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. 2026 Feb 24;47(4):721–737. doi: 10.1007/s10935-026-00906-w

Contribution of the Lions Quest Programme “Skills for Action” to the Social-Emotional Learning of Secondary School Students

Dejana Bouillet 1,✉, Žana Glavendekić 2, Matthew Kiefer 3, Vanessa Jaroski 3, Wadih Maalouf 4
PMCID: PMC13447334  PMID: 41733785

Abstract

This study presents the results of evaluating the pilot implementation of the Lions Quest programme “Skills for Action” (LQSFAc) in the Croatian education system. “Skills for Action” is a prevention programme for social-emotional learning based on the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning framework. This model encompasses intrapersonal, interpersonal, and cognitive aspects of social-emotional well-being that are important at all stages of development. This is the first attempt to evaluate the LQSFAc programme in Croatia, focusing on its outcomes. The aim of the study is to analyse the extent to which the two-year pilot implementation of the programme contributes to the development of students’ intrapersonal and interpersonal social-emotional skills. A questionnaire for self-assessment of students’ social-emotional skills was used. The programme was introduced on a trial basis in 13 Croatian secondary schools during the 2023/2024 and 2024/2025 school years. This quasi-experimental study includes quantitative data from 326 students who participated in the pre- and post-test (163 students participated in the programme and 163 did not). The data were analysed using descriptive statistics and a multilevel model (mixed linear model with a random effect for the school where the programme was implemented). Students in the LQSFAc classes achieved higher scores in all analysed social-emotional skills in the post-test than students in the comparison classes. The results suggest that the contribution of the LQSFAc programme is most evident in students’ social awareness. Implementing the LQSFAc programme in full, which requires a whole-school approach, is essential for achieving better results.

Keywords: Social-emotional learning, Intrapersonal skills, Interpersonal skills, Lions quest “Skills for Action” programme, Croatian secondary school, Outcome assessment

Introduction

Major developmental tasks during middle adolescence include finding the balance between independence and responsibility, changes in moral thinking, developing new relationships with peers, and introduction to sexuality (Ruiz & Yabut, 2024). During this period, changes in many aspects of development are most pronounced and dramatic. The complexity of adolescence requires an integrative theoretical approach that includes cognitive-developmental, behavioural, social-cognitive, humanistic, ecological, sociocultural, and neurobiological approaches (Goossens, 2006). The dynamic systems theory (Smith & Thelen, 2003), for example, explains the interaction of behaviour with biological, emotional, social and cognitive systems. This theory refers to dynamics, contextual conditioning and the non-linearity of development, where small changes in a system can lead to large changes in behaviour (Thelen, 2005). Therefore, the interaction between adolescents’ neuropsychological development and their physical and social ecology should be considered to explain adolescent behaviour (Defoe et al., 2022).

Given their increased neurocognitive resilience and capacity for change, adolescents are in a position of both great vulnerability and opportunity (Del Ciampo & Lopes Del Ciampo, 2020). The specific socioeconomic, sociocultural, physical, and emotional contexts that interact with the adolescents’ personal characteristics may explain the increased risk behaviour observed during this developmental phase. This may result from the ways in which adolescents interact and negotiate with their social world (France, 2000), or from low self-control, impulsive decision-making, immaturity, and other psychological characteristics typical of adolescence (Willoughby et al., 2021). However, “the term risk should be reserved for situations in which the nature of the circumstances, the nature of the interactions with others, and the particular time in the adolescent’s development create the conditions for the occurrence of problem behaviour” (Michaud et al., 2006, p. 286). Therefore, prevention programmes should adopt a multidisciplinary approach and include various forms of collaboration between educational institutions, health care, social care, family, and local community services (EMCDDA, 2011). Social-emotional learning (SEL) is a key component of prevention programmes in schools, as social-emotional skills enable young people to navigate the challenges of growth, development, and adolescence successfully. SEL supports critical questioning of normative beliefs and positive engagement with peers and the environment, preparing them to make better-informed decisions and choices in their lives (Ayllón-Salas & Fernández-Martín, 2024; Lawson et al., 2019; Schouwenaars & Gravesteijn, 2025).The framework for SEL proposed by the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL, 2003; CASEL 2020) has now become a core aspect of education in many countries. The five core competences of this model, which are important at all stages of development, include:

  • Self-awareness (recognising and correctly naming one’s own feelings; recognising the connection between feelings, thoughts and actions; objectively assessing one’s own strengths and limitations; planning achievable goals; developing a well-founded sense of self-efficacy and optimism; focusing on positive, encouraging thoughts).

  • Self-management (emotion regulation, stress management, impulse control, motivation, goal-oriented behaviour and achievement).

  • Social awareness (adopting a different perspective; perspective taking; empathy; respect for diversity; recognition of family, school and community support; understanding of social and ethical norms of behaviour; resisting negative social pressure).

  • Relationship skills (developing stimulating, supportive relationships with diverse individuals and groups; clear communication; collaboration; conflict resolution; seeking help when needed).

  • Responsible decision making (making constructive, safe decisions about oneself, relationships with others and the future; considering one’s own welfare and the welfare of others; recognising one’s own responsibility for ethical behaviour; making decisions with safety, social and ethical considerations in mind; realistically assessing the consequences of different activities).

These competences can be divided into two distinct but interrelated groups: intrapersonal and interpersonal skills (Schouwenaars & Gravesteijn, 2025). Intrapersonal skills focus on a person’s internal processes, such as self-awareness and self-management and include the ability to recognise, understand, and regulate one’s own emotions, thoughts, and attitudes. Interpersonal skills focus on the ability to interact effectively with others, including social awareness, relationship skills and responsible decision-making, and enable individuals to navigate social situations, understand roles and norms, and maintain positive relationships.

Many studies confirm that SEL can have a positive impact on school climate and positively influence students’ academic and social performance (Alzahrani et al., 2019; Aygün & Taşkın, 2022) because SEL empowers students to achieve academic success, develop strategies to cope with stress and uncomfortable feelings, demonstrate interpersonal respect, and strengthen a sense of belonging to the school (Ferreira et al., 2020; Gimbert et al., 2023). Students who participate in high-quality SEL programmes perform better academically, develop prosocial attitudes and behaviours, and have fewer behavioural and mental health problems (Durlak et al., 2011). Durlak et al. (2022) have shown in their meta-analysis that SEL programmes have consistently positive effects on students’ SEL skills, attitudes, prosocial behaviour, and academic performance. Cipriano et al. (2024), based on a meta-analysis of universal school-based SEL interventions, concluded that students who participated in the interventions showed significantly improved skills, attitudes, behaviours, school climate and safety, peer relationships, school functioning, and academic achievement. SEL programmes require alignment with the school’s mission and vision, must be approached with the same commitment as other curriculum activities, and should be visible in all aspects of school life. Jones et al. (2018) have identified common characteristics of effective SEL implementation, including supportive whole-school contexts, partnerships with families and communities, and the promotion of SEL competences among teachers and staff.

Lions Quest’s internationally recognised programmes are among the most widely used SEL programmes. They are aimed at children and young people from pre-school to high school age. The programmes are designed to strengthen life skills, build character, prevent violence, addiction and other high-risk behaviours, and promote a positive school environment and civic responsibility (Lions Clubs International Foundation, 2019). Their key features are SEL, student, family, school and community engagement with a focus on collaboration and collective action, prevention and development, teacher training and support, and service learning. The programmes are delivered by specially trained teachers. The training courses are organised by the Lions Clubs International Foundation (LCIF) in cooperation with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the institutions responsible for the education system in each country, and local volunteer Lions Clubs. The training courses last 2 days and are led by licenced trainers. The Lions Quest programmes are inclusive and culturally sensitive SEL programmes, which facilitate adaptation to the cultural circumstances and school systems in different regions. Today, the programmes are spread over 110 countries around the world, including regions such as North America, Latin America, Europe, Africa, India and Asia (https://www.lions-quest.org). They are mainly used in the USA, where they were originally developed, in Canada, and in some Western European countries.

Ackerman et al. (2022) summarised the findings of several studies that identified challenges in the implementation of Lions Quest programmes, such as unclear implementation plans, insufficient support from programme facilitators during implementation, and inadequate attention to programme integrity during workshop-based training. Talvio and Lonka (2013) examined the alignment between the original objectives of the Lions Quest programmes and the way these objectives are interpreted by the teachers implementing them. They found a high degree of congruence with the objectives of the SEL programme. However, implementation was hindered by the lack of a school-wide vision and inadequate teacher preparation. This led to the recommendation to involve teachers in the decision-making process regarding the implementation model and to allow more flexible scheduling in terms of duration and timing of workshops to encourage teacher and student participation (Kidron et al., 2016). Previous studies show that teachers are satisfied with the Lions Quest programmes, especially with the rich content and hands-on activities (Bouillet et al., 2025; Stojanovic et al., 2020).

The effects of SEL programmes are difficult to measure, especially during periods of intense growth and development, such as adolescence. This area remains under-researched, particularly regarding to evidence-based SEL programmes targeting secondary school students (Martinez & Gomez, 2024), especially in South-Eastern European countries.

The Current Study

This study presents the results of the evaluation of Lions Quest Skills for Action (LQSFAc), a universal SEL prevention programme for secondary school students. In South-Eastern Europe, the LQSFAc programme was first introduced in Croatia. The aim of the study is to analyse the extent to which the two-year pilot implementation of the LQSFAc programme contributes to the development of students’ intrapersonal and interpersonal social-emotional skills. The programme was piloted in Croatian secondary schools with the support of UNODC, LCIF, and the Croatian Agency for Teacher Training and Education (ATTE). In Croatian schools, 16 workshops of the LQSFAc programme were conducted in the first school year (2023/24), and service-learning activities were implemented in the second school year (2024/25). The facilitators were specially trained social pedagogues working in the schools implementing the programme.

The theoretical framework of the programme is SEL, as defined by the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning (CASEL, 2020). The programme consists of workshops (lessons) divided into five units: positive learning community, personal development, social development, health and addiction prevention, and final reflection. Each workshop begins with the discovery phase, an engaging introductory activity in which the topic of the workshop is introduced. This is followed by the connection phase, where students combine their existing knowledge with new information about the workshop topic. In the practice phase, students practise the new skills introduced in the connection phase. The practice phase concludes with open-ended questions for reflection, which encourage divergent and critical thinking. The workshops end with the application phase, in which students apply the skills they have learnt in everyday situations (Lions Clubs International Foundation, 2019).

The LQSFAc programme aligns with the characteristics of the SAFE approach (sequence, activity, focus, explicitness), as it comprises a series of interconnected and coordinated skill development activities in the form of structured workshops. It is based on active learning methods, including individual work, whole-class work, small group work, reflection, and focuses on developing key social-emotional competences. Additionally, the programme features activities that connect with family, community, and other school subjects, as well as skill development activities outside the workshops. The programme is followed by service-learning activities, in which students explore community needs, prepare and plan a project focused on a social issue, implement it, reflect on it and share their experiences with others. While the content of the LQSFAc programme is highly structured, each class develops its own projects during the service-learning activities, making the experience much more individualised. Only the phases of project development are specified: Research, Preparation and Planning, Action, Reflection, and Demonstration and Celebration. Examples of projects implemented in Croatian schools include:

  1. Suitcase Children. The aims of the project were: to inform the general public about the types of divorce; to obtain as much relevant information as possible from experts, parents and young people; to produce informative and educational content and materials for the general public, to prevent high conflict divorce, and place children at the centre of divorce.

  2. Together with Pancakes. The fundamental aim of the project was to decorate the school playground so that students could socialise with one another.

  3. For Each Other. The aim of the project was to provide various forms of support for students with severe developmental disabilities.

  4. Skilfully to the stars. The main goal of the project was to promote the development of social-emotional skills in first-grade primary school students, while actively involving second-grade secondary school students as mentors and educators. The specific aims were to empower secondary school students to take on leadership roles and work with children, to promote intergenerational cooperation, solidarity, and active citizenship, and to improve interpersonal relationships through creative and recreational activities.

  5. Connecting the generations through music. The aim was to improve the quality of life for elderly people in a care home by providing entertainment, support, and opportunities for socialising.

  6. Where the little ones grow up. The aim of the project was to establish collaboration with a local kindergarten by involving children in activities held at the school, for which the students are trained (e.g. pedicure, hairdressing).

  7. “Pre-volution”. The aim was to contribute to sustainability by addressing the problem of fast fashion and fostering a positive atmosphere in the school through new extracurricular activities, such as the school’s podcast section and the school flea market.

  8. As long as there is a profession, there is no trouble. The goal of the project was to bring together students, teachers, parents and members of the local community to strengthen the auto mechanic profession.

  9. Prevention for beginners. The goal of the project was to develop digital and other tools to help future students better navigate school.

During the implementation, the programme facilitators took notes on the dynamics, content and scope of the activities, and recorded how the students participated. Regular follow-up meetings were organised to share experiences and plan further work. The facilitators mentioned during these meeting that the biggest challenge in implementing the programme was the lack of time, as most workshops required more time than the programme foresees (at length of at least two classes instead of one). During the cultural adaptation of the programme in its first year, some activities were changed (e.g. by introducing online quizzes and questionnaires etc.), some were added (to explain certain SEL concepts in more detail) and some were omitted (due to lack of time). This suggests that not all students received exactly the same content in all LQSFAc courses. However, given the purpose of implementing this pilot programme, the facilitators tailored the content to the students’ interests while ensuring that the outcomes of each workshop were achieved. In addition, the facilitators indicated that they did not have time to conduct outreach activities with families and local communities during the first year of implementation. Furthermore, no skills development activities were carried out outside the workshops.

In summary, the LQSFAc programme was not fully implemented because activities linking school, families, and society were insufficiently carried out. Much attention was given to the workshops, while other components of the programme were often neglected. Greater emphasis on connecting with family, community, and other subjects occurred during service-learning activities, which were implemented in the second year of the programme. Programme facilitators found these activities extremely beneficial for SEL students. The main challenges were organisational, as all activities required significant time and support for the students, and there was usually no schedule dedicated exclusively to the programme.

Method

Participants

There are 410 secondary schools in Croatia, comprising 192 grammar schools and 218 vocational schools. However, grammar schools account for 30% of all secondary school students. The LQSFAc programme was implemented on a trial basis in 13 Croatian secondary schools during 2023/2024 and 2024/2025school years. Six schools are located in Zagreb, the capital of Croatia, four schools are in cities that are county centres, and three schools are in smaller Croatian cities. The majority of students attended vocational schools (250 or 76.7%), while one fifth of students (71 or 21.8%) attended grammar schools. The programme was also implemented in a school for students with developmental disabilities, including 5 students.

One class from each school participated in the programme (referred to as LQSFAc classes), and one class served as a comparison group (referred to as comparison classes). This is a non-probabilistic sample, as the programme was conducted on a trial basis by schools that had expressed interest and included it in the curriculum. In this study, which used a quasi-experimental design, data from 326 students who participated in both the pre- and post-test were analysed. All students who were not present at school during either the pre-test or post-test were excluded from the analysis; these students made up 8% of the total sample. The LQSFAc and comparison groups were balanced by school and grade level. After applying the predefined inclusion criteria (attendance at both pre- and post-test, and complete responses, accounting for 92% of participants), the final number of participants with complete data was equal in both groups. No further size equalisation was performed. A total of 163 (50%) students from the LQSFAc classes and 163 (50%) students from the comparison classes were included in this study. Of these, 164 (50.3%) were male and 162 (49.7%) were female. At the time of the pre-test, their average age was 14.87 years (standard deviation = 0.428), with 16.6% of the students aged 14, 80% aged 15, and 3.4% aged 16. At the time of the post-test, all students were two years older (16, 17, or 18 years old).

Measuring Instrument

The students’ socio-emotional skills were measured before and after the implementation of the programme using a questionnaire developed by the authors of this paper. The instrument was constructed according to the theoretical framework of the Panorama Education Survey model (Panorama Education, 2023), which is widely used in the USA, where its measurement characteristics have been verified (Panorama Education, 2024). However, studies based on this model indicate the need for cultural adaptation of items (Lattke et al., 2022). Therefore, the questionnaire used in this study did not adopt the scales from the original instrument; instead, the questions were created to reflect the cultural context of the research and its specific objectives. Using constructs from an existing model maintains conceptual connections with relevant theory (SEL) while creating new items ensures that the instrument is appropriate for the cultural and content environment in which the research is conducted (Croatian secondary schools). The questionnaire items are statements whit which students indicate their agreement on a five-point scale (from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Exploratory factor analysis was conducted to examine the latent structure of the instrument and determine the number of factors that best explain the data.

The variability and comprehensibility of the questionnaire items were tested in June 2023 on a sample of 238 15-year-old students from seven secondary schools. During this process, the initial 38 items were reduced to 20 by retaining those with appropriate variability. The retained items formed two scales. The first scale relates to intrapersonal skills and contains 10 items, while the second scale relates to interpersonal skills and also contains 10 items. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the intrapersonal scale is 0.771, and for the interpersonal scale is 0.742.

The suitability of the data for factor analysis was confirmed by a high KMO index (0.884), indicating good sample adequacy, and a significant Bartlett’s test of sphericity (χ² = 3224.586, df = 190, p < .001), confirming the factorability of the correlation matrix. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted in Mplus using the ML estimator and geomin rotation. The number of factors was determined based on theoretical assumptions and the eigenvalue > 1 criterion. The model shows a good fit to the data (χ² = 276.558, df = 116, p < .001; RMSEA = 0.048, 90% CI [0.040–0.055], p-close = 0.705; CFI = 0.944; TLI = 0.909; SRMR = 0.029). Exploratory factor analysis indicated that the measure is best represented by a four-factor structure, with items grouped into four interconnected but conceptually distinct dimensions: self-awareness and self-management (Intrapersonal scale), and social awareness and relationship skills (Interpersonal scale). The results are shown in Table 1.

Table 1.

The scales of intrapersonal and interpersonal social-emotional skills: factor loadings and model fit information

The scale of intrapersonal social-emotional skills
(RMSEA = 0.054; CFI = 0.961; TLI = 0.933; SRMR = 0.028)
Self-awareness Self-management
I am popular, like most of my peers. 0.528* 0.105
I believe that most of my peers respect me. 0.653* − 0.061
Many people are proud of me when I do something well. 0.664* − 0.126
Last week I was happy most of the time. 0.685* 0.016
I believe that I will achieve most of my goals. 0.548* 0.120
When I am working on a task that is very important to me, I can still concentrate even when there are many distractions. − 0.005 0.489*
I can stay calm even when everyone around me is upset. 0.004 0.597*
I can describe my feelings clearly. − 0.033 0.479*
I plan enough time for learning. 0.069 0.556*
I can resist peer pressure to do things I don’t want to do. 0.216 0.326*
The scale for interpersonal social-emotional skills
(RMSEA = 0.057; CFI = 0.943; TLI = 0.902; SRMR = 0.032)
Social awareness Relationship skills
I enjoy volunteering for my school or community. 0.486* 0.073
There are lots of adults around me who I can talk to about my problems. 0.627* − 0.105
I am confident that I can honestly share my thoughts about equality and justice with others. 0.516* 0.181
If someone hurts me, I take revenge on them.** 0.458* 0.011
I can work together in a group with people with whom I disagree. 0.561* − 0.075
I usually resolve disagreements with others in a positive way. 0.114 0.390*
I am sensitive to other people’s feelings, even if they are not my friends. − 0.003 0.719*
I listen carefully to what others have to say, even if I disagree with them. 0.142 0.337*
I am able to build relationships with people who are different from me. 0.144 0.448*
I am able to stand up for myself without belittling others. 0.120 0.322*
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* = items included in the factor; ** = recoded item

Procedure

The pilot implementation of the LQSFAc programme in Croatia was conducted with the approval and participation of the Croatian ATTE. The ATTE first granted permission to pilot the programme in schools to test its content, working methods, and results (Act on Primary and Secondary Education, 2023). It was necessary to ensure that the people those involved were qualified to deliver the programme. ATTE decided employ social pedagogues, experts trained in implementing school-based prevention programmes. At that time, 30 social pedagogues were employed in Croatian secondary schools, and ATTE’s lead consultant sent a written invitation to all of them to participate. Fifteen social pedagogues accepted the invitation, but only 13 successfully completed the programme. In all three cases where implementation was discontinued, the reason was a change in the workplace. All facilitators were trained to implement the programme in a two-day training course in May 2023. The training was organised by ATTE with the support of UNODC. During the training, participants were familiarised with the programme content, and a method for implementation was agreed.

After a training session, the social pedagogues incorporated the LQSFAc programme into the school’s curriculum. This document defines the optional and compulsory subjects, extracurricular and other educational activities, programmes, and projects in each school. In consultation with the school management and class teachers, the social pedagogues selected the classes to participate in the programme and the comparison classes. LQSFAc classes were chosen based on the class teachers’ interest in implementing the programme and their willingness to cooperate, while ensuring the voluntary and informed consent of students and their parents. Comparison classes were selected from the same school and educational level to ensure comparability; these classes did not participate in the programme but agreed to take part in the research under the same ethical conditions. Therefore, the data presented in this study were collected as an integral part of the regular educational process and do not go beyond the child’s usual experiences in educational institutions. The data were collected by the programme facilitators before and after the implementation of the programme. The pre-test was conducted in September 2023, and the post-test in June 2025. In the LQSFAc and comparison classes, students and parents were informed of the purpose of the data collection prior to the implementation of the programme and gave their written consent to participate in accordance with the protocols established in each school. Throughout the process, the Code of Ethics for Research with Children (Ajduković & Keresteš, 2000) was followed. Students’ identities were protected (data were coded), students gave their consent to participate, and parents were informed about the process. Students were informed of the results in their classes. Students who did not consent to participate in the evaluation could not open the questionnaire, which was created on the Lyme Survey online platform. When completing the questionnaire, students indicated their consent to participate in the research by selecting the “I agree” button.

The data were analysed using descriptive statistics and a multilevel model. A mixed linear model was used to examine the effect of programme and measurement time on the intrapersonal and interpersonal skills of students. The model includes fixed effects for LQSFAc classes, comparison classes and their interaction. As each school had one class involved in the programme and one serving as a comparison class, school was included as a random effect to account for possible variation between schools.

Results

As shown in Table 1, the factors comprising the intrapersonal social-emotional skills scale relate to self-awareness (first factor) and self-management (second factor). The factors comprising the interpersonal social-emotional skills scale relate to social awareness (first factor) and relationship skills (second factor). Analysis of skewness and kurtosis values showed that all distributions fall within the acceptable range (− 1 to + 1), indicating approximate normality of the data and justifying the use of parametric statistical procedures (Table 2).

Table 2.

Factors of the intrapersonal and interpersonal skills scales: descriptive statistics (total sample)

Factor Pre-test Post-test
M SD Skewness Kurtosis M SD Skewness Kurtosis
Intrapersonal scale
Self-awareness 3.87 0.673 − 0.660 0.003 3.70 0.832 − 0.500 − 0.080
Self-management 3.33 0.733 − 0.228 − 0.224 3.50 0.753 − 0.117 − 0.312
Interpersonal scale
Social awareness 3.25 0.670 − 0.384 − 0.083 3.43 0.863 − 0.073 − 0.460
Relationship skills 3.76 0.661 − 0.477 0.262 3.66 0.731 − 0.304 − 0.022
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M  Mean value, SD  Standard deviation

In the post-test, students demonstrated higher self-management and social awareness, but lower self-awareness and relationship skills compared to the pre-test. The results of the assessment of students’ social-emotional skills in the LQSFAc and comparison classes at baseline (pre-test) and after two years of programme implementation (post-test) are presented in Table 3.

Table 3.

Social-emotional skills of students in the LQSFAc and comparison classes at the pre-test and post-test: descriptive statistic

Factor LQSFAc classes Comparison classes
Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test
M SD M SD M SD M SD
Self-awareness 3.84 0.714 3.70 0.866 3.90 0.630 3.69 0.800
Self-management 3.34 0.756 3.60 0.760 3.32 0.711 3.41 0.736
Social awareness 3.20 0.717 3.52 0.919 3.31 0.615 3.31 0.615
Relationship skills 3.73 0.677 3.68 0.773 3.79 0.646 3.65 0.688
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M  Mean value, SD  Standard deviation

The data in Table 3 confirm that the trends are the same in both groups of participants in this study. Students in the LQSFAc classes rated all analysed social-emotional skills as better developed in the post-test than did students in the comparison classes. Table 4 shows whether these differences are statistically significant.

Table 4.

Results of the multilevel analysis of the social-emotional skills of the students from the LQSFAc and the comparison classes in pre & post-test

Factor Fixed Effects F df p
Self-awareness Group 1.611 36.3 0.205
Self-awareness Base-line & Group 0.549 316 0.265
Self-awareness Pre & Post-test 8.169 608.4 0.004
Self-awareness Pre & Post-test & Group 0.147 608.4 0.702
Self-management Group 0.247 596.4 0.619
Self-management Base-line & Group 0.136 314 0.712
Self-management Pre & Post-test 11.071 615.8 0.001
Self-management Pre & Post-test & Group 1.188 615.9 0.276
Social awareness Group 0.640 596.4 0.424
Social awareness Base-line & Group 1.903 317 0.163
Social awareness Pre & Post-test 8.553 615.8 0.004
Social awareness Pre & Post-test & Group 5.084 615.9 0.025
Relationship skills Group 0.488 596.4 0.485
Relationship skills Base-line & Group 0.548 311 0.460
Relationship skills Pre & Post-test 3.426 615.8 0.065
Relationship skills Pre & Post-test & Group 0.294 615.9 0.588
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F F-ratio, DF Degrees of freedom, p Significance of F-ratio

The results show that before the implementation of the programme (during the pre-test), there were no differences in the measured social-emotional skills between the LQSFAc and comparison groups. The mixed model analysis for the factor ‘Self-awareness’ showed a significant effect of time, indicating a change between the pre- and post-test. The effects of group and the interaction with the measurement point were not significant. The estimated means indicate that both groups experienced a slight decrease in self-awareness, but without a significant difference between them. For the factor ‘Self-regulation’, a significant effect of time was found, indicating an improvement in self-regulation between measurements. The effects of group and the interaction with the measurement point were not significant. The means indicate an increase in self-regulation in both groups, but without a significant difference between them. For the factor ‘Social awareness’, a significant effect of time and a significant interaction were found, indicating that the change in social awareness differed between groups. The LQSFAc group showed a greater increase in social awareness compared to the comparison group. The analysis for the factor ‘Relationship skills’ did not show significant effects. The effect of time was borderline significant, while the effects of group and the interaction with the measurement point were not significant. The means indicate very small changes in both groups.

School was included as a random effect in the model to account for possible variation between the classes in which the LQSFAc programme was implemented. Table 5 presents the variance estimates for each of the four constructs analysed. All four factors show low between-class variation, which is not statistically significant.

Table 5.

Random effects on the social-emotional skills of the students from different schools

Factor Variance estimate Standard error p-value 95% CI (lower) 95% CI (upper)
Self-awareness 0.035 0.019 0.080 0.010 0.080
Self-management 0.043 0.022 0.056 0.014 0.095
Social awareness 0.062 0.026 0.059 0.021 0.121
Relationship skills 0.026 0.014 0.074 0.009 0.076
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Discussion

This quasi-experimental study presents the results of evaluating the two-year pilot implementation of the SEL LQSFAc programme in Croatian secondary schools. Although the results do not show significant changes in all subscales of interpersonal and intrapersonal skills between students in the LQSFAc and comparison classes, it can be concluded that the programme contributes to the development of students’ social-emotional skills, as the students in the LQSFAc classes showed higher scores in all analysed social-emotional skills in the post-test than the students in the comparison classes. Furthermore, the interaction between the initial and final measurements and group membership was found to have a significant influence on the students’ self-assessment of their social awareness. This result is most likely due to the greater engagement of students from the LQSFAc classes during the implementation of the Service-learning programme, which is directly aimed at developing social awareness. In the first year of implementing the LQSFAc programme in Croatia, social pedagogues mainly conducted workshops, while other components of the programme, such as connecting with the community, family, and other stakeholders, were insufficiently represented. Additionally, activities to develop skills outside the workshops were generally not implemented. In the second year, during the implementation of the Service-learning projects, these components became more prominent, which was also reflected in the development of social awareness among students from the LQSFAc classes.

When interpreting the results, it should be borne in mind that middle adolescence is a period of intense development, frequent mood swings, and the formation of self-esteem and personal identity (Del Ciampo & Del Ciampo, 2020). Over the two years, the students had matured, and their self-image undoubtedly changed.

The results obtained are comparable to previous research, which indicates that many evaluations of SEL programmes report smaller effect sizes (Cipriano et al., 2024; Humphrey et al., 2010; Shi & Chung, 2024). For example, Malin’s (2024) study, which like this study was based on a quasi-experiment and an adapted Panorama questionnaire, found that SEL programmes have a positive effect on students’ goal setting, social awareness, school engagement, sense of belonging and identity expression, although the effect size is small.

The value of Lions Quest programmes for students aged 12–14 years in South-Eastern European countries has been documented in previous studies (Bouillet et al., 2025; Maalouf et al., 2019). The LQSFAc programme for older students has now been implemented and evaluated for the first time in the region, which is the main contribution of this study. An evaluation of LQSFAc in the USA showed that teachers are very satisfied with the programme due to its content and activities, but implementation faces many challenges, the most significant being the lack of a school-wide vision and inadequate teacher preparation (Kidron et al., 2016). Similar obstacles exist in Croatia, where SEL programmes are not adequately integrated into the curriculum and there is a lack of a whole-school approach to prevention programmes. It has been shown that SEL programmes are most effective when they take place in a supportive context and allow sufficient time for preparation and implementation (Jones et al., 2018). This means it is not enough for programme facilitators in schools alone to engage with the programme; it is necessary to implement a whole-school approach and promote SEL as a community-centred, holistic and sustainable educational policy and practice. Therefore, the following improvements are expected in the next phase of implementation of the LQSFAc programme in Croatian schools:

  • Greater involvement of school leadership in defining and promoting the shared values of SEL programmes.

  • Inclusion of SEL in the curriculum for all educational content and its connection to the LQSFAc programme.

  • Ensuring that social-emotional skills are practiced in various in-school and out-of-school activities.

  • Improving parental and community involvement in programme activities.

  • Ensuring that SEL programmes are implemented in all school years, not just in certain grades.

All of this, of course, requires training teachers for SEL and implementing the programme itself, as well as advocating for legislative changes that make prevention programmes and SEL a desirable and priority content of the Croatian education system.

Limitations

This study has several limitations. First, the evaluation was conducted not on a representative sample of students, but on those who attended the classes where the programme was piloted and consented to participate. The study used a non-probabilistic sample, highlighting the need for further evaluation of the programme. The criteria for class selection were not strictly defined but were based on participant availability and voluntary consent. Closer matching of classes by sociodemographic characteristics might have produced different results and increased the overall validity of the conclusions. Future evaluations should also consider gender differences in SEL.

Furthermore, not all students participated in all programme activities because they were unable to attend school due to illness or other reasons. Monitoring of the programme implementation showed that one to three students were absent from each workshop. In addition, not all students in the LQSFAc classes participated equally in the service-learning programme, as they had varying levels of motivation to engage in certain aspects of the programme. This most likely further attenuated the impact of participation in LQSFAc or comparison class on the social-emotional skills assessment. The results are also based on the self-assessment of students at a very intense developmental stage, which undoubtedly reflects the subjectivity of the data collected. For these reasons, the results should not be overestimated and require further improvement.

Conclusion

The main contribution of this article is to provide evidence for the importance of investing in school-based prevention programmes based on SEL. This is the first attempt to evaluate the LQSFAc programme in Croatia, focusing on its outcomes. Implementing the LQSFAc programme in full, which requires a whole-school approach, is essential for achieving better results.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the students and social pedagogues who participated in the evaluation process, as well as the Croatian Agency for Teacher Training and Education for their cooperation with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and their support in implementing the Lions Quest “Skills for Action” programmes in Croatian schools. The authors also thank the members of Lions Club International of Croatia and all United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime staff who support addiction prevention programmes in the South-Eastern European region.

Funding

This study was funded by the Lions Clubs International Foundation.

Declarations

Conflict of Interest

Lions Clubs International Foundation holds the copyright for the Lions Quest programme “Skills for Action”. Matthew Kiefer (Programme Manager) and Vanessa Jaroski (LCIF Education Programme Specialist) are affiliated with the programme but do not receive commissions or financial incentives from increased programme sales.

Footnotes

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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