Abstract
BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES
This study investigated the 10-yr trends in sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) consumption among Koreans.
SUBJECTS/METHODS
Data from the 2014–2023 Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, including 62,887 participants, were analyzed. SSBs consumption was assessed as the number of servings per day using a 24-h dietary recall. The proportions (%) of individuals consuming SSBs ≥ 1 and ≥ 2 servings/day were reported. The energy and sugar intakes from SSBs were evaluated. These analyses were also conducted separately among SSBs consumers only (n = 33,396). The trends in SSBs consumption over time were assessed using multivariable linear regression.
RESULTS
Over 2014–2023, SSBs consumption showed decreasing trends among individuals aged 19–29 yrs, from 1.30 servings/day (SE = 0.10) to 0.92 servings/day (SE = 0.08), and those aged 30–49 yrs, from 1.20 servings/day (SE = 0.05) to 0.90 servings/day (SE = 0.05) (P-trends < 0.001). Among SSBs consumers only, a significant decline was observed among children aged 6–8 yrs, from 1.57 servings/day (SE = 0.17) to 1.54 servings/day (SE = 0.15), but no significant changes were observed in other age groups. From 2014 to 2023, the percentage of individuals consuming SSBs ≥ 1 serving/day decreased from 41.4% to 36.3% among the study subjects aged 19–29 yrs, and from 43.6% to 35.2% among those aged 30–49 yrs, but SSBs consumers aged 30–49 yrs showed an increasing trend (from 65.3% to 68.3%) (P-trends < 0.05). In the total subjects, the energy and sugar intakes from SSBs showed decreasing trends among adults (P-trends < 0.05), while no significant changes were observed in children and adolescents.
CONCLUSION
These findings highlight the age-specific consumption trends of SSBs among Koreans and underscore the importance of continued monitoring of SSBs consumption.
Keywords: Beverages, sugar-sweetened beverages, drinking, serving size, Korea
INTRODUCTION
Sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs) have greater health risks because they are the leading source of added sugars consumed in liquid form that have no nutritional benefits [1]. The habitual consumption of SSBs has been consistently associated with increased risks of cardiometabolic diseases, including obesity [2,3], type 2 diabetes [4,5], and cardiovascular disease (CVD) [5,6], as shown by previous meta-analyses of prospective cohort studies and confirmed by a recent umbrella review [1]. In addition, meta-analyses of longitudinal studies have shown that higher SSBs consumption is associated with increased risks for all-cause and CVD mortality [5,7].
Based on the adverse health risks from consuming SSBs, several dietary guidelines released by international as well as domestic academic organizations consistently recommend limiting SSBs consumption to prevent non-communicable diseases (NCDs). Dietary guidelines for preventing CVD published by the American Heart Association and the European Society of Cardiology recommend that SSBs consumption should be minimized [8,9]. The most recent dietary guidelines for Americans also recommend avoiding SSBs, such as sodas, fruit drinks, and energy drinks [10]. Furthermore, the 2025 Dietary Reference Intakes for Koreans (KDRIs) has newly incorporated a recommendation to limit the consumption of SSBs to emphasize the reduction of added sugar intake [11].
Global analyses based on large-scale databases covering multiple countries have reported that SSBs consumption increased worldwide between 1990 and 2018, with substantial variations across regions [12,13]. Among adults, global SSBs consumption increased by 0.37 servings/week from 1990 to 2018, while certain high-income countries experienced declines or stabilization during the same period [12]. Among children and adolescents aged 3–19 yrs, global SSBs consumption increased by 22.9% (0.68 servings/week) from 1990 to 2018, with the increase among children approximately twice that observed among adults [13]. Among young adults aged 15–39 yrs, the global prevalence of high SSBs consumption increased from 6.6% in 1990 to 11.1% in 2021 [14]. By contrast, declines in the prevalence of daily SSBs consumption among adolescents in 21 European countries between 2002 and 2018 have been reported [15].
According to analyses of the data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES), the total beverage consumption among Koreans has shown a rapid increase from 45.5 g/day in 1998 to 248.7 g/day in 2023 [16], particularly with greater consumption in adolescents and younger adults [17]. Nevertheless, in Korea, previous studies evaluating the long-term trends in SSBs consumption remain limited. The burden of NCDs in Korea has been steadily increasing, and fiscal policies regarding SSBs consumption (e.g., SSBs taxation) have become a significant public health agenda. Therefore, monitoring SSBs consumption at the population level is imperative. Accordingly, this study aimed to evaluate the age-specific trends in SSBs consumption among Koreans over the past decade using the national nutrition data.
SUBJECTS AND METHODS
Data and study subjects
This study was based on the data from the 2014–2023 KNHANES. The KNHANES is a nationwide cross-sectional survey that is annually conducted by the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency (KDCA). The survey uses a multistage, stratified, and cluster probability sampling design to obtain a nationally representative sample of the Korean population. The survey consisted of three main components: a health interview survey, a health examination survey, and a nutrition survey. Detailed information on the KNHANES is available elsewhere [18].
Among the 73,582 participants aged ≥ 3 yrs, those without nutrition survey data (n = 8,669), those with total energy intake below the 1st percentile or above the 99th percentile by each age group (n = 1,276), those with missing household income information (n = 217), and those who were currently pregnant or breastfeeding (n = 533) were excluded, leaving 62,887 participants in the final analysis. In this study population, the age groups were defined based on the age categories of the 2025 KDRIs [11]. In particular, the participants were categorized into the following age groups: 3–5 yrs (n = 2,125), 6–8 yrs (n = 2,311), 9–11 yrs (n = 2,271), 12–14 yrs (n = 2,003), 15–18 yrs (n = 2,207), 19–29 yrs (n = 5,990), 30–49 yrs (n = 16,130), 50–64 yrs (n = 14,868), and ≥ 65 yrs (n = 14,982).
The KNHANES data were collected with approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the KDCA (IRB No. 2013-12EXP-03-5C, 2018-01-03-P-A, 2018-01-03-C-A, 2018-01-03-2C-A, 2018-01-03-3C-A, 2018-01-03-4C-A, 2018-01-03-5C-A, and 2022-11-16-R-A). The KNHANES conducted in 2015, 2016, and 2017 qualified for an exemption issued by the IRB of the KDCA. Written informed consent was obtained from all the survey participants.
Measurement of SSBs consumption
SSBs consumption was assessed using the 24-h dietary recall data from the KNHANES. The SSBs were defined as beverages containing added sugars, such as carbonated beverages, fruit juices and drinks, sweetened coffee, and other sugar-sweetened beverages. Carbonated beverages included carbonated soft drinks and fruit-flavored carbonated drinks. Fruit juices and drinks included sweetened fruit juices and drinks and sweetened vegetable juices and drinks. Sweetened coffee included sweetened coffee drinks, canned coffee, and powdered coffee mix. The other sweetened beverages included sweetened teas, energy drinks, sports drinks, rice-based drinks, and other sweetened drinks. Alcoholic beverages and artificially sweetened beverages (ASBs) were not considered in this study.
The consumption of SSBs for each study participant was evaluated in terms of the number of servings per day. The serving size of each beverage was defined according to previous work [19]: 250 g for carbonated and energy/sports drinks, 100 g for fruit juices and drinks, 150 g for sweetened coffee and other sugar-sweetened beverages, 12 g for powdered coffee mixes, and 20 g for powdered sweetened teas. Briefly, the serving sizes for each beverage were established based on domestic literature sources that define the serving size for Korean food items [19]. These serving sizes reflect the average amount per consumption occasion among Koreans or the typical portion size (i.e., commercial packaging size). For beverages, the actual intake amount per occasion closely aligns with the commercial packaging size. Nevertheless, the sugar content per serving of each beverage is not uniform across different beverage categories.
Considering that previous studies categorized SSBs consumption in increments of one serving when assessing consumption or analyzing its association with health outcomes [20,21], this study evaluated the respective proportions of individuals consuming ≥ 1 and ≥ 2 servings/day of SSBs. The contributions of SSBs consumption to energy and sugar intake were also assessed. As information on dietary sugar intake for each participant has been included in the KNHANES since 2016, the analyses on sugar intake from SSBs were based on the 2016–2023 KNHANES data. All the analyses were also conducted for SSBs consumers separately (n = 33,396; Supplementary Table 1).
Statistical analyses
All statistical analyses were performed using SAS version 9.4 (SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA). The analyses of this study accounted for the complex survey design of KNHANES by incorporating stratification variables, cluster variables, and sampling weights. The continuous variables, including SSBs consumption and contributions to energy and sugar intake from SSBs, are presented as the means ± SEs by sex or age group. The categorical variables, such as proportions of individuals consuming SSBs ≥ 1 and ≥ 2 servings/day, are presented as percentages (SE). In addition, the age-standardized values of SSBs consumption were calculated based on the 2005 Korean population distribution. Multiple linear regression analyses were performed to assess the trends in SSBs consumption and energy and sugar intake from SSBs across survey years. The trends in the proportions of individuals consuming SSBs ≥ 1 and ≥ 2 servings/day across survey years were analyzed using multiple logistic regression analyses with orthogonal polynomial contrasts. All analyses considered the covariates, including sex, age, residential area, household income, and total energy intake. The statistical significance was set to P < 0.05 for all analyses.
RESULTS
Characteristics of the study population across survey years
Table 1 lists the characteristics of the study population across survey years. The distribution of participants according to sex, residential area, and household income did not differ over the survey periods. The distribution of the study population according to age group significantly shifted over 2014–2023 (P < 0.001). The proportion of children, adolescents, and younger adults declined over time, but the proportion of older adults showed an increasing trend, with the 50–64 yrs group increasing from 21.7% (SE = 0.8) to 25.3% (SE = 0.8) and the ≥ 65 yrs group increasing from 13.2% (SE = 0.8) to 18.6% (SE = 0.9).
Table 1. Characteristics of the study population across survey years.
| Characteristics | 2014 (n = 6,349) | 2015 (n = 6,203) | 2016 (n = 6,572) | 2017 (n = 6,781) | 2018 (n = 6,705) | 2019 (n = 6,817) | 2020 (n = 5,557) | 2021 (n = 5,724) | 2022 (n = 5,650) | 2023 (n = 6,529) | P-value1) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | 0.999 | |||||||||||
| Males | 50.9 (0.7) | 50.8 (0.7) | 50.8 (0.6) | 50.5 (0.7) | 50.4 (0.7) | 50.4 (0.6) | 50.3 (0.6) | 50.5 (0.7) | 50.2 (0.7) | 50.3 (0.6) | ||
| Females | 49.1 (0.7) | 49.2 (0.7) | 49.2 (0.6) | 49.5 (0.7) | 49.6 (0.7) | 49.6 (0.6) | 49.7 (0.6) | 49.5 (0.7) | 49.8 (0.7) | 49.7 (0.6) | ||
| Age group | < 0.001 | |||||||||||
| 3–5 yrs | 2.9 (0.2) | 2.8 (0.2) | 2.9 (0.2) | 2.9 (0.2) | 2.7 (0.2) | 2.5 (0.2) | 2.4 (0.3) | 2.4 (0.2) | 1.9 (0.2) | 1.8 (0.2) | ||
| 6–8 yrs | 2.8 (0.2) | 2.9 (0.2) | 2.9 (0.2) | 2.7 (0.2) | 2.7 (0.2) | 3.0 (0.2) | 2.7 (0.3) | 2.6 (0.3) | 2.6 (0.2) | 2.4 (0.3) | ||
| 9–11 yrs | 3.1 (0.2) | 2.7 (0.2) | 2.5 (0.2) | 2.8 (0.2) | 2.9 (0.2) | 2.8 (0.2) | 2.7 (0.3) | 2.7 (0.3) | 3.0 (0.3) | 3.0 (0.3) | ||
| 12–14 yrs | 3.4 (0.3) | 3.4 (0.2) | 3.0 (0.2) | 2.7 (0.2) | 2.7 (0.2) | 2.6 (0.2) | 2.7 (0.3) | 2.7 (0.2) | 2.6 (0.3) | 2.6 (0.2) | ||
| 15–18 yrs | 5.4 (0.4) | 5.0 (0.3) | 5.3 (0.4) | 5.2 (0.4) | 4.5 (0.4) | 4.4 (0.3) | 3.8 (0.4) | 3.7 (0.4) | 3.4 (0.3) | 3.8 (0.3) | ||
| 19–29 yrs | 15.0 (0.9) | 15.1 (0.8) | 14.7 (0.8) | 14.5 (0.8) | 15.0 (0.8) | 14.5 (0.7) | 14.8 (0.8) | 14.3 (0.8) | 14.3 (0.9) | 13.5 (0.7) | ||
| 30–49 yrs | 32.7 (0.9) | 32.3 (1.0) | 32.1 (1.0) | 31.7 (1.0) | 31.3 (0.9) | 30.7 (1.0) | 30.1 (1.0) | 29.8 (1.0) | 29.2 (1.2) | 28.9 (0.9) | ||
| 50–64 yrs | 21.7 (0.8) | 22.3 (0.8) | 23.0 (0.8) | 23.4 (0.8) | 23.7 (0.8) | 24.2 (0.8) | 24.6 (0.8) | 25.0 (0.9) | 24.3 (0.9) | 25.3 (0.8) | ||
| ≥ 65 yrs | 13.2 (0.8) | 13.5 (0.7) | 13.5 (0.8) | 14.1 (0.8) | 14.6 (0.7) | 15.3 (0.9) | 16.2 (1.1) | 16.8 (1.0) | 18.6 (1.1) | 18.6 (0.9) | ||
| Residential area | 0.995 | |||||||||||
| Urban | 82.8 (2.8) | 83.6 (2.6) | 84.6 (2.5) | 85.0 (2.6) | 86.0 (2.6) | 84.0 (2.7) | 86.8 (2.5) | 84.2 (2.6) | 84.0 (2.8) | 83.8 (2.7) | ||
| Rural | 17.2 (2.8) | 16.4 (2.6) | 15.4 (2.5) | 15.0 (2.6) | 14.0 (2.6) | 16.0 (2.7) | 13.2 (2.5) | 15.8 (2.6) | 16.0 (2.8) | 16.2 (2.7) | ||
| Household income | 0.955 | |||||||||||
| Lowest | 14.3 (1.0) | 15.0 (1.0) | 15.6 (1.2) | 14.2 (1.1) | 14.7 (0.9) | 14.2 (1.0) | 13.7 (1.2) | 13.0 (1.0) | 14.8 (0.9) | 14.3 (0.9) | ||
| Lower middle | 25.1 (1.3) | 24.0 (1.3) | 23.9 (1.1) | 24.1 (1.1) | 24.8 (1.2) | 25.7 (1.2) | 22.5 (1.2) | 23.2 (1.2) | 23.0 (1.1) | 22.7 (1.0) | ||
| Upper middle | 31.1 (1.3) | 30.1 (1.3) | 29.0 (1.2) | 29.7 (1.1) | 30.1 (1.1) | 28.0 (1.0) | 29.9 (1.3) | 31.4 (1.3) | 30.2 (1.2) | 31.1 (1.2) | ||
| Highest | 29.5 (1.8) | 30.9 (1.7) | 31.5 (1.8) | 32.0 (1.7) | 30.3 (1.4) | 32.1 (1.7) | 34.0 (2.0) | 32.3 (1.9) | 32.0 (1.7) | 31.9 (1.6) | ||
Values are presented as weighted % (SE). All statistical analyses accounted for the complex sampling design of the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, incorporating stratification variables, cluster variables, and sampling weights.
1)P-values were calculated using the Rao–Scott χ2 test.
Ten-yr trends in SSBs consumption
Table 2 presents the 10-yr trends in SSBs consumption assessed in number of servings per day. In the total study subjects, SSBs consumption showed decreasing trends among individuals aged 19–29 yrs, from 1.30 ± 0.10 to 0.92 ± 0.08 servings/day, and those aged 30–49 yrs, from 1.20 ± 0.05 to 0.90 ± 0.05 servings/day (P-trends < 0.001). A significant decline was also observed among children aged 6–8 yrs, from 0.68 ± 0.09 to 0.66 ± 0.10 servings/day (P-trend = 0.005). On the other hand, no significant changes were observed in other age groups among total study subjects. Among the SSBs consumers only, the age-standardized mean consumption of SSBs in individuals aged 3 yrs or older decreased over 2014–2023. An analysis of SSBs consumers revealed a significant decreasing trend only in children aged 6–8 yrs (P-trend = 0.044); the other age groups did not show significant changes in SSBs consumption.
Table 2. Trends in SSBs consumption (servings/day) over 2014–2023.
| Sex and age group | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 | 2023 | P-trend1) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In total study subjects | |||||||||||||
| All2) | 1.11 ± 0.07 | 1.13 ± 0.08 | 1.09 ± 0.07 | 1.04 ± 0.07 | 0.95 ± 0.06 | 0.99 ± 0.07 | 0.95 ± 0.08 | 0.83 ± 0.07 | 0.88 ± 0.07 | 0.88 ± 0.07 | 0.176 | ||
| Males2) | 1.30 ± 0.11 | 1.33 ± 0.11 | 1.31 ± 0.11 | 1.26 ± 0.11 | 1.15 ± 0.10 | 1.14 ± 0.11 | 1.10 ± 0.11 | 1.03 ± 0.12 | 1.03 ± 0.11 | 1.01 ± 0.10 | 0.148 | ||
| Females2) | 0.90 ± 0.08 | 0.91 ± 0.09 | 0.84 ± 0.08 | 0.79 ± 0.07 | 0.74 ± 0.07 | 0.82 ± 0.08 | 0.79 ± 0.09 | 0.62 ± 0.06 | 0.72 ± 0.07 | 0.74 ± 0.08 | 0.545 | ||
| All, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 1.12 ± 0.07 | 1.17 ± 0.08 | 1.13 ± 0.07 | 1.07 ± 0.07 | 0.98 ± 0.06 | 1.01 ± 0.07 | 0.97 ± 0.08 | 0.88 ± 0.07 | 0.89 ± 0.07 | 0.89 ± 0.06 | 0.207 | ||
| Males, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 1.35 ± 0.11 | 1.41 ± 0.11 | 1.39 ± 0.12 | 1.34 ± 0.11 | 1.23 ± 0.10 | 1.21 ± 0.11 | 1.12 ± 0.11 | 1.14 ± 0.12 | 1.08 ± 0.11 | 1.04 ± 0.10 | 0.247 | ||
| Females, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 0.89 ± 0.08 | 0.91 ± 0.09 | 0.84 ± 0.07 | 0.80 ± 0.07 | 0.72 ± 0.06 | 0.81 ± 0.07 | 0.81 ± 0.09 | 0.61 ± 0.06 | 0.69 ± 0.06 | 0.72 ± 0.07 | 0.623 | ||
| Age group | |||||||||||||
| 3–5 yrs | 0.73 ± 0.07 | 0.67 ± 0.08 | 0.53 ± 0.05 | 0.64 ± 0.07 | 0.52 ± 0.08 | 0.48 ± 0.07 | 0.67 ± 0.10 | 0.44 ± 0.07 | 0.59 ± 0.10 | 0.63 ± 0.12 | 0.155 | ||
| 6–8 yrs | 0.68 ± 0.09 | 1.02 ± 0.11 | 0.81 ± 0.10 | 0.67 ± 0.08 | 0.56 ± 0.08 | 0.60 ± 0.08 | 0.59 ± 0.08 | 0.49 ± 0.07 | 0.59 ± 0.08 | 0.66 ± 0.10 | 0.005 | ||
| 9–11 yrs | 0.95 ± 0.10 | 0.93 ± 0.09 | 0.87 ± 0.11 | 0.70 ± 0.08 | 0.67 ± 0.08 | 0.68 ± 0.08 | 0.83 ± 0.17 | 0.53 ± 0.07 | 0.80 ± 0.10 | 0.79 ± 0.09 | 0.347 | ||
| 12–14 yrs | 1.04 ± 0.14 | 0.88 ± 0.11 | 0.79 ± 0.07 | 1.27 ± 0.15 | 0.94 ± 0.12 | 1.09 ± 0.20 | 1.02 ± 0.13 | 0.68 ± 0.12 | 0.99 ± 0.15 | 0.72 ± 0.09 | 0.714 | ||
| 15–18 yrs | 1.44 ± 0.15 | 1.24 ± 0.10 | 1.28 ± 0.13 | 1.10 ± 0.14 | 1.14 ± 0.13 | 1.36 ± 0.20 | 1.00 ± 0.11 | 0.99 ± 0.15 | 1.04 ± 0.14 | 1.27 ± 0.16 | 0.675 | ||
| 19–29 yrs | 1.30 ± 0.10 | 1.47 ± 0.10 | 1.53 ± 0.11 | 1.12 ± 0.08 | 1.09 ± 0.08 | 1.08 ± 0.08 | 1.02 ± 0.08 | 0.89 ± 0.08 | 1.03 ± 0.07 | 0.92 ± 0.08 | < 0.001 | ||
| 30–49 yrs | 1.20 ± 0.05 | 1.27 ± 0.06 | 1.13 ± 0.04 | 1.18 ± 0.05 | 1.08 ± 0.04 | 1.09 ± 0.05 | 1.05 ± 0.06 | 0.95 ± 0.06 | 0.96 ± 0.06 | 0.90 ± 0.05 | < 0.001 | ||
| 50–64 yrs | 1.03 ± 0.06 | 0.85 ± 0.04 | 0.93 ± 0.05 | 0.96 ± 0.05 | 0.84 ± 0.04 | 0.94 ± 0.05 | 0.94 ± 0.05 | 0.85 ± 0.04 | 0.73 ± 0.04 | 0.91 ± 0.05 | 0.387 | ||
| ≥ 65 yrs | 0.65 ± 0.04 | 0.66 ± 0.04 | 0.67 ± 0.04 | 0.71 ± 0.04 | 0.65 ± 0.03 | 0.65 ± 0.03 | 0.61 ± 0.04 | 0.70 ± 0.03 | 0.62 ± 0.03 | 0.62 ± 0.03 | 0.180 | ||
| In SSBs consumers | |||||||||||||
| All2) | 1.83 ± 0.10 | 1.85 ± 0.10 | 1.83 ± 0.10 | 1.85 ± 0.10 | 1.78 ± 0.09 | 1.85 ± 0.11 | 1.87 ± 0.11 | 1.77 ± 0.12 | 1.70 ± 0.11 | 1.75 ± 0.10 | 0.034 | ||
| Males2) | 2.05 ± 0.15 | 2.08 ± 0.14 | 2.05 ± 0.15 | 2.09 ± 0.14 | 1.95 ± 0.13 | 2.04 ± 0.16 | 2.03 ± 0.15 | 2.01 ± 0.18 | 1.89 ± 0.17 | 1.89 ± 0.15 | 0.007 | ||
| Females2) | 1.57 ± 0.12 | 1.58 ± 0.13 | 1.56 ± 0.12 | 1.55 ± 0.11 | 1.54 ± 0.11 | 1.62 ± 0.13 | 1.68 ± 0.14 | 1.45 ± 0.10 | 1.48 ± 0.11 | 1.59 ± 0.12 | 0.719 | ||
| All, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 1.80 ± 0.10 | 1.85 ± 0.10 | 1.83 ± 0.10 | 1.85 ± 0.09 | 1.77 ± 0.08 | 1.84 ± 0.10 | 1.88 ± 0.10 | 1.82 ± 0.12 | 1.67 ± 0.10 | 1.73 ± 0.10 | 0.129 | ||
| Males, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 2.05 ± 0.15 | 2.11 ± 0.14 | 2.09 ± 0.15 | 2.15 ± 0.14 | 1.99 ± 0.12 | 2.07 ± 0.15 | 2.04 ± 0.15 | 2.13 ± 0.18 | 1.90 ± 0.17 | 1.88 ± 0.14 | 0.074 | ||
| Females, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 1.50 ± 0.11 | 1.54 ± 0.13 | 1.50 ± 0.12 | 1.49 ± 0.10 | 1.48 ± 0.10 | 1.57 ± 0.11 | 1.69 ± 0.13 | 1.42 ± 0.09 | 1.40 ± 0.09 | 1.54 ± 0.12 | 0.963 | ||
| Age group | |||||||||||||
| 3–5 yrs | 1.36 ± 0.09 | 1.39 ± 0.13 | 1.37 ± 0.09 | 1.48 ± 0.13 | 1.38 ± 0.14 | 1.47 ± 0.11 | 1.49 ± 0.11 | 1.28 ± 0.13 | 1.60 ± 0.21 | 1.50 ± 0.19 | 0.257 | ||
| 6–8 yrs | 1.57 ± 0.17 | 1.80 ± 0.15 | 1.74 ± 0.17 | 1.50 ± 0.15 | 1.25 ± 0.11 | 1.56 ± 0.13 | 1.33 ± 0.14 | 1.25 ± 0.12 | 1.49 ± 0.14 | 1.54 ± 0.15 | 0.044 | ||
| 9–11 yrs | 1.85 ± 0.17 | 1.74 ± 0.12 | 1.81 ± 0.15 | 1.55 ± 0.12 | 1.73 ± 0.14 | 1.51 ± 0.13 | 2.03 ± 0.18 | 1.27 ± 0.12 | 1.67 ± 0.14 | 1.64 ± 0.16 | 0.809 | ||
| 12–14 yrs | 1.92 ± 0.20 | 1.89 ± 0.19 | 1.58 ± 0.11 | 2.38 ± 0.22 | 1.87 ± 0.16 | 2.06 ± 0.32 | 2.05 ± 0.24 | 1.81 ± 0.20 | 2.03 ± 0.25 | 1.63 ± 0.14 | 0.543 | ||
| 15–18 yrs | 2.54 ± 0.21 | 2.11 ± 0.14 | 2.12 ± 0.18 | 2.17 ± 0.21 | 2.19 ± 0.18 | 2.42 ± 0.29 | 1.91 ± 0.18 | 2.00 ± 0.26 | 1.95 ± 0.19 | 2.47 ± 0.22 | 0.890 | ||
| 19–29 yrs | 2.12 ± 0.13 | 2.29 ± 0.14 | 2.53 ± 0.15 | 2.16 ± 0.12 | 1.99 ± 0.10 | 2.12 ± 0.12 | 2.24 ± 0.12 | 2.04 ± 0.14 | 2.02 ± 0.11 | 1.86 ± 0.12 | 0.124 | ||
| 30–49 yrs | 1.80 ± 0.06 | 1.94 ± 0.08 | 1.76 ± 0.05 | 1.90 ± 0.06 | 1.88 ± 0.05 | 1.89 ± 0.07 | 1.91 ± 0.08 | 1.92 ± 0.10 | 1.72 ± 0.08 | 1.75 ± 0.08 | 0.628 | ||
| 50–64 yrs | 1.75 ± 0.08 | 1.47 ± 0.06 | 1.56 ± 0.07 | 1.64 ± 0.07 | 1.57 ± 0.06 | 1.65 ± 0.07 | 1.73 ± 0.07 | 1.67 ± 0.06 | 1.45 ± 0.06 | 1.69 ± 0.08 | 0.275 | ||
| ≥ 65 yrs | 1.29 ± 0.05 | 1.29 ± 0.06 | 1.18 ± 0.06 | 1.32 ± 0.05 | 1.26 ± 0.04 | 1.27 ± 0.05 | 1.31 ± 0.06 | 1.42 ± 0.05 | 1.29 ± 0.04 | 1.27 ± 0.04 | 0.208 | ||
Values are presented as the means ± SE. All statistical analyses accounted for the complex sampling design of the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, incorporating stratification variables, cluster variables, and sampling weights.
SSBs, sugar-sweetened beverages.
1)P-trends were obtained using the multiple linear regression models after adjustment for age, sex, household income, residential area, and total energy intake.
2)Age-standardized values were obtained based on the 2005 Korean population distribution. P-trends were calculated using the simple linear regression models.
In Supplementary Table 2, SSBs consumption was evaluated as grams per day. Among the total study subjects, SSBs consumption in the 19–29-yr group and older adults aged ≥ 65 yrs decreased significantly over 2014–2023, with intakes declining from 205.8 ± 14.7 to 166.6 ± 14.2 g/day among those aged 19–29 yrs (P-trend = 0.004) and from 38.6 ± 3.3 to 32.1 ± 2.3 g/day among those aged ≥ 65 yrs (P-trend = 0.002). By contrast, no significant changes in SSBs consumption were observed among children (3–11 yrs) and adolescents (12–18 yrs). Among SSBs consumers, those aged 30–64 yrs showed increased trends in SSBs consumption, with intakes rising from 170.9 ± 6.9 to 232.2 ± 12.6 g/day among those aged 30–49 yrs (P-trend < 0.001) and from 104.1 ± 5.9 to 118.3 ± 9.6 g/day among those aged 50–64 yrs (P-trend = 0.001) over 2014–2023. Other age groups in SSBs consumers did not show significant changes in SSBs consumption.
Ten-yr trends in the proportion of individuals consuming ≥ 1 and ≥ 2 servings/day of SSBs
Fig. 1 and Table 3 present the 10-yr trends in the proportions of individuals consuming ≥ 1 and ≥ 2 servings/day of SSBs, respectively. In the total study population, from 2014 to 2023, the percentage of individuals consuming SSBs ≥ 1 serving/day decreased from 41.4% (SE = 0.03) to 36.3% (SE = 0.02) among the total subjects aged 19–29 yrs, and from 43.6% (SE = 0.01) to 35.2% (SE = 0.01) among those aged 30–49 yrs (P-trends < 0.05). Although the adolescents aged 12–18 yrs showed higher proportions, the changes in the proportions across survey years were not significant. When analyzed only for SSBs consumers, the percentage of individuals consuming SSBs ≥ 1 serving/day increased significantly from 65.3% (SE = 0.02) to 68.3% (SE = 0.02) among those aged 30–49 yrs (P-trend = 0.015). The proportion of individuals who consumed SSBs ≥ 2 servings/day also decreased from 24.6% (SE = 0.02) to 18.4% (SE = 0.02) among the total subjects aged 19–29 yrs, and from 25.1% (SE = 0.01) to 17.7% (SE = 0.01) among those aged 30–49 yrs (P-trends < 0.05). Among SSBs consumers only, none of the age groups showed significant changes in the proportion of individuals who consumed SSBs ≥ 2 servings/day.
Fig. 1. Trends in the age-standardized proportion (%) of individuals who consumed ≥ 1 and ≥ 2 servings/day of SSBs over 2014–2023. Age standardization was performed based on the 2005 Korean population distribution.
SSBs, sugar-sweetened beverages.
Table 3. Trends in proportion (%) of individuals who consumed ≥ 1 and ≥ 2 servings/day of SSBs over 2014–2023 by age group.
| Age group | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 | 2023 | P-trend1) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ≥ 1 serving/day in total study subjects | ||||||||||||
| 3–5 yrs | 31.5 (0.03) | 28.7 (0.03) | 23.2 (0.02) | 27.8 (0.03) | 26.4 (0.03) | 21.7 (0.03) | 30.7 (0.05) | 23.2 (0.04) | 26.6 (0.05) | 25.4 (0.04) | 0.285 | |
| 6–8 yrs | 25.3 (0.03) | 38.6 (0.04) | 30.1 (0.03) | 26.3 (0.03) | 25.7 (0.03) | 23.3 (0.03) | 23.0 (0.04) | 21.7 (0.03) | 26.1 (0.04) | 27.0 (0.05) | 0.087 | |
| 9–11 yrs | 33.7 (0.03) | 36.5 (0.04) | 32.9 (0.04) | 26.8 (0.03) | 25.1 (0.03) | 25.6 (0.03) | 30.5 (0.06) | 24.2 (0.04) | 34.1 (0.04) | 33.2 (0.04) | 0.911 | |
| 12–14 yrs | 33.6 (0.03) | 34.5 (0.03) | 31.7 (0.03) | 39.1 (0.04) | 38.5 (0.04) | 34.6 (0.04) | 37.2 (0.04) | 21.6 (0.04) | 37.7 (0.05) | 30.5 (0.04) | 0.910 | |
| 15–18 yrs | 41.4 (0.03) | 43.6 (0.03) | 43.2 (0.03) | 38.1 (0.03) | 43.1 (0.04) | 42.3 (0.04) | 33.8 (0.04) | 35.6 (0.05) | 41.4 (0.05) | 42.7 (0.04) | 0.642 | |
| 19–29 yrs | 41.4 (0.03) | 47.6 (0.02) | 45.5 (0.02) | 38.4 (0.02) | 38.2 (0.02) | 36.3 (0.02) | 34.5 (0.02) | 32.0 (0.02) | 38.1 (0.02) | 36.3 (0.02) | 0.001 | |
| 30–49 yrs | 43.6 (0.01) | 44.1 (0.02) | 42.6 (0.02) | 42.6 (0.01) | 41.1 (0.01) | 41.3 (0.02) | 40.3 (0.02) | 36.0 (0.02) | 37.1 (0.01) | 35.2 (0.01) | < 0.001 | |
| 50–64 yrs | 40.2 (0.02) | 37.4 (0.02) | 38.5 (0.02) | 36.6 (0.01) | 34.6 (0.01) | 37.4 (0.01) | 38.9 (0.02) | 35.6 (0.02) | 32.4 (0.01) | 36.3 (0.01) | 0.183 | |
| ≥ 65 yrs | 34.2 (0.02) | 34.4 (0.02) | 33.8 (0.02) | 34.1 (0.02) | 31.8 (0.01) | 31.9 (0.01) | 30.7 (0.02) | 35.1 (0.02) | 32.4 (0.02) | 32.0 (0.01) | 0.249 | |
| ≥ 1 serving/day in SSBs consumers | ||||||||||||
| 3–5 yrs | 59.1 (0.05) | 59.9 (0.06) | 59.8 (0.05) | 64.2 (0.06) | 69.3 (0.05) | 66.1 (0.05) | 68.3 (0.08) | 67.3 (0.08) | 72.1 (0.09) | 60.1 (0.06) | 0.106 | |
| 6–8 yrs | 58.2 (0.05) | 68.1 (0.05) | 64.4 (0.05) | 58.6 (0.05) | 57.1 (0.05) | 61.4 (0.05) | 52.2 (0.07) | 55.4 (0.06) | 66.4 (0.05) | 63.1 (0.07) | 0.593 | |
| 9–11 yrs | 65.9 (0.05) | 68.3 (0.04) | 68.8 (0.05) | 58.7 (0.05) | 64.8 (0.05) | 57.2 (0.05) | 74.5 (0.06) | 58.1 (0.08) | 70.8 (0.06) | 68.4 (0.07) | 0.338 | |
| 12–14 yrs | 61.7 (0.05) | 73.9 (0.05) | 62.8 (0.05) | 73.2 (0.04) | 76.7 (0.05) | 65.3 (0.05) | 74.6 (0.05) | 57.6 (0.08) | 77.5 (0.07) | 68.9 (0.05) | 0.180 | |
| 15–18 yrs | 72.9 (0.04) | 74.1 (0.04) | 71.6 (0.04) | 75.2 (0.05) | 83.0 (0.04) | 75.3 (0.04) | 64.5 (0.05) | 71.4 (0.07) | 77.8 (0.05) | 83.2 (0.04) | 0.129 | |
| 19–29 yrs | 67.4 (0.03) | 74.2 (0.03) | 75.5 (0.03) | 74.1 (0.03) | 69.6 (0.03) | 71.5 (0.03) | 76.0 (0.03) | 73.4 (0.03) | 74.4 (0.03) | 73.4 (0.03) | 0.129 | |
| 30–49 yrs | 65.3 (0.02) | 67.5 (0.02) | 66.6 (0.02) | 68.6 (0.02) | 71.3 (0.02) | 71.7 (0.02) | 73.5 (0.02) | 72.5 (0.02) | 66.2 (0.02) | 68.3 (0.02) | 0.015 | |
| 50–64 yrs | 68.6 (0.02) | 64.3 (0.02) | 64.8 (0.02) | 62.5 (0.02) | 64.7 (0.02) | 65.6 (0.02) | 71.4 (0.02) | 69.4 (0.02) | 64.3 (0.02) | 67.3 (0.02) | 0.123 | |
| ≥ 65 yrs | 67.3 (0.02) | 66.9 (0.02) | 59.1 (0.02) | 63.2 (0.02) | 61.6 (0.02) | 61.9 (0.02) | 65.7 (0.02) | 71.3 (0.02) | 67.3 (0.02) | 65.6 (0.02) | 0.057 | |
| ≥ 2 servings/day in total study subjects | ||||||||||||
| 3–5 yrs | 11.0 (0.02) | 11.3 (0.02) | 9.0 (0.02) | 12.1 (0.02) | 8.0 (0.02) | 8.3 (0.02) | 16.1 (0.04) | 5.7 (0.02) | 10.2 (0.03) | 14.2 (0.04) | 0.920 | |
| 6–8 yrs | 10.9 (0.02) | 19.8 (0.03) | 15.3 (0.03) | 11.7 (0.02) | 7.7 (0.02) | 12.0 (0.02) | 11.0 (0.03) | 7.9 (0.02) | 13.5 (0.03) | 14.0 (0.03) | 0.367 | |
| 9–11 yrs | 16.6 (0.03) | 17.9 (0.03) | 17.2 (0.03) | 12.4 (0.02) | 12.5 (0.02) | 12.2 (0.02) | 19.7 (0.05) | 10.4 (0.03) | 17.6 (0.03) | 14.3 (0.03) | 0.858 | |
| 12–14 yrs | 20.1 (0.03) | 17.1 (0.03) | 14.2 (0.02) | 23.5 (0.03) | 16.4 (0.03) | 20.7 (0.03) | 19.4 (0.04) | 13.1 (0.03) | 16.0 (0.03) | 15.3 (0.03) | 0.666 | |
| 15–18 yrs | 27.8 (0.03) | 24.4 (0.03) | 24.8 (0.03) | 22.7 (0.03) | 22.3 (0.03) | 24.6 (0.04) | 21.5 (0.03) | 17.3 (0.03) | 22.5 (0.04) | 25.8 (0.04) | 0.928 | |
| 19–29 yrs | 24.6 (0.02) | 30.3 (0.02) | 28.8 (0.02) | 21.6 (0.02) | 23.7 (0.02) | 20.5 (0.02) | 21.5 (0.02) | 16.6 (0.02) | 21.6 (0.02) | 18.4 (0.02) | 0.002 | |
| 30–49 yrs | 25.1 (0.01) | 26.1 (0.01) | 24.8 (0.01) | 25.2 (0.01) | 21.7 (0.01) | 21.4 (0.01) | 21.4 (0.02) | 19.1 (0.01) | 18.7 (0.01) | 17.7 (0.01) | < 0.001 | |
| 50–64 yrs | 21.8 (0.01) | 18.5 (0.01) | 20.6 (0.01) | 21.6 (0.01) | 19.0 (0.01) | 19.5 (0.01) | 20.8 (0.01) | 18.6 (0.01) | 15.5 (0.01) | 19.8 (0.01) | 0.329 | |
| ≥ 65 yrs | 14.0 (0.01) | 13.9 (0.01) | 13.2 (0.01) | 14.5 (0.01) | 12.2 (0.01) | 12.8 (0.01) | 11.9 (0.01) | 15.4 (0.01) | 12.8 (0.01) | 13.3 (0.01) | 0.628 | |
| ≥ 2 servings/day in SSBs consumers | ||||||||||||
| 3–5 yrs | 20.6 (0.04) | 23.5 (0.05) | 23.4 (0.04) | 27.9 (0.05) | 20.9 (0.05) | 25.2 (0.05) | 35.8 (0.06) | 16.6 (0.06) | 27.5 (0.08) | 33.5 (0.07) | 0.105 | |
| 6–8 yrs | 25.0 (0.04) | 34.8 (0.05) | 32.6 (0.05) | 26.0 (0.04) | 17.2 (0.04) | 31.6 (0.05) | 25.0 (0.06) | 20.2 (0.05) | 34.4 (0.06) | 32.8 (0.06) | 0.920 | |
| 9–11 yrs | 32.5 (0.05) | 33.5 (0.04) | 36.0 (0.06) | 27.3 (0.04) | 32.2 (0.04) | 27.3 (0.05) | 48.3 (0.08) | 25.0 (0.06) | 36.5 (0.05) | 29.5 (0.05) | 0.468 | |
| 12–14 yrs | 37.0 (0.05) | 36.7 (0.06) | 28.1 (0.05) | 44.0 (0.05) | 32.6 (0.05) | 39.0 (0.05) | 38.8 (0.08) | 35.0 (0.07) | 32.9 (0.07) | 34.6 (0.05) | 0.767 | |
| 15–18 yrs | 48.9 (0.04) | 41.5 (0.05) | 41.1 (0.05) | 44.7 (0.05) | 42.9 (0.05) | 43.9 (0.05) | 41.1 (0.06) | 34.7 (0.06) | 42.3 (0.07) | 50.4 (0.06) | 0.858 | |
| 19–29 yrs | 40.1 (0.03) | 47.3 (0.03) | 47.7 (0.03) | 41.7 (0.03) | 43.2 (0.04) | 40.4 (0.03) | 47.3 (0.03) | 38.1 (0.04) | 42.1 (0.03) | 37.3 (0.03) | 0.672 | |
| 30–49 yrs | 37.5 (0.02) | 39.9 (0.02) | 38.7 (0.02) | 40.5 (0.02) | 37.6 (0.02) | 37.1 (0.02) | 38.9 (0.02) | 38.4 (0.02) | 33.4 (0.02) | 34.3 (0.02) | 0.182 | |
| 50–64 yrs | 37.2 (0.02) | 31.8 (0.02) | 34.6 (0.02) | 36.8 (0.02) | 35.5 (0.02) | 34.1 (0.02) | 38.1 (0.02) | 36.2 (0.02) | 30.6 (0.02) | 36.8 (0.02) | 0.523 | |
| ≥ 65 yrs | 27.5 (0.02) | 27.0 (0.02) | 23.2 (0.02) | 26.9 (0.02) | 23.6 (0.02) | 24.9 (0.02) | 25.3 (0.02) | 31.2 (0.02) | 26.6 (0.02) | 27.3 (0.02) | 0.293 | |
Values are presented as weighted % (SE). All statistical analyses accounted for the complex sampling design of the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, incorporating stratification variables, cluster variables, and sampling weights.
SSBs, sugar-sweetened beverages.
1)P-trends were obtained using the multiple logistic regression models after adjustment for age, sex, household income, residential area, and total energy intake.
Ten-yr trends in energy and sugar contributions from SSBs
In the total study subjects, the percentages of energy and sugar intakes from SSBs showed decreasing trends among adults (P-trends < 0.05), while no significant changes were observed in children and adolescents (Tables 4 and 5). In SSBs consumers, only the elderly (≥ 65 yrs) showed significant decreasing trends in energy and sugar contributions from SSBs (P-trends < 0.05). Similar trends were observed when evaluated in units of energy intake (kcal/day) or sugar intake (g/day) from SSBs (Supplementary Tables 3 and 4).
Table 4. Trends in % of energy intake from SSBs over 2014–2023.
| Sex and age group | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 | 2023 | P-trend1) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In total study subjects | |||||||||||||
| All2) | 4.0 ± 0.2 | 4.1 ± 0.3 | 4.4 ± 0.3 | 4.0 ± 0.3 | 3.6 ± 0.2 | 3.8 ± 0.2 | 3.7 ± 0.3 | 3.4 ± 0.3 | 3.5 ± 0.3 | 3.6 ± 0.3 | 0.004 | ||
| Males2) | 4.2 ± 0.3 | 4.2 ± 0.4 | 4.7 ± 0.4 | 4.3 ± 0.3 | 4.0 ± 0.3 | 3.9 ± 0.3 | 4.0 ± 0.4 | 3.8 ± 0.4 | 3.8 ± 0.4 | 3.7 ± 0.4 | < 0.001 | ||
| Females2) | 3.8 ± 0.3 | 3.9 ± 0.3 | 3.9 ± 0.3 | 3.6 ± 0.3 | 3.2 ± 0.3 | 3.6 ± 0.3 | 3.5 ± 0.4 | 2.9 ± 0.3 | 3.2 ± 0.3 | 3.5 ± 0.4 | 0.069 | ||
| All, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 4.1 ± 0.2 | 4.2 ± 0.3 | 4.5 ± 0.2 | 4.1 ± 0.3 | 3.7 ± 0.2 | 3.9 ± 0.2 | 3.8 ± 0.3 | 3.5 ± 0.3 | 3.5 ± 0.2 | 3.7 ± 0.2 | 0.001 | ||
| Males, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 4.4 ± 0.3 | 4.3 ± 0.4 | 5.0 ± 0.4 | 4.6 ± 0.3 | 4.2 ± 0.3 | 4.2 ± 0.3 | 4.1 ± 0.4 | 4.2 ± 0.4 | 3.9 ± 0.3 | 3.8 ± 0.3 | < 0.001 | ||
| Females, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 3.8 ± 0.3 | 4.0 ± 0.3 | 4.0 ± 0.3 | 3.7 ± 0.3 | 3.1 ± 0.3 | 3.7 ± 0.3 | 3.5 ± 0.4 | 2.8 ± 0.3 | 3.2 ± 0.3 | 3.5 ± 0.3 | 0.050 | ||
| Age group | |||||||||||||
| 3–5 yrs | 2.8 ± 0.3 | 2.8 ± 0.3 | 2.5 ± 0.2 | 2.7 ± 0.3 | 2.4 ± 0.3 | 2.1 ± 0.3 | 3.0 ± 0.5 | 1.7 ± 0.3 | 2.2 ± 0.3 | 2.6 ± 0.4 | 0.095 | ||
| 6–8 yrs | 2.7 ± 0.3 | 3.5 ± 0.4 | 3.0 ± 0.4 | 2.4 ± 0.3 | 2.6 ± 0.4 | 2.4 ± 0.3 | 2.4 ± 0.4 | 2.1 ± 0.3 | 2.3 ± 0.5 | 3.1 ± 0.5 | 0.161 | ||
| 9–11 yrs | 3.0 ± 0.4 | 3.1 ± 0.3 | 3.1 ± 0.4 | 2.5 ± 0.3 | 2.5 ± 0.3 | 2.4 ± 0.3 | 3.6 ± 0.8 | 2.4 ± 0.4 | 3.1 ± 0.5 | 3.4 ± 0.4 | 0.554 | ||
| 12–14 yrs | 3.4 ± 0.4 | 3.0 ± 0.4 | 3.0 ± 0.3 | 4.0 ± 0.5 | 3.4 ± 0.4 | 3.6 ± 0.6 | 4.0 ± 0.5 | 2.8 ± 0.5 | 3.5 ± 0.4 | 2.8 ± 0.4 | 0.767 | ||
| 15–18 yrs | 4.9 ± 0.5 | 4.6 ± 0.4 | 4.9 ± 0.4 | 4.2 ± 0.5 | 4.1 ± 0.5 | 4.7 ± 0.5 | 4.3 ± 0.5 | 3.7 ± 0.5 | 4.4 ± 0.6 | 4.9 ± 0.6 | 0.679 | ||
| 19–29 yrs | 5.0 ± 0.3 | 5.3 ± 0.3 | 5.7 ± 0.3 | 4.4 ± 0.3 | 4.3 ± 0.3 | 4.6 ± 0.3 | 3.9 ± 0.3 | 4.0 ± 0.4 | 4.2 ± 0.3 | 4.2 ± 0.3 | < 0.001 | ||
| 30–49 yrs | 4.4 ± 0.2 | 4.3 ± 0.2 | 4.6 ± 0.2 | 4.4 ± 0.2 | 3.9 ± 0.2 | 3.9 ± 0.2 | 4.1 ± 0.2 | 3.6 ± 0.2 | 3.7 ± 0.2 | 3.7 ± 0.2 | < 0.001 | ||
| 50–64 yrs | 3.4 ± 0.2 | 3.3 ± 0.1 | 3.9 ± 0.2 | 3.8 ± 0.2 | 3.1 ± 0.1 | 3.7 ± 0.2 | 3.4 ± 0.2 | 3.3 ± 0.2 | 2.9 ± 0.1 | 3.4 ± 0.2 | 0.026 | ||
| ≥ 65 yrs | 2.9 ± 0.2 | 3.0 ± 0.1 | 3.4 ± 0.1 | 3.4 ± 0.2 | 3.0 ± 0.1 | 3.1 ± 0.1 | 2.9 ± 0.2 | 3.1 ± 0.1 | 2.7 ± 0.1 | 2.7 ± 0.1 | < 0.001 | ||
| In SSBs consumers | |||||||||||||
| All2) | 6.7 ± 0.3 | 6.7 ± 0.3 | 7.4 ± 0.3 | 7.1 ± 0.4 | 6.8 ± 0.3 | 7.1 ± 0.3 | 7.4 ± 0.4 | 7.2 ± 0.5 | 6.7 ± 0.4 | 7.3 ± 0.4 | 0.282 | ||
| Males2) | 6.7 ± 0.4 | 6.6 ± 0.4 | 7.5 ± 0.5 | 7.2 ± 0.4 | 6.9 ± 0.4 | 7.0 ± 0.5 | 7.4 ± 0.6 | 7.4 ± 0.6 | 6.9 ± 0.5 | 7.0 ± 0.5 | 0.410 | ||
| Females2) | 6.6 ± 0.4 | 6.8 ± 0.5 | 7.2 ± 0.5 | 7.0 ± 0.5 | 6.6 ± 0.5 | 7.2 ± 0.5 | 7.4 ± 0.6 | 6.7 ± 0.5 | 6.5 ± 0.5 | 7.6 ± 0.6 | 0.342 | ||
| All, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 6.6 ± 0.3 | 6.7 ± 0.3 | 7.4 ± 0.3 | 7.1 ± 0.3 | 6.7 ± 0.3 | 7.2 ± 0.3 | 7.4 ± 0.4 | 7.3 ± 0.4 | 6.6 ± 0.3 | 7.2 ± 0.4 | 0.312 | ||
| Males, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 6.8 ± 0.4 | 6.5 ± 0.4 | 7.6 ± 0.5 | 7.4 ± 0.4 | 6.8 ± 0.4 | 7.2 ± 0.5 | 7.4 ± 0.5 | 7.9 ± 0.6 | 6.9 ± 0.5 | 6.9 ± 0.5 | 0.444 | ||
| Females, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 6.5 ± 0.4 | 6.9 ± 0.5 | 7.1 ± 0.4 | 6.8 ± 0.5 | 6.5 ± 0.4 | 7.1 ± 0.4 | 7.3 ± 0.6 | 6.6 ± 0.5 | 6.4 ± 0.4 | 7.5 ± 0.5 | 0.363 | ||
| Age group | |||||||||||||
| 3–5 yrs | 5.3 ± 0.3 | 5.9 ± 0.5 | 6.6 ± 0.4 | 6.2 ± 0.4 | 6.2 ± 0.6 | 6.2 ± 0.6 | 6.7 ± 0.6 | 5.0 ± 0.7 | 5.8 ± 0.7 | 6.1 ± 0.7 | 0.841 | ||
| 6–8 yrs | 6.1 ± 0.5 | 6.1 ± 0.5 | 6.5 ± 0.7 | 5.4 ± 0.4 | 5.9 ± 0.7 | 6.4 ± 0.5 | 5.4 ± 0.6 | 5.4 ± 0.5 | 5.9 ± 1.1 | 7.2 ± 0.7 | 0.989 | ||
| 9–11 yrs | 5.8 ± 0.6 | 5.9 ± 0.4 | 6.4 ± 0.5 | 5.4 ± 0.4 | 6.5 ± 0.5 | 5.4 ± 0.4 | 8.8 ± 0.9 | 5.6 ± 0.7 | 6.4 ± 0.7 | 7.0 ± 0.7 | 0.231 | ||
| 12–14 yrs | 6.3 ± 0.6 | 6.5 ± 0.6 | 6.0 ± 0.5 | 7.6 ± 0.6 | 6.8 ± 0.6 | 6.8 ± 0.8 | 8.0 ± 0.9 | 7.4 ± 0.9 | 7.2 ± 0.7 | 6.4 ± 0.6 | 0.357 | ||
| 15–18 yrs | 8.6 ± 0.6 | 7.8 ± 0.5 | 8.1 ± 0.5 | 8.4 ± 0.8 | 7.9 ± 0.7 | 8.4 ± 0.7 | 8.2 ± 0.7 | 7.5 ± 0.9 | 8.2 ± 0.8 | 9.5 ± 0.8 | 0.873 | ||
| 19–29 yrs | 8.1 ± 0.4 | 8.3 ± 0.4 | 9.4 ± 0.4 | 8.4 ± 0.4 | 7.8 ± 0.4 | 9.2 ± 0.5 | 8.7 ± 0.4 | 9.1 ± 0.7 | 8.3 ± 0.4 | 8.6 ± 0.5 | 0.714 | ||
| 30–49 yrs | 6.6 ± 0.2 | 6.6 ± 0.2 | 7.2 ± 0.2 | 7.0 ± 0.3 | 6.8 ± 0.2 | 6.8 ± 0.2 | 7.4 ± 0.3 | 7.2 ± 0.3 | 6.6 ± 0.2 | 7.1 ± 0.3 | 0.811 | ||
| 50–64 yrs | 5.8 ± 0.2 | 5.6 ± 0.2 | 6.6 ± 0.3 | 6.4 ± 0.2 | 5.9 ± 0.2 | 6.4 ± 0.2 | 6.3 ± 0.2 | 6.5 ± 0.3 | 5.7 ± 0.2 | 6.4 ± 0.2 | 0.724 | ||
| ≥ 65 yrs | 5.8 ± 0.2 | 5.7 ± 0.2 | 6.0 ± 0.2 | 6.3 ± 0.2 | 5.8 ± 0.2 | 6.0 ± 0.2 | 6.3 ± 0.3 | 6.2 ± 0.2 | 5.6 ± 0.2 | 5.6 ± 0.2 | 0.028 | ||
Values are presented as means ± SE. All statistical analyses accounted for the complex sampling design of the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, incorporating stratification variables, cluster variables, and sampling weights.
SSBs, sugar-sweetened beverages.
1)P-trends were obtained using the multiple linear regression models after adjustment for age, sex, household income, residential area, and total energy intake.
2)Age-standardized values were obtained based on the 2005 Korean population distribution. P-trends were calculated using the simple linear regression models.
Table 5. Trends in % of sugar intake from SSBs over 2016–2023.
| Sex and age group | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 | 2023 | P-trend1) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| In total study subjects | |||||||||||
| All2) | 20.3 ± 1.0 | 19.1 ± 1.1 | 18.1 ± 1.1 | 17.9 ± 1.0 | 17.9 ± 1.3 | 15.8 ± 1.2 | 16.8 ± 1.1 | 16.7 ± 1.1 | 0.005 | ||
| Males2) | 23.3 ± 1.5 | 22.1 ± 1.5 | 21.2 ± 1.6 | 19.9 ± 1.5 | 20.3 ± 1.7 | 18.3 ± 1.7 | 19.0 ± 1.6 | 18.5 ± 1.6 | 0.006 | ||
| Females2) | 17.0 ± 1.2 | 15.8 ± 1.2 | 14.7 ± 1.2 | 15.7 ± 1.2 | 15.5 ± 1.5 | 13.0 ± 1.4 | 14.5 ± 1.3 | 14.8 ± 1.4 | 0.034 | ||
| All, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 20.7 ± 1.0 | 19.6 ± 1.0 | 18.4 ± 1.0 | 18.1 ± 1.0 | 18.0 ± 1.2 | 16.2 ± 1.1 | 16.9 ± 1.0 | 16.7 ± 1.0 | 0.004 | ||
| Males, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 24.2 ± 1.5 | 23.1 ± 1.5 | 22.1 ± 1.6 | 20.4 ± 1.4 | 20.5 ± 1.7 | 19.7 ± 1.7 | 19.7 ± 1.6 | 18.9 ± 1.5 | 0.011 | ||
| Females, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 16.9 ± 1.1 | 16.0 ± 1.2 | 14.5 ± 1.1 | 15.7 ± 1.1 | 15.4 ± 1.4 | 12.5 ± 1.2 | 14.0 ± 1.2 | 14.4 ± 1.3 | 0.032 | ||
| Age group | |||||||||||
| 3–5 yrs | 11.7 ± 1.1 | 12.0 ± 1.3 | 9.8 ± 1.3 | 9.3 ± 1.3 | 14.6 ± 2.3 | 8.2 ± 1.3 | 10.3 ± 1.6 | 11.2 ± 1.8 | 0.465 | ||
| 6–8 yrs | 13.9 ± 1.4 | 12.4 ± 1.2 | 12.5 ± 1.4 | 11.7 ± 1.4 | 11.8 ± 1.5 | 11.7 ± 2.0 | 10.2 ± 1.6 | 13.1 ± 1.9 | 0.276 | ||
| 9–11 yrs | 16.5 ± 1.9 | 13.8 ± 1.6 | 13.5 ± 1.4 | 13.8 ± 1.4 | 15.9 ± 3.1 | 13.7 ± 2.1 | 16.0 ± 2.3 | 17.9 ± 2.3 | 0.308 | ||
| 12–14 yrs | 17.8 ± 1.5 | 21.4 ± 2.4 | 20.5 ± 2.2 | 20.1 ± 2.1 | 20.1 ± 2.0 | 14.1 ± 2.3 | 18.2 ± 2.2 | 15.7 ± 1.9 | 0.050 | ||
| 15–18 yrs | 25.4 ± 1.9 | 22.0 ± 1.9 | 21.3 ± 1.9 | 23.9 ± 2.3 | 22.7 ± 2.3 | 17.7 ± 2.0 | 22.7 ± 2.6 | 21.5 ± 2.3 | 0.426 | ||
| 19–29 yrs | 27.1 ± 1.5 | 21.6 ± 1.3 | 22.8 ± 1.4 | 22.4 ± 1.3 | 19.6 ± 1.4 | 19.4 ± 1.5 | 20.8 ± 1.1 | 19.6 ± 1.3 | 0.001 | ||
| 30–49 yrs | 21.0 ± 0.7 | 20.9 ± 0.8 | 19.0 ± 0.6 | 18.1 ± 0.7 | 19.5 ± 1.0 | 16.7 ± 0.8 | 18.1 ± 0.8 | 17.1 ± 0.8 | < 0.001 | ||
| 50–64 yrs | 15.8 ± 0.6 | 16.6 ± 0.7 | 14.8 ± 0.7 | 15.8 ± 0.7 | 15.2 ± 0.8 | 14.0 ± 0.6 | 12.9 ± 0.7 | 14.7 ± 0.7 | 0.001 | ||
| ≥ 65 yrs | 16.1 ± 0.7 | 16.1 ± 0.8 | 15.0 ± 0.7 | 13.9 ± 0.6 | 12.7 ± 0.8 | 13.2 ± 0.6 | 12.0 ± 0.6 | 12.0 ± 0.5 | < 0.001 | ||
| In SSBs consumers | |||||||||||
| All2) | 34.3 ± 1.2 | 34.2 ± 1.3 | 33.9 ± 1.4 | 33.8 ± 1.3 | 35.6 ± 1.6 | 33.9 ± 1.7 | 32.6 ± 1.5 | 33.4 ± 1.4 | 0.278 | ||
| Males2) | 36.7 ± 1.7 | 36.8 ± 1.8 | 36.4 ± 1.8 | 36.0 ± 1.8 | 37.7 ± 2.1 | 36.4 ± 2.4 | 34.9 ± 2.1 | 34.8 ± 2.1 | 0.095 | ||
| Females2) | 31.3 ± 1.5 | 31.1 ± 1.7 | 30.6 ± 1.7 | 31.2 ± 1.6 | 33.1 ± 2.0 | 30.5 ± 2.1 | 29.7 ± 1.9 | 31.8 ± 2.0 | 0.892 | ||
| All, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 33.7 ± 1.1 | 33.9 ± 1.3 | 33.2 ± 1.3 | 33.3 ± 1.2 | 34.9 ± 1.5 | 33.9 ± 1.6 | 31.9 ± 1.4 | 32.8 ± 1.3 | 0.343 | ||
| Males, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 36.5 ± 1.6 | 37.2 ± 1.7 | 35.8 ± 1.8 | 35.3 ± 1.7 | 37.5 ± 2.1 | 37.2 ± 2.2 | 35.0 ± 2.0 | 34.4 ± 1.8 | 0.259 | ||
| Females, ≥ 19 yrs2) | 30.1 ± 1.4 | 30.1 ± 1.6 | 29.8 ± 1.6 | 30.7 ± 1.5 | 32.0 ± 1.9 | 29.5 ± 1.8 | 28.2 ± 1.6 | 31.0 ± 1.8 | 0.921 | ||
| Age group | |||||||||||
| 3–5 yrs | 30.2 ± 2.1 | 27.7 ± 1.6 | 25.6 ± 2.1 | 28.3 ± 2.1 | 32.5 ± 2.8 | 23.7 ± 2.2 | 27.8 ± 3.1 | 26.4 ± 2.8 | 0.369 | ||
| 6–8 yrs | 29.8 ± 2.3 | 27.7 ± 1.6 | 27.8 ± 1.8 | 30.9 ± 2.2 | 26.7 ± 2.5 | 29.9 ± 3.0 | 25.9 ± 2.9 | 30.6 ± 2.7 | 0.517 | ||
| 9–11 yrs | 34.5 ± 2.4 | 30.3 ± 2.5 | 34.9 ± 2.2 | 30.9 ± 1.7 | 38.9 ± 3.2 | 32.9 ± 3.4 | 33.2 ± 3.5 | 37.0 ± 3.4 | 0.553 | ||
| 12–14 yrs | 35.3 ± 1.9 | 40.0 ± 2.4 | 40.8 ± 2.6 | 37.9 ± 2.2 | 40.4 ± 2.5 | 37.6 ± 3.5 | 37.5 ± 3.3 | 35.4 ± 3.0 | 0.705 | ||
| 15–18 yrs | 42.1 ± 1.9 | 43.2 ± 2.4 | 41.0 ± 2.7 | 42.5 ± 2.7 | 43.4 ± 2.7 | 35.6 ± 2.8 | 42.6 ± 3.1 | 41.8 ± 2.6 | 0.410 | ||
| 19–29 yrs | 44.9 ± 1.4 | 41.7 ± 1.6 | 41.5 ± 1.7 | 44.1 ± 1.6 | 43.2 ± 1.7 | 44.6 ± 2.2 | 40.5 ± 1.4 | 39.7 ± 1.5 | 0.051 | ||
| 30–49 yrs | 32.8 ± 0.7 | 33.7 ± 0.9 | 32.9 ± 0.8 | 31.5 ± 0.8 | 35.5 ± 1.1 | 33.5 ± 1.2 | 32.2 ± 1.0 | 33.1 ± 1.0 | 0.317 | ||
| 50–64 yrs | 26.6 ± 0.8 | 28.3 ± 0.8 | 27.6 ± 0.9 | 27.7 ± 0.8 | 27.9 ± 1.0 | 27.3 ± 1.0 | 25.5 ± 1.1 | 27.3 ± 0.9 | 0.103 | ||
| ≥ 65 yrs | 28.2 ± 0.9 | 29.7 ± 1.1 | 29.0 ± 0.9 | 27.0 ± 0.9 | 27.1 ± 1.3 | 26.8 ± 0.9 | 24.9 ± 0.8 | 24.6 ± 0.7 | < 0.001 | ||
Values are presented as means ± SE. All statistical analyses accounted for the complex sampling design of the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, incorporating stratification variables, cluster variables, and sampling weights.
SSBs, sugar-sweetened beverages.
1)P-trends were obtained using the multiple linear regression models after adjustment for age, sex, household income, residential area, and total energy intake.
2)Age-standardized values were obtained based on the 2005 Korean population distribution. P-trends were calculated using the simple linear regression models.
DISCUSSION
The current study provided a comprehensive assessment of the age-specific trends in SSBs consumption among Koreans over 2014–2023. In the total study population, a significant decrease in SSBs consumption (servings/day) was observed among individuals aged 19–49 yrs, but other age groups did not show changes in SSBs consumption across survey years. When analyzed only for SSBs consumers, no changes in SSBs consumption were seen in most age groups. The proportion of individuals consuming ≥ 1 serving/day of SSBs declined in the total study subjects but increased in SSBs consumers. In the total study population, the energy and sugar intakes from SSBs showed decreasing trends among adults, while no significant changes were observed in children and adolescents.
The trends in SSBs consumption showed differences across regions and countries. Based on the global data from 185 countries, SSBs consumption among adults (aged ≥ 20 yrs) increased by 16% from 1990 to 2018 (from 2.3 to 2.7 servings/week) [12]. According to regions, the largest increase was observed in sub-Saharan Africa (81.9%, from 3.6 to 6.6 servings/week), while high-income countries experienced a 23% decrease (from 4.0 to 3.7 servings/week) [12]. Similarly, SSBs consumption among children and adolescents (aged 3–19 yrs) across 185 countries increased by 23% during the same period (from 2.8 to 3.6 servings/week) [13]. Sub-Saharan Africa showed the largest increase (106%, from 2.1 to 4.2 servings/week), but high-income countries showed a 24.1% decline [13]. Among young adults (aged 15–39 yrs), the global prevalence of high SSBs consumption (defined as the consumption of beverages with ≥ 50 kcal per 226.8 g, excluding 100% fruit and vegetable juices) increased from 6.58% in 1990 to 11.13% in 2021, with East Asia reporting the fastest increase and North America showing the highest prevalence in 2021 [14]. In European countries, however, the daily SSBs consumption among adolescents declined in all 21 surveyed countries between 2002 and 2018, although the prevalence of daily SSBs consumption was relatively high in certain countries as of 2018 [15]. Similarly, in the US, decreases in added sugar intake from SSBs were observed among children, adolescents, and teens over 2001–2018 [22]. In the present study, the consumption of SSBs showed a statistically significant decline or no significant changes among all study participants. In SSBs consumers, however, significant increases in the daily consumption of SSBs (g/day) as well as the prevalence of moderate consumption (≥ 1 serving/day) were observed in certain age groups.
Despite the overall decreasing trends of SSBs consumption observed in the total subjects of the current study, SSBs consumption in Koreans was substantially higher than the regional average of Southeast and East Asia (0.9 servings/week in adults and 2.1 servings/week in children and adolescents) [12,13]. In particular, in SSBs consumers, adolescents and young adults had approximately 2 servings/day of SSBs consumption in 2023. Among South Australian adults, the proportion of individuals consuming any type of SSBs decreased between 2008 and 2017, but the mean volume of SSBs consumption per consumer increased by 11.6% over the same period (from 528 to 589 mL/day, P < 0.001) [23]. In the US study, the proportion of individuals with heavy SSBs consumption (≥ 500 kcal/day) showed significant decreases among children (from 10.9% to 3.3%) and adults (from 12.7% to 9.1%) over 2003–2016 [24]. Nevertheless, by age group, no significant change was observed among adults aged 40–59 yrs, and a significant increase was shown among those aged ≥ 60 yrs [24]. These findings suggest that individuals who habitually consume SSBs should be targeted primarily for nutrition interventions to reduce SSBs consumption.
The present study showed age-specific trends in SSBs consumption in Korea. According to previous Korean studies, differences in SSBs consumption have been reported according to age groups, and the highest consumption of SSBs was observed among adolescents and young adults [17,19]. In a nationally representative sample from 2020–2022 KNHANES data, SSBs consumption among adolescents aged 12–18 yrs and young adults aged 19–29 yrs was 172.5 and 169.1 g/day, respectively, and when restricted to SSBs consumers only, these values increased substantially to 355.3 g/day (2.0 servings/day) and 364.5 g/day (2.1 servings/day) [19]. Adolescents and young adults also obtained the highest energy from SSBs (74.2 and 75.9 kcal/day, respectively) and derived approximately 20% of their dietary sugar intake from SSBs [19]. A previous study conducted in China reported slightly higher SSBs consumption than that observed among Korean children and adolescents [25]. The median SSBs consumption among Chinese school-aged children (aged 6–17 yrs; n = 25,553) was 181.0 g/day (2.2 times/week) in 2012 [25]. In addition, previous Korean studies reported that different types of SSBs were mainly consumed by age groups [17,19]. Korean children primarily consumed fruit juices and drinks, whereas adolescents and young adults showed the highest consumption of soft drinks [19]. Among adults aged ≥ 50 yrs, sweetened coffee was consumed as the predominant SSBs type [19]. Thus, tailored nutritional education and counseling are needed, considering the amount and type of SSBs consumed by specific age groups.
In most countries, SSBs are reported as the leading source of added sugars. Although significant declines in added sugars intake from SSBs were observed in the US, SSBs remained the top source of added sugars, accounting for 22.8% and 33.5% among children and adolescents, respectively [22]. In the Mexican population, SSBs accounted for a higher proportion of added sugars intake, with reports suggesting that approximately 69% of added sugars intake was derived from SSBs (57.9% in school-aged children; 66.2% in adolescents; 74.3% in adults) [26]. An analysis of the 8th KNHANES (2019–2021) data reported that carbonated drinks were the major food source of sugar intake among adolescents aged 12–18 yrs (16.53% of the total sugar intake) and young adults aged 19–34 yrs (17.16%), with coke ranking as the top food source to dietary sugar intake in both groups (10.7% and 10.8%, respectively) [27]. Therefore, limiting SSBs consumption can be an effective strategy for reducing added sugar intake at the individual and population levels.
According to meta-analyses, the consumption of SSBs has been consistently associated with increased risks of obesity, type 2 diabetes, CVD, and mortality [5,6,7]. SSBs are the major source of free sugars and have no nutritional benefits. Therefore, SSBs provide excessive energy intake without specific nutrients. In addition, the low satiety response and incomplete compensatory reduction in energy intake associated with the liquid form of SSBs lead to weight gain [28]. SSBs also contribute to a high dietary glycemic load through their moderate-to-high glycemic index values, inducing rapid increases in blood glucose and insulin levels that can promote insulin resistance and exacerbate inflammatory biomarkers [28]. In addition, fructose in SSBs undergoes unregulated hepatic metabolism via fructokinase and promotes hepatic de novo lipogenesis, leading to dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and visceral fat and ectopic lipid deposition [28]. These metabolic abnormalities may ultimately contribute to an increased risk of CVD and mortality over the long term.
As scientific evidence regarding the health risks of SSBs has accumulated, several dietary guidelines consistently emphasize limiting SSBs consumption in a diet to prevent and manage NCDs [8,9,10,11]. Furthermore, many countries have implemented nutrition policies aimed at reducing SSBs consumption by creating healthy food environments. In the UK, the Soft Drinks Industry Levy was introduced in 2018, applying a 2-tiered taxation based on the added sugar content of SSBs [29]. One year after implementation, the weekly household purchased volumes of high-tier drinks and low-tier drinks decreased by 140.8 and 170.5 mL, respectively [29]. In Chile, the Law of Food Labeling and Advertising—a set of policies to mandate front-of-pack warning labels and restrict child-directed marketing for foods and beverages high in added sugars, sodium, or saturated fats—has been implemented since 2016 [30]. This regulation resulted in a 23.7% reduction (−22.8 mL/capita/day) in the purchased volume of SSBs [30]. In Korea, the Ministry of Food and Drug Safety launched the sugar intake reduction plan in 2016, targeting a reduction in sugar intake from processed foods to below 10% of the total daily energy intake, with SSBs explicitly identified as a primary target [31]. Accordingly, several strategies are being implemented, including conducting nutrition education for the public, disseminating dietary guidelines, expanding and reinforcing nutrition labeling, and providing technical support to beverage manufacturers to reduce added sugars in processed food [31].
As the consumption of SSBs exerts adverse health effects, sales and use of ASBs as an alternative to SSBs have been rising rapidly. The domestic market size and sales volume of ASBs have expanded sharply, reflecting an increase in the population-level consumption of ASBs [32]. This shift may explain the reduction or stabilization in SSBs consumption observed in this study. According to an analysis by the KDCA, the intakes of zero- or low-calorie soft drinks increased from 4.1 to 21.9 g/day over 2019–2023 among the Korean population [17]. Furthermore, a recent study using KNHANES data reported that the mean daily ASBs consumption among 320 consumers was 403.8 ± 277.9 g [33]. However, the umbrella review synthesizing the long-term health impacts of ASBs consumption showed that higher ASBs consumption was consistently associated with increased risks of mortality, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes [1]. Consequently, promoting dietary quality and preventing chronic diseases within the Korean population will require periodically monitoring the consumption of SSBs and ASBs.
The major strength of this study lies in its comprehensive evaluation of the SSBs consumption trends over the past decade among all age groups in the Korean population, using nationally representative data. By presenting age-specific patterns of consumption changes, this study identified a target group for nutrition policies and interventions among Koreans. In addition, this study identified the consumption patterns of SSBs consumers and emphasized the importance of interventions for the consumers. Nevertheless, this study also had several limitations. The assessment of SSBs consumption was based on the one-day 24-h dietary recall data. Therefore, it may not fully capture individuals’ habitual consumption of SSBs. This study also did not consider the types of SSBs, such as soft drinks vs. fruit juices vs. sweetened coffee, when analyzing the trends in SSBs consumption. Future studies will be needed to investigate consumption patterns according to the specific types of SSBs and evaluate the health effects of SSBs consumption in Koreans.
In conclusion, this study revealed differing SSBs consumption trends across age groups, particularly among SSBs consumers, providing scientific evidence for developing age-specific nutrition policies and education programs, and also updating dietary guidelines. Given the growing interest in Korea regarding SSBs taxation as a fiscal policy, this study is significant in that it provides empirical evidence necessary for the design and implementation of fiscal policy. These results highlight the necessity of implementing tailored interventions for children, adolescents, and young adults to reduce SSBs consumption, particularly for individuals with the habitual consumption of SSBs.
Footnotes
Funding: This study was supported by the 2025 Hannam University Research Fund (Grant No. 2026A008).
Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no potential conflicts of interests.
- Conceptualization: Song S.
- Formal analysis: Son H, Ganbat K, Song S.
- Methodology: Song S.
- Project administration: Song S.
- Visualization: Son H, Song S.
- Writing - original draft: Son H, Ganbat K, Song S.
- Writing - review & editing: Son H, Ganbat K, Song S.
SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
Number of study subjects across survey years
Trends in SSBs consumption (g/day) over 2014–2023
Trends in energy intake (kcal/day) from SSBs over 2014–2023
Trends in sugar intake (g/day) from SSBs over 2016–2023
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Supplementary Materials
Number of study subjects across survey years
Trends in SSBs consumption (g/day) over 2014–2023
Trends in energy intake (kcal/day) from SSBs over 2014–2023
Trends in sugar intake (g/day) from SSBs over 2016–2023