Parental burnout and preschool children’s problem behaviors: the role of family functioning and children’s effortful control

Abstract

Parental burnout refers to a negative emotional state that parents experience during the process of parenting, which directly affects parents’ parenting behaviors, family atmosphere and children’s development. However, less studies focusing on the influence mechanism of parental burnout on problem behaviors in preschool children. Therefore, this study mainly explores the relationship between parental burnout and their preschool children’s problem behaviors, as well as the mediating role of family functioning and the moderating role of children’s effortful control. 537 preschool children and their parents in Shanghai, China participated in this study, parents filled out the Parental Burnout Assessment, Family Functioning Assessment Device, Children’s Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation, and Children’s Behaviour Questionnaire. The results showed that: (1) Parental burnout was significantly associated with preschool children’s problem behaviors; (2) Family functioning played a mediating role between parental burnout and children’s problem behaviors; (3) Preschool children’s effortful control moderated the second half path of the mediating model, that is, children’s high-level effortful control alleviated the adverse effects of parental burnout on children’s problem behaviors through family functioning. Results highlighted the importance of parental burnout and children’s effortful control on preschool children’s problem behaviors.

Introduction

Problem behaviors, also known as deviant behavior or behavioral abnormality, are a type of maladaptive behavior exhibited during an individual's socialization development, which consists primarily of internalizing problems and externalizing problems [62]. Externalizing problems are outer-directed and involve acting out, defiant non-compliant behaviors. Internalizing problems are more inner-directed and involve withdrawal, depression and anxiety [46]. Research has shown that children with externalizing problems tend to exhibit uncontrollable behaviors, which can negatively affect their academic performance, peer relationships and mental health [43]. Furthermore, children with more internalizing problems are likely to exhibit more withdrawn behaviors and depression in adolescence and young adulthood [1]. The preschool is a critical term for identifying and reducing problem behaviors. Timely interventions for children’s deviant behaviors during this period can prevent them from developing into permanent problem behaviors [46]. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the factors that contribute to preschool children’s problem behaviors. A positive home environment is crucial for children to develop healthy behaviors [42, 63]. Parenting activities essentially involve interactions between parents and children. When parents experience burnout during parenting, these interactions, which should be full of love and care, can become a negative influence. This can affect the physical and mental health and development of their children [56]. Studies have found that parental burnout is closely related to the behavioral development of preschool children [11, 59]. Therefore, it is important to explore the relationship between parental burnout and preschool children’s problem behaviors, as well as the influencing mechanisms, in order to reduce these problem behaviors.

Parental burnout and preschool children’s problem behaviors

Parental burnout, a syndrome characterized by intense exhaustion, results from a significant and prolonged stress associated with parenthood in the absence of sufficient resources for coping [37]. Research has shown that parental burnout can lead to negative emotional and psychological symptoms, such as emotional exhaustion, role boredom, detachment from their children, and feelings of ineptitude in their parenting role [51]. Parents of preschool children tend to experience more parenting stress due to their immature cognitive development and other aspects of their development. If parents chronically lack the necessary resources to cope with stress, they may experience burnout [37]. According to the Family Systems Theory, the family is a dynamic system in which members interact with each other in behaviors and emotions [6]. When parents experience emotional exhaustion while parenting, it suggests that they have reached the limits of their role, leading to a gradual emotional detachment from their children and a decrease in the frequency and quality of parent–child interactions [36]. Research has shown that low levels of parenting self-efficacy are associated with increased internalizing problems in later childhood [5]. Parental burnout can also lead to parental neglect and violence towards children [35], which ultimately leads to problem behaviors in children. A study by Yuan et al. [61] found that parental burnout may affect children’s problem behaviors through three domains: the home environment, the parents, and the children. When parents experience high levels of parental burnout, they may reduce positive interactions with their children and adopt negative parenting styles, resulting in children exhibiting more problem behaviors such as aggressive behavior, noncompliance, and difficulties in emotion regulation [59]. Accordingly, we propose Hypothesis 1: Parental burnout was significantly and positively related to preschool children’s problem behaviors.

The mediating effect of family functioning

According to the McMaster Model of Family Functioning, the fundamental role of the family is to create an environment that fosters the physical, psychological and well-being of its members. However, dysfunctional family functioning can lead to reduced security and increased anxiety among family members, particularly children [38]. When parents experience parental burnout, it can affect family functioning, including couple relationships and parent–child interactions, which in turn can negatively affect children's behavioral and emotional development [35]. Research has shown that parents who experience parental burnout exhibit emotional exhaustion. This not only triggers parent–child conflict and reduces the quality and frequency of parent–child interactions but also weakens emotional connections between family members. It also interferes with the normal functioning of the family system and reduces the overall family functioning [20]. Children from families with negative functioning, such as apathy, conflict and isolation, may exhibit more problem behaviors and fewer prosocial behaviors [64]. Dysfunctional families tend to have reduced family cohesion and adaptability, frequent conflict, and a lack of communication, and parents are more likely to engage in negative parenting behaviors [38]. All of these factors increase the risk of problem behaviors in children [22]. In addition, when families are dysfunctional, parents tend to be less flexible in parenting, which leads them to exert stricter control over their children, putting more psychological pressure on children and triggering preschool children’s problem behaviors [2, 49]. Chen et al. [13] found that when mothers experience parental burnout, they are more likely to use authoritarian parenting behaviors, such as scolding and physical punishment, which makes children more prone to exhibit problem behaviors. In summary, according to relevant theories and existing research, we propose Hypothesis 2: Family functioning will mediate the relationship between parental burnout and preschool children’s problem behaviors.

The moderating effect of effortful control

Indeed, family functioning exerts differential effects on children, and these effects are moderated by the child’s individual characteristics [3]. Research has shown that effortful control is central to the temperamental self-regulatory system, can act as a protective factor to reduce problem behaviors triggered by external risk factors [55]. Effortful control is defined as an individual’s ability to inhibit their dominant response in favor of subdominant ones, thereby enabling them to direct their attention and regulate their emotions and behaviors [53]. Effortful control is strongly related to family functioning, parenting, and child behaviors [17]. Effortful control is pivotal to the interconnections between family relationships, parenting practices, and child behaviors, serving as a moderating factor within the family system [29]. According to the diathesis-stress model, individuals with “risky” traits, such as irritable temperament, are more susceptible to adverse external environments and stressors. Consequently, they exhibit more problem behaviors, such as aggression, anxiety, and depression [4]. However, children with adaptive or protective factors tend to thrive in adverse environments [40]. It has been suggested that parents who exhibit hostile and coercive behaviors may have more negative impacts on children with lower levels of effortful control [41]. Effortful control may moderate the effects of risk factors (e.g., poor family functioning) on a child’s emotions and behaviors by moderating and managing the child’s negative emotional responses to the family environment [50]. When family functioning is inadequate, children with low levels of effortful control may find it difficult to regulate their negative emotions effectively, which can lead to an increase in children’s externalizing problem behaviors [30]. Conversely, children with high levels of effortful control, who are more adept at managing negative emotions, are better able to suppress emotional and behavioral problems arising from inadequate family functioning [18]. As a protective factor, effortful control may help preschool children to manage their reactions in the face of negative external circumstances and stabilize their emotions [50], mitigate the negative effects of family conflict, emotional detachment, and a lack of communication on children’s behavior, and reduce externalizing and internalizing problem behaviors [15]. Accordingly, we propose Hypothesis 3: Effortful control plays a moderating role between family functioning and preschool children’s problem behaviors.

In summary, according to relevant theories and empirical studies, parental burnout and family functioning are all important factors influencing preschool children’s problem behaviors and may interact with each other. In addition, although studies have been conducted to examine the relationship between parental burnout and problem behavior using parents’ emotional expression and parenting behaviors as moderating variables, relatively few studies have been conducted to examine the protective role of children’s own factors (e.g., effortful control) in family functioning on preschool children’s behaviors. Based on this, the present study focused on preschool children to explore the effect of parental burnout on children’s problem behaviors and to analyze the mediating role of family functioning, as well as the moderating effect of effortful control. The hypothesized model is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

The proposed model

Methods

Research design

This study employed a cross-sectional correlational design using questionnaire surveys. A quantitative approach was utilized to examine the relationships between parental burnout, family functioning, preschool children’s problem behaviors, and the moderating role of children’s effortful control. Data were collected at a single time point through random sampling method from Shanghai, China.

Participants

A total of 537 parents and their preschool children (3–6 years old) were recruited from four public kindergartens in Shanghai, China. Among these children,with a mean age of 62.05 ± 12.54 months, 46.37% were boys,53.63% were girls. Among the parents, with an average paternal age of 38.15 ± 4.63 years; 35.26% were fathers, 64.74% were fathers; 34.26% parents held a bachelor’s degree or lower, 38.92% had a master’s degree, and 26.82% possessed a doctoral degree.

Measures

Parental burnout

Parental burnout was measured by the Chinese version of the parental burnout Assessment (PBA, [14, 51], which consists of 23 items and divided into four dimensions:(1) Exhaustion in parental role (9 items, e.g., Being a parent makes me feel exhausted.),(2) Contrast in parental self (6 items, e.g., As a parent, I feel like I don't treat my kids as well as I used to); (3) Feelings of being fed up (5 items, e.g., I can’t stand being a parent anymore); (4)Emotional distancing(3 items, e.g., I only do my fair share of duties with my children and don't give much more than that). Participants rated each item on a seven-point Likert scale (0 = never, 6 = every day). The PBA has shown good reliability and validity in the Chinese cultural context [14]. In this study, the Cronbach’α of the whole scale was 0.90.

Family functioning

Family functioning was measured using the Chinese version of the Family Functioning Assessment Device (FAD, [19, 33], which consists of 60 items assessing on seven dimensions. In this study, General Functioning subscale (11 items, e.g., It was difficult to arrange some family activities because we misunderstood each other.) was used to assess family functioning. Participants rated each item on a four-point Likert scale (1 = not at all, 4 = very much). The General Functioning subscale has shown good reliability and validity in the Chinese cultural context [33]. The Cronbach’α of this subscale in this study was 0.88.

Problem behaviors

Preschool children’s problem behaviors were measured using the Chinese version of Children’s Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation Scale-30 (SCBE-30, [28, 34], which consists of 30 items assessing social adaptation in three subscales. In this study, we used two subscales, Externalizing Problems (8 items, e.g. tends to get into conflicts with other children) and Internalizing Problems (10 items, e.g. spends a lot of time alone, doesn’t fit in), to assess preschool children’s problem behaviors. Participants rated each item on a six-point Likert scale (1 = never, 6 = always). The problem behaviors subscale has shown good reliability and validity in the Chinese cultural context [34]. In this study, the Cronbach’α of the Externalizing Problems and Internalizing Problems were 0.91 and 0.92.

Effortful control

Effortful control in preschool children has been measured using the Children’s Behaviour Questionnaire (CBQ-36, [47, 52], which consists of 36 items assessing preschool children’s problem behaviors on three subscales. In this study, we used the Effortful Control subscale (12 items, e.g., When drawing or colouring in a book, shows strong concentration) to assess preschool children’s effortful control. Participants rated each item on a seven-point Likert scale (1 = extremely untrue, 7 = extremely true). The Effortful Control subscale showed good reliability and validity in the Chinese cultural context [31]. The Cronbach’α of this subscale in this study was 0.88.

Procedure

All participants were from four public kindergartens in Shanghai, China. Prior to data collection, our study underwent a rigorous ethical review. Each participating parent signed an informed consent form, was informed about the research content and purpose, and received instructions on completing the questionnaires. Parents had the option to withdraw from the study at any time. Upon completing the questionnaire, each parent received a small gift as a token of appreciation.

Plan of analysis

SPSS 22.0 was used to calculate correlations, descriptive statistics, and Cronbach’α coefficients for each variable in this study. Mediation analysis was conducted using Amos 24.0, and the moderated mediation analyses were conducted using SPSS PROCESS. Bootstrapping procedure with 5,000 resamples was employed to assess unconditional indirect effects, which were deemed significant if the 95% bias-corrected and accelerated confidence intervals (95% CI) did not include zero.

Results

Preliminary analyses

Table 1 demonstrates the Means, SDs and correlations of the main study variables. The results showed that parental burnout was significantly correlated with preschool children’s problem behaviors (r = 0.53, p < 0.001), family functioning (r = −0.40, p < 0.001), and effortful control (r = −0.27, p < 0.001). Family functioning was significantly associated with problem behaviors (r = −0.33, p < 0.001) and effortful control (r = 0.33, p < 0.001). Problem behaviors was significantly associated with effortful control (r = −0.36, p < 0.001).

Table 1.

Correlations and descriptive statistics for study variables

	1	2	3	4
Parental burnout	1
Family functioning	−0.40***	1
Problem behaviors	0.53***	−0.33***	1
Effortful control	−0.27***	0.33***	−0.36***	1
M	1.84	3.12	2.05	5.47
SD	1.00	0.38	0.63	1.00

^***p < 0.001

The mediation analysis

The mediation analysis of family functioning was conducted by using AMOS24.0 and the results were as follows (see Fig. 2 and Table 2). The analysis controlled for demographic variables, including child gender, child age, parental gender, parental educational background, and parental age. The results showed a good model fit of the mediation analysis, χ²/df = 4.322, GFI = 0.976, NFI = 0.978, RFI = 0.958, CFI = 0.983, RMSEA = 0.075.

Fig. 2.

The mediating effect of family functioning. Note: EPR = Exhaustion in Parental Role, CPS = Contrast in Parental Self, FBFU = Feelings of Being Fed Up, ED = Emotional Distancing; EP = Externalizing Problems, IP = Internalizing Problems

Table 2.

Mediation analysis of family functioning, direct effect, and total effect

Path	Estimate	Bias-corrected 95%CI		p
		Lower	Upper
Indirect effect	0.06	0.03	0.11	0.01
Direct effect	0.55	0.28	0.67	0.01
Total effect	0.61	0.48	0.83	0.01

^*p < 0.05

^**p < 0.01

^***p < 0.001

The results indicated that parental burnout was significantly associated with problem behaviors in preschool children (β = 0.55, p < 0.001). Parental burnout has been shown significantly associated with family functioning (β = −0.38, p < 0.001), and family functioning was significantly and negatively related to preschool children’s problem behaviors (β = −0.17, p < 0.001). The indirect effect from parental burnout to children’s problem behaviors through family functioning was significant (β = 0.06, SE = 0.02, 95%CI [0.03, 0.11]).

The moderated mediation analysis

Following the analysis of the mediating effect of family functioning, the moderating effect of preschool children’s effortful control in the mediation model was also examined. SPSS PROCESS model14 was used, 95% confidence intervals did not include the value of zero, indicating that the mediating effect of moderation was statistically significant. The findings (see Table 3) demonstrated that effortful control moderated the direct effect of family functioning on preschool children’s problem behaviors (β = −0.09, t = −2.41, p < 0.05, 95% CI [−0.16,−0.02]).

Table 3.

Results of moderated mediation model

Dependent variables	Independent variables	R	R2	F	β	t	95%CI
Family functioning		0.44	0.19	21.29***
	Child gender				−0.15	−1.88	[−0.30, 0.01]
	Child age				−0.01	−0.02	[−0.30, 0.01]
	Parental gender				−0.36	−3.99***	[−0.53, −0.18]
	Educational background				0.05	1.21	[−0.03, 0.14]
	Parental age				−0.01	−0.92	[−0.01, 0.01]
	Parental burnout				−0.40	−10.17***	[−0.47, −0.32]
Problem behaviors		0.60	0.36	32.54***
	Child gender				0.08	1.14	[−0.06, 0.22]
	Child age				−0.01	−1.90**	[−0.01, 0.01]
	Parental gender				0.14	1.69	[−0.02, 0.30]
	Educational background				−0.01	−0.37	[−0.09, 0.06]
	Parental age				−0.01	−0.65	[−0.01, 0.01]
	Parental burnout				0.45	11.49***	[0.37, 0.52]
	Family functioning				−0.12	−3.11**	[−0.18,- 0.06]
	Effort control				−0.22	−5.80***	[−0.30, −0.15]
	Family functioning  × Effort control				−0.09	−2.41*	[−0.16, −0.02]

^*p < 0.05

^**p < 0.01

^***p < 0.001

Further, to better understand the moderating effect of effort control on the relationship between family functioning and problem behaviors, we also conducted the simple slopes analysis. The results (see Fig. 3) revealed that for children with higher levels of effort control, family functioning had a significant negative effect on problem behaviors (β = −0.14, SE = 0.05, t = −2.97, 95% CI[−0.25, −0.05]). In contrast, for those with lower levels of effort control, family functioning was not a significant predictor of problem behaviors(β = 0.02, t = 0.35, p > 0.05).

Fig. 3.

The moderating effect of effortful control on the relationship between parental burnout and problem behaviors. Note: FF = Family Functioning, EC = Effortful Control

Discussion

This study revealed that parental burnout was significantly correlated with preschool children’s problem behaviors and indirectly influenced these problem behaviors through family functioning. Furthermore, children’s effortful control moderated this mediating model, such that higher levels of effortful control can mitigate the negative impact of parental burnout on young children’s problem behaviors via family functioning.

Parental burnout and preschool children’s problem behaviors

The present study found that parental burnout was significantly associated with preschool children’s problem behaviors, which means that high levels of parental burnout will lead to more children’s problem behaviors. Previous studies have found that parental burnout is related to children’s social behaviors, which were similar to present result [45, 59]. The finding is also consistent with the Family Systems Theory, which suggests that families are dynamic and that the behaviors and emotions of family members have interactive effect on children’s development [6]. Parental burnout occurs within the family system, and its negative effects may extend beyond the parents themselves to their children [35, 45]. Consequently, the negative effects of parental burnout can spill over into the home environment, affecting the emotional and behavioural development of children [61]. Parents of preschool children are faced with the intense and diverse needs of their children and must invest a great deal of time, energy, and emotion to meet their children’s developmental needs. At the same time, they may also face multiple pressures from work, finances, and family relationships [57]. Lacking adequate support and resources to effectively alleviate these pressures, they are more likely to experience parental burnout [37]. When parents experience burnout from parenting, they feel too exhausted to fulfil their parenting roles, and have less energy to focus on and respond to their children’s needs [60] and then become emotionally disconnected from their children. This will result in fewer positive interactions and less engagement, as well as more negative parenting behaviors [51]. As the frequency and quality of parent–child interactions decrease, children are more likely to experience psychological and physical health issues [9], also increases the risk of problem behaviors such as aggression, anxiety and depression in preschool years [32].

From a developmental psychopathology perspective, the preschool problem behaviors observed here are not merely transient. Longitudinal research shows that early internalizing and externalizing problems predict later severe disorders. For instance, externalizing behaviors (e.g., aggression) increase risks of conduct disorder, ADHD, and substance use [39], while internalizing behaviors (e.g., withdrawal, anxiety, depression) predict later mood and anxiety disorders [25]. Thus, linking parental burnout to preschool problem behaviors not only helps understand current parent–child difficulties but also identifies an early intervention target to prevent long-term psychopathological risks.

The mediating role of family functioning

This study found that family functioning mediated the relationship between parental burnout and preschool children’s problem behaviors. That is, high levels of parental burnout can impair the family’s ability to fulfill positive family functioning(e.g., supervision, companionship, interaction, support, and emotional expression), which in turn may lead to behavioral problems in preschool children. Previous research found that parental burnout can lead to family dysfunction, such as frequent conflict and communication barriers, can then result in emotional and behavioral problems in children [35]. The finding in present study is consistent with the McMaster model of family functioning. The theory suggests that family dysfunction leads to an inability to express emotions and communicate effectively, as well as an inability to adopt a flexible parenting style, which result in children feeling reduced security and anxiety [54]. parental burnout can disrupt the coordination and support within various family systems, resulting in dysfunction [21]. Parents experiencing parental burnout may show more marital and parent–child conflict in the family, parents’ family roles become increasingly unclear or even rigid, and marital satisfaction decreases [12]. This, in turn, has a negative impact on the integrity of family functioning and undermines the harmonious relationship among family members [22]. In such a family environment, communication between family members may be affected, and parents often tend to adopt a series of negative parenting behaviors, including irritability, violence, avoidance, and neglect. Preschool children are more likely to feel lonely, which makes them more prone to internalizing problems such as anxiety and depression [8]. Dysfunctional families are unable to provide adequate support and effective strategies to guide or help their children, thus increasing the risk of externalizing problems [44]. In particular, when children are exposed to parental conflict, especially arguments that are directly related to the children themselves, they face a significantly higher risk of externalizing problems [26]. This is because when young children see their parents using violent means to solve problems, they may imitate and internalize these undesirable behaviors. In turn, they may exhibit externalizing problems such as aggression and defiance [7].

From the perspective of Conservation of Resources (COR) theory [23], the mediating role of family functioning reflects a resource loss spiral [49]. Parental burnout represents a significant loss of psychological resources, which leads parents to withdraw emotional availability, increase conflict, impair communication, and adopt negative parenting behaviors-processes captured by the McMaster model. Over time, this loss spiral erodes family functioning and increases preschool children’s problem behaviors [58]. Thus, COR theory not only aligns with our mediated model but also suggests that replenishing parents’ resources (e.g., social support, self-efficacy, or rest) could reverse the loss spiral, thereby improving family functioning and reducing child problems.

The moderating role of effortful control

The present study found that effortful control moderated the second half of the path in the mediation model. That is effortful control of children relieved the negative affect of parental burnout on their problem behaviors through family functioning. Preschool children with higher levels of effortful control were at lower risk for problem behaviors in the presence of dysfunctional family functioning compared to those with lower levels of effortful control. According to the Risk-Buffering Model, an individual’s intrinsic protective factors can mitigate the negative impact of external risk factors on a child’s development [24]. Effortful control, as a moderating aspect of temperament, is a protective factor for preschool children’s problem behaviors [10, 27]. Effortful control is an intrinsic protective factor that enables individuals to consider ethical standards and the possible consequences of misbehavior, allowing them to exercise deliberate discipline and reduce the risk of problem behaviors [27]. Moreover, the moderating effect of effortful control may be most pronounced in high-risk families [15]. This is because, even in situations where high-risk families are unable to function at a basic level and children experience low levels of family resilience and cohesion [16], young children with high levels of effortful control can still adopt effective coping strategies, such as emotion regulation, to protect themselves from inter-parental conflict [50]. This may result in a reduction in problem behaviors caused by inadequate family functioning [18]. Children with lower levels of effortful control may have difficulty regulating negative internalized experiences (e.g., sadness, worry), which may lead to increased internalizing problems [48].

Implications and limitations

This study identified the mediating role of family functioning between parental burnout and preschool children’s problem behaviors, as well as the moderating role of effortful control. The findings have important theoretical and practical implications. Firstly, the findings further validate and extend the explanatory scope of family systems theory and the family functioning model, and elucidate the relationship between parental burnout, family functioning, and preschool children’s problem behaviors, as well as the moderating role of preschool children’s own effortful control. Secondly, the findings provide new practical directions for improving preschool children’s problem behaviors and help parents better understand the negative consequences of parental burnout on preschool children’s development. parental burnout has become increasingly prevalent among parents of preschool children, and can directly impact family functioning and child development. Therefore, it is essential to address and alleviate parental burnout from multiple perspectives. Policymakers can formulate legislative measures to reduce parents’ workload and balance their work-family conflicts, enabling them to spend more time and energy with their children. Researchers can develop intervention programs to help parents experiencing high levels of parental burnout enhance their parenting skills, improve parenting self-efficacy, and acquire strategies for emotional self-regulation. Within the family context, both parents need to be actively involved in child-rearing to alleviate the parenting stress on the other. Additionally, parents should also support their children’s development of self-control through activities such as play, shared reading, and positive parent–child communication, thereby helping children protect themselves from the adverse effects of a stressful environment.

In addition, this study has some limitations. Firstly, this study used a cross-sectional study to collect data, which does not allow accurate inference of causal relationships among variables. A longitudinal study design should be considered for future studies. Secondly, the data sources in this study were all parents’ reports, which may lead to subjective and biased assessments, so future studies could use multiple data collection methods to obtain objective research data. Thirdly, by examining parents as a whole to explore the effects of parental burnout on preschool children’s problem behaviors, this study may have overlooked the differences that exist between fathers and mothers in terms of parental burnout and how these differences may differently affect preschool children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. Future research could focus more on the differences in parental burnout between fathers and mothers and how these differences specifically affect preschool children’s problem behaviors.

Conclusion

The key findings of this study were that: firstly, parental burnout was positively significantly related to their preschool children’s problem behaviors; secondly, family functioning mediated the relationship between parental burnout and problem behaviors; thirdly, high level of preschool children’s effortful control can buffer the negative effect from parental burnout on children’s problem behaviors through family functioning.

Authors’ contributions

Yingjie Wang and Yan Li conceived and designed the study. Yingjie Wang and Yan Li participated in the acquisition of data. Yingjie Wang, Liyue Gu analyzed data and drafted the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This study was funded by the Research project of Zhejiang Federation of Social Sciences (Grant Number: 2025N176).

Data availability

The datasets used in the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study was performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Shanghai Normal University. All participants read the objective statement of the investigation and signed informed consent.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.