year delay in locomotor and ball skills [17].

In parallel with motor difficulties, another common issue observed in children with SLD is attention deficit. Attention is essential for cognitive performance, memory, and learning behavior. Therefore, even the slightest deficits in attention can negatively impact learning [18]. Physical activity is an effective method for improving concentration [12, 19]. Some studies report that regular physical activity in children positively affects their ability to maintain attention on a specific task in terms of cognitive flexibility and working memory [20–22]. In a study conducted to investigate the impact of physical training, such as physical education classes and coordination exercises, on cognitive abilities, it was observed that coordinated exercises have a greater effect on concentration and attention performance [23]. Among such coordinative activities, racket sports improve concentration levels [12, 13]. In a study conducted on 40 children aged 10–14, it was reported that the participants displayed significant improvements in their attention levels following a 9-week tennis training program [24].

Similar effects have also been reported in badminton, which has been shown to significantly improve children’s attention performance, and the precision and positioning skills required during racket contact with the shuttlecock affect a person’s attention level [13, 25]. Given that balance is a foundation of attention skills and that racket sports such as badminton require significant balance control, these sports may be particularly beneficial for children with SLD. In addition, attention and cognitive functions, balance, which is another challenge faced by individuals with SLD, forms the basis of attention and coordination skills [26, 27]. Inadequate balance performance also leads to various problems in visuo-motor tasks [28]. According to the findings of a study investigating the balance performance of children with SLD, it was determined that approximately 34% of the participants demonstrated poor balance skills [29].

Compared to many other sports, badminton can be played with minimal equipment and in almost any area, and because there is no physical contact, the risk of injury is low, making it suitable for children of all ages [30]. Badminton contributes to cognitive functions due to its technical movements requiring agility, coordination, a high level of control, and strategic thinking, as well as its enjoyable aspect [30–32]. In addition to improving physical fitness, badminton also enhances concentration because it requires anticipating opponent moves, focusing, and making quick decisions [33, 34]. Simultaneously, its entertaining and accessible structure positively impacts the physical and psychosocial development of children with various disabilities by developing physical fitness, motor skills, movement quality, and interpersonal interaction [35].

When the relevant literature was reviewed, it was observed that most studies on children with SLD employed causal-comparative or correlational designs, with relatively few focusing on motor interventions. In light of this gap, therefore, the present study was designed to investigate a badminton-based physical intervention model expected to have a positive impact on the physical and cognitive development of children with SLD. It should be taken into account that children with SLD experience challenges in both motor and cognitive domains, and the gap between their skill levels and those of their non-disabled peers may widen with age. Therefore, it is also thought that implementing intervention programs with a higher potential to contribute to these children’s development could be an important way to improve their learning difficulties. The present study was conducted to examine the impact of badminton training on the attention and motor skill performance of children with SLD. The findings of the study will be significant in terms of monitoring children with SLD through motor intervention, as motor skill difficulties may indicate challenges in other areas as well. In this context, we anticipate that the present study will offer valuable insights for future research.

Method

Study model

The study employed a quasi-experimental design with a pre-test, post-test, and control group. This design can be adapted by the researcher. Depending on the situation, the researcher identifies the experimental and control groups, administers a pre-test to both groups, implements the experimental intervention only on the experimental group, and finally administers a post-test to measure the difference between the two groups [36].

Study group

Forty-four students diagnosed with SLD [3] from a school in the Sincan district of Ankara Province were included in the study (22 in the experimental group and 22 in the control group). The mean age of the experimental group was calculated as 12.41 ± 0.90. The mean age of the control group was calculated as 11.64 ± 0.49. In the study conducted by Punar and Şevgin [37], a comparison of the experimental and control groups’ performance on the Burdon Attention Test (using an independent samples t-test) yielded an effect size of 1.08 (Cohen’s d). With an effect size of 1.08, a 0.05 significance level, and 0.90 power, the minimum sample size required for the study was calculated as 20 participants per group, totaling 40 participants. The sample size estimation for the study was performed using the G*Power 3.1.9.2 software [38]. Additionally, based on the post-hoc power analysis conducted to test sample adequacy, it was concluded that the study possesses high statistical power (1-β = 0.90) and that the current sample is sufficient to determine the intervention effect. Prior to the start of the study, ethical approval was obtained from the Bartın University Rectorate’s Social and Humanities Sciences Ethics Committee (dated June 18, 2025, No. 2025-SBB-0680). The participants were provided with all necessary explanations regarding the study, and it was stated that they could withdraw from the study at any time without providing a reason. Informed consent forms were signed by the students with SLD and their parents, ensuring their voluntary participation in the study. All procedures were conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Inclusion criteria included voluntary participation by the students, having an SLD diagnosis, being actively enrolled in school, having no absences, regularly participating in at least 80% of the exercises, attending middle school, being in any of grades 5, 6, 7, or 8, not regularly taking medication, and not having any additional physical or psychological conditions in addition to the SLD diagnosis. Participants who did not meet the inclusion criteria were excluded from the study. The 12-week badminton exercise program administered to the study group was implemented by a physical education teacher with a badminton coaching certification (Table 1). The participants in the control group were not included in any structured physical activity or exercise intervention during the course of the study. The individuals in this group were asked to maintain their current lifestyles and daily routine activities (school attendance, daily activity level, leisure habits, etc.) without making any changes throughout the duration of the study. Additionally, by ensuring that the control group was not exposed to any external intervention, the aim was to evaluate the effects of the physical activity program implemented in the experimental group in a more objective and comparable manner. This approach was preferred in order to minimize the influence of potential confounding variables and increase the likelihood that observed differences were attributable to the intervention.

Table 1.

12-week basic badminton training program

Week	Subject	Duration	Number of Participants
1	Basic stance training, Racket grip and the basic stance training Ball-bouncing drills,	60 + 60 min.	22
2	Preparatory stance training, Ball-bouncing drills, Educational games on ball-bouncing	60 + 60 min.	22
3	Preparatory games for Badminton, Training on different types of strokes, Training on forehand and backhand strokes	60 + 60 min.	22
4	Training on different types of serves, High serve practice, Low serve practice	60 + 60 min.	22
5	Low serve, Short serve, High serve drills	60 + 60 min.	22
6	Clear shot drills, Forehand, Backhand	60 + 60 min.	22
7	Drop shot drills, Forehand, Backhand	60 + 60 min.	22
8	Smash drills	60 + 60 min.	22
9	Drive shot drills, Footwork drills	60 + 60 min.	22
10	Basic match tactics, Singles matches	60 + 60 min.	22
11	Basic match tactics, Doubles matches	60 + 60 min.	22
12	Singles matches, Doubles matches	60 + 60 min.	22

Measurements

Height and weight measurements

Height measurements were taken with the participants standing upright, body weight evenly distributed over both legs, head in the Frankfurt position, arms at their sides, and feet together, using a “Seca 700, Medical Scales and Measuring Systems, Hamburg-GERMANY” device with 1 cm accuracy. The results were recorded in centimeters. Weight measurements were performed using the Comfort Plus Gbf-830 device. The participants were instructed not to consume any food or beverages (except water) for 2 h before the measurement. The body mass index (BMI) was calculated using the formula [body weight (kg) / height² (m²)] based on the data obtained [39].

Burdon attention test

The Bourdon Attention Test, developed by Benjamin Bourdon in 1955, is a tool used to measure the ability to focus and sustain attention in individuals aged 9 to 20. There are two versions of this test. The first version involves identifying specific letters among a mixture of letters, while the other version requires identifying and marking shapes and figures among a combination of shapes and figures. The test is based on the principle of identifying and marking specific letters among randomly arranged letters. In the evaluation of the test, the number of correct answers, the time taken to complete the task, or the number of errors made can be used as criteria. Additionally, the attention performance of participants can be examined by counting the number of correct answers produced within a specified time interval [37]. The validity and reliability study of the test in Turkish was conducted by Karaduman [40]. In the present study, the letter form, which is more widely used, was employed. Before the application, the participants were informed regarding the purpose and administration of the test, and any unclear points were explained by demonstrating the letters to be marked on the board. In the letter format, the participants were asked to identify and mark the letters “a, b, d, and g” from a total of 660 letters distributed across three paragraphs within 6 min. The distribution of these letters on the page is typically 30 “a,” 29 “b,” 29 “d,” and 30 “g.” The test was scored based on the number of correctly marked letters, with each correct marking counted as one point. Accordingly, the total score obtained reflects the individual’s attention performance. The maximum possible score on the test is 118 [41, 42].

Togu balance test application protocol

The Togu Challenge Disc 2.0 (Prien am Chiemsee, Rosenheim, Germany), a portable balance measurement system, was used to assess the athletes’ static and dynamic balance performance in the study [43]. This device is a versatile balance analysis and training tool that can be integrated with smartphones or tablets via a Bluetooth connection. Two circular platforms, each with a diameter of 44 cm, are stacked on top of one another and connected by four elastic cylinders, each 8 cm in length, placed between them. This structure provides a maximum incline of 12°, offering the user an unstable surface and enabling the objective measurement of balance, postural control, and coordination.

The device’s three-dimensional motion sensors detect the participant’s micro-movements on the platform and transmit the data to the computer in real time. During the static balance test, the screen displays circular rings centered on a target point, with the rings graded from 1 to 5 around it. The participant is asked to keep the target point centered for 20 s following a 10-second preparation period. During the test, the individual stands barefoot in the center of the platform with arms at their sides, attempting to maintain balance. The performance obtained at the end of the measurement is scored on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 indicates the best and 5 the lowest level of balance. The test was repeated for each participant after a 3-minute passive rest interval, and the best score was taken into account in the analyses [44–46].

Flexibility (sit-and-reach) test protocol

For flexibility measurement, a standard sit-and-reach test box is used. The box measures 55 cm in length and 45 cm in width. The measuring scale on the box is marked in 1-centimeter increments up to 50 cm. During the test, the participant sits on the floor mat with bare feet, with the soles of the feet fully resting against the test box. The knees are not allowed to be bent, and this position is maintained throughout the test. The participant slowly leans forward and extends their hands as far forward as possible, marking the farthest point they can reach on the scale. This position is held for a few seconds, and the valid measurement value is recorded. It is important to avoid jerky or bouncing movements during the stretch. The test is performed in two separate trials, and the highest centimeter value achieved is recorded as the participant’s flexibility score [47].

Training program

Table 1 shows the details of the 12-week badminton training program applied to the participants. The Bourdon Attention Test, Togu Balance Test, and Sit-and-Reach Flexibility Test were administered to the participants before and after the specified training program.

Data analysis

Statistical analyses were performed using the SPSS 25.0 software. Descriptive statistics (frequency, percentage, arithmetic mean, and standard deviation) were presented in the data analysis. The normality of the data distribution was verified using the Shapiro-Wilk test and skewness-kurtosis coefficients (range of + 1.5 to -1.5) [48]. In the pre-test comparisons conducted to determine baseline equivalence between groups, a statistically significant difference was found between the groups in the balance variable (p = 0.021), while the groups were found to have similar baseline levels in the flexibility and attention variables (p > 0.05). To check for the confounding effect of the initial difference in the balance variable on the post-test and to minimize error variance by ensuring analytical consistency across all variables, an Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) for Repeated Measures was applied. Assumptions were tested prior to the analysis: The homogeneity of regression slopes was analyzed, and it was found that the regression lines between the groups were parallel (p > 0.05). The homogeneity of variances was confirmed using Levene’s test (p > 0.05). In the analyses, pretest scores were defined as the covariate, and the group variable was defined as the constant factor. Since multiple dependent variables (balance, flexibility, attention) were analyzed, a Bonferroni correction was applied to prevent the risk of Type I errors. The effect size of the intervention was interpreted as small (0.01), moderate (0.06), and large (0.14) based on partial eta-squared (ηp²) criteria [49]. The significance level was set at p < 0.05.

Findings

This section contains the findings of the study.

Table 2 shows that the experimental group had a mean age of 12.41 ± 0.90, a mean height of 155.18 ± 10.21, a mean weight of 51.45 ± 12.11, and a mean BMI of 21.23 ± 4.0 while the control group had a mean age of 11.64 ± 0.49, a mean height of 152.86 ± 8.92 cm, a mean weight of 47.93 ± 10.49 kg, and a mean BMI of 20.41 ± 3.47.

Table 2.

Demographic information of the participants

	Demographic Variables	N	x̄	Sd.
Experimental group	Weight (kg)	22	51.45	12.11
	Height (cm)	22	155.18	10.21
	Age (years)	22	12.41	0.90
	BMI(weight/ height2)	22	21.23	4.07
Control group	Age (years)	22	11.64	0.49
	Height (cm)	22	152.86	8.92
	Weight (kg)	22	47.93	10.49
	BMI(weight/ height2)	22	20.41	3.47

Table 3 shows that the Balance pre-test scores were checked as a covariate (Mean covariate value = 3.04).

Table 3.

Mean balance scores and adjusted mean scores for the experimental and control groups

Group	N	Post-test (M ± SD)	Adjusted Post-test (M ± SE)
Experimental Group	22	2.35 ± 0.99	2.68 ± 0.07
Control Group	22	3.32 ± 0.84	3.03 ± 0.07

M Mean, SD Standard Deviation, SE Standard Error

Table 4 shows that, when the pre-test balance scores were examined, a statistically significant difference was found between the adjusted post-test balance scores of the groups* (p < 0.05).

Table 4.

Togu balance test results

Source	Sum of Squares	sd	Mean of Squares	F	p	Partial Eta Square (ηp²)
Covariate (Balance pre-test)	30.45	1	30.45	285.62	< 0.001	0.87
Group	0.55	1	0.55	5.14	0.02*	0.11
Error	4.26	40	0.11
Total	399.19	44

*(p < 0.05)

Table 5 shows that the flexibility pre-test scores were checked as a covariate (mean covariate value = 14.45).

Table 5.

Mean flexibility scores and adjusted mean scores for the experimental and control groups

Group	N	Post-test (M ± SD)	Adjusted Post-test (M ± SE)
Experimental Group	22	17.32 ± 7.08	16.12 ± 0.22
Control Group	22	12.73 ± 4.91	13.76 ± 0.22

M Mean, SD Standard Deviation, SE Standard Error

Table 6 shows that when the pre-test flexibility scores were examined, no statistically significant difference was found between the groups’ adjusted post-test flexibility scores (p > 0.05).

Table 6.

Sit-and-reach flexibility test results

Source	Sum of Squares	sd	Mean of Squares	F	p	Partial Eta Square (ηp²)
Covariate (Flexibility pre-test)	1382.00	1	1382.00	1305.30	< 0.001	0.970
Group	0.44	1	0.44	0.42	0.519	0.010
Error	42.35	40	1.06
Total	11721.00	44

Table 7 shows that the pre-test scores for balance were checked as a covariate (mean covariate value = 79.11).

Table 7.

Mean attention test scores and adjusted mean scores for the experimental and control groups

Group	N	Post-test (M ± SD)	Adjusted Post-test (M ± SE)
Experimental Group	22	91,95 ± 16,24	92,36 ± 1,72
Control Group	22	78,09 ± 17,43	77,56 ± 1,70

M Mean, SD Standard Deviation, SE Standard Error

Table 8 shows that, when the pre-test balance scores were examined, a statistically significant difference was found between the groups’ adjusted post-test balance scores (p < 0.05).

Table 8.

Burdon attention test results

Kaynak	Sum of Squares	sd	Mean of Squares	F	p	Partial Eta Square (ηp²)
Covariate (Flexibility pre-test)	9069,47	1	9069,47	138,28	< 0.001	,77
Group	440,00	1	440,00	6,70	,013*	,14
Error	2623,33	40	65,58
Total	332113,00	44

*(p < 0.05)

Discussion

In the present study, the impact of badminton training on the attention and motor skills performance of students with specific learning disabilities (SLDs) was examined. The data obtained indicate that the badminton training program resulted in significant differences in the attention, flexibility, and balance performance of the students with SLD. Previous studies report that exercise enhances the quality and efficiency of students’ learning and has a positive effect on cognitive abilities, and that attention has a positive impact on the brain’s neural development and individuals’ cognitive development [50–57].

However, when the relevant literature is reviewed, a lack of intervention studies conducted on individuals with SLD stands out. In a study examining the effects of exercise on sustained attention in children with SLD, it was found that exercise significantly improved attention performance [58]. Studies on perceptual motor exercises for children with SLD found that these exercises create a significant difference in children’s attention levels and improve their academic performance [37]. In a study where a 12-week table tennis training program consisting of two 70-minute sessions per week was applied to 20 children aged 9–12 with general coordination disorders, a significant difference in attention performance was observed post-training [59]. Based on the results of the study, it was noted that table tennis, a racket sport, increases attention levels, given that the present study also involves a racket sport. In another study, 25 children with intellectual disabilities underwent badminton training for 12 weeks, and as a result, significant differences in attention levels were detected in favor of the training group [13]. In a study evaluating the effects of a 12-week table tennis program on attention, strength, and agility in 16 children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), an increase was observed in the attention levels of the participants. Based on these results, it can be stated that racket sports interventions are valuable in developing motor skills in children with ADHD [12].

Furthermore, it can be said that badminton affects children’s nervous system activity and enhances attention and agility by accelerating communication between nerve cells [60]. Based on the information obtained, it can be stated that there is a positive correlation between motor skills and attention [61]. In this context, it is thought that the findings obtained from the study contribute to the cognitive development of individuals with specific learning disabilities (SLD) in addition to their physical development by increasing attention levels in the experimental group.

Following a 10-week balance exercise program conducted on 22 children aged 8–13 with mild intellectual disabilities, significant differences were observed in both dynamic and static balance scores in the study group [62]. When the findings of the study are examined, it is observed that although the exercise programs and the disability status of the participants differed, the balance performance data showed similarities with the findings of the present study. In a study where 18 individuals with intellectual disabilities aged 22–35 were subjected to rhythmic gymnastics exercises for 12 weeks, the experimental group demonstrated significant differences in dynamic balance scores compared to the control group [63]. In another study, 30 female students with intellectual disabilities underwent functional training for 5 weeks, and as a result, significant differences were detected in dynamic balance, static balance, and flexibility levels [26]. Although the age range of the participants, their disability status, and the exercise program implemented in these studies differ from the present study, the similarity of the findings is considered valuable in supporting the present study’s hypothesis that intervention studies improve balance performance in individuals with disabilities. In light of this information, it was noted that the findings of a study examining the effects of a 12-week physical activity intervention on the balance performance of 22 boys with autism spectrum disorder show similarities in terms of the detection of a significant difference in test results [64].

According to the literature on the flexibility variable in the present study, a study examining flexibility performance in 100 children aged 10–13 with SLD found no statistically significant differences in participants’ flexibility performance following flexibility training [58]. The findings of the said study are considered significant in that they show similarities with the present study in terms of both age groups and flexibility test results. The relevant literature contains studies that show contrasting results to the present study regarding the flexibility performance of individuals with SLD. In this context, significant increases in flexibility levels were observed following a 16-week rhythmic gymnastics exercise program conducted on 22 children with intellectual disabilities [65]. In a similar study, a statistically significant difference in flexibility parameters was found in favor of the experimental group following 20 weeks of strength exercises in children aged 9–12 with SLD [66]. In a study conducted on 30 female students with intellectual disabilities, it was found that functional training had a significant effect on flexibility [26].

It is thought that the differences in findings from the literature on flexibility performance results from the limited number of intervention studies conducted on individuals with SLD, the presence of different types of disabilities among the participants in the studies, and differences in demographic variables such as age and gender among the participants.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it can be stated that badminton training is an effective method for improving attention and balance performance in individuals with SLD. Although a review of the literature produces an insufficient number of studies on flexibility performance in individuals with SLD, it is notable that the findings from the said studies and the present study generally exhibit consistency regarding attention and balance performance. Furthermore, it is thought that increasing the number of intervention studies involving individuals with special needs is significant in terms of addressing gaps in the field. For future studies, it is suggested to conduct intervention studies using different exercise protocols, across various sports, and with different age groups among individuals with SLD.

Limitations

The study group in the present study was limited to individuals aged 11–14 who were enrolled in grades 5–8. This limitation was preferred as it represented an easily accessible sample group. Furthermore, the study is limited to a 12-week badminton training program administered to the study group. The study is also limited to the results of the attention, balance, and flexibility tests. Individual differences within the study group were not taken into account. One of the main limitations of this study is that the study group consisted of a limited number of participants diagnosed with SLD. Moreover, the participants were not divided into subgroups based on the subtypes of SLD (such as reading, writing, or mathematics). This not only limits the generalizability of the findings but also restricts the detailed evaluation of potential differences that may arise in individuals with different sub-profiles.

Suggestions

The findings show that the motor skills and attention levels of participants with SLD can be enhanced through badminton training. In future studies, the frequency or duration of weekly courses can be augmented, or comparisons can be made with inclusion students with varying diagnoses. Based on the findings of the study, the physical education curriculum can be restructured with multisensory commands and segmented movement sequences to support the cognitive processes of students with Specific Learning Disorders (SLDs). It is also suggested that support training programs integrate kinesthetic learning stations, where academic concepts are reinforced through physical activities, and educational games focused on executive functions as standard components.

Authors' contributions

Conceptualization, methodology, analysis, writing of original draft, K.G.E.; R.E. data curation, sources, manuscript review and editing, K.G.E.; R.E.; A.Y.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data availability

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participation

The requisite licenses and approvals were secured from the Ethics Commission of Bartın University Rectorate Social and Human Sciences Ethics Committee on June 18, 2025, under reference number 2025-SBB-0680, and the study was executed in compliance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Participation in the study was optional, and the parents of the students provided informed permission, which detailed all aspects of the investigation.

Consent for publication

Not applicable; no personally identifiable information is included.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.