The moderating role of emotional intelligence in the relationship between workplace civility and job satisfaction: a multi-university behavioral study

Abstract

While workplace civility is a known determinant of job satisfaction, the internal psychological resources that modulate this relationship remain under-explored. This study examines the predictive power of emotional intelligence (EI) and its role as a moderator in the relationship between perceived workplace civility and job satisfaction among nurse educators. this study aimed to examine the associations between emotional intelligence (EI), workplace civility, and job satisfaction (JS) among nurse educators, specifically exploring how EI relates to the link between environmental and personal resources. A cross-sectional design was employed, surveying 257 nurse educators across multiple Saudi Arabian universities. Validated psychometric instruments were utilized to measure EI, civility, and job satisfaction, with data analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM). The moderating effect of emotional intelligence was analyzed using a two-stage interaction modeling approach to ensure robust estimation of the interaction term. Data were collected online via Google Forms from August 1 to September 30, 2025. Participants reported high levels of job satisfaction and moderate levels of workplace civility. Emotional Intelligence (EI) emerged as the strongest direct predictor of job satisfaction, while workplace civility also significantly and positively predicted satisfaction. Most importantly, EI was found to significantly moderate the relationship between civility and job satisfaction. The EI and workplace civility are critical, synergistic predictors of job satisfaction among nurse educators. To effectively maximize faculty retention and satisfaction, nursing administrators must implement a dual-focus strategy that simultaneously cultivates individual emotional competencies and enforces a consistent culture of workplace civility.

Introduction

Emotional Intelligence (EI) represents an individual’s ability to recognize and appropriately react to his/her emotions as well as those of others, therefore enabling the appropriate response or action¹. For many years, EI has been recognized within the clinical setting, but it is now being utilized as a mechanism to help alleviate the psychological burden associated with a high-stress working environment^2,3. Educators who have developed a high level of EI create a culture of care and foster positive interpersonal relationships among staff members leading to increased job satisfaction⁴. Conversely, even small amounts of incivility in the workplace will adversely affect the employee’s mental and physical health as well as their overall productivity^5,6.

Healthcare research continually demonstrates that EI explains nearly 41% of the variation in Professional Quality of Working Life (PQoWL). Recent pedagogical research also suggests that similar emotional competences support educators similarly. Furthermore, emotional regulation was identified as the foundation for maintaining classroom stability⁷. EI has been identified as a buffer against the effects of stress and a predictor of job satisfaction^8,9. Nevertheless, most studies related to EI fail to account for the added stresses and demands placed upon a nurse educator. The majority of studies remain limited to the clinical setting at the bedside and do not reflect the duality of function of the educator. The educator experiences incivility from both peers and students. In contrast to traditional nursing studies which focus primarily on stabilizing the patient on the clinical unit, this study identifies the educational-clinical interface as a unique “high complexity resource zone.” Unlike bedside nursing where the ultimate goal is patient stabilization, the educator strives to promote both cognitive and professional development in the student—tasking the educator with developing a much greater amount of resource synergy.

The primary goal of this research project was to apply the job demands-resources theory¹⁰ as it relates to how individual resources (Emotional Intelligence), and environmental resources (Civility) interact. By focusing on this particular population, this research will be expanding the JD-R model to include nurse educators as their own separate profession. The researchers propose a Resource-Resource Catalysis (RRC) framework, which builds upon previous research. We suggest that in an educational context, environmental resources such as civility may remain latent until activated by high levels of EI.

Previous research has established important connections between EI and positive work-related outcomes. For example, researchers⁸, indicated that EI served as a protective factor for workplace stressors. Furthermore, individuals who scored higher in EI reported having greater job satisfaction⁹, there is still a significant void. Most of the existing literature pertains to clinical settings, whereas the dynamic aspects of nursing education continue to be under-represented. Incivility in academic environments negatively impacts the pedagogical environment^11, 12. Therefore, if a nurse educator feels belittled or treated poorly, he/she can pass along these negative feelings to students creating a toxic mentoring/training experience¹³. As such, educator’s values/behaviors are not simply workplace variables, rather, they serve as the foundation for shaping future nursing practice.

The “resource–resource interaction” hypothesis suggests that the effects of both individual resources (EI) and job resources (civility) are independent of each other. However, our position posits that EI is an interactive force multiplier; i.e., while educators with high EI will be able to “harvest” social support provided by others in a highly civil educational setting to generate innovative teaching strategies, their ability to do so also allows them to regulate negative feelings related to lack of social support at school and maintain job satisfaction via internal resource regulation. Thus, this interaction provides a theoretical contribution to JD-R, as it demonstrates that the effective use of environmental resources depends upon the existence of specific personal resources in professional settings. Therefore, based on this hypothesized synergy, we predict that EI acts as a catalyst that increases the beneficial effect of workplace civility on JS. In other words, the association between workplace civility and JS would be significantly stronger for educators who possess high levels of EI.

Methods

Research design

This study utilized a cross sectional design.

Setting

The study was conducted at a College of Nursing at a government University in Saudi Arabia. More specifically the study was conducted at University of Hail, University of Tabuk, King Khalid University (Abha, King Khalid University, Khamis Branch) and Qassim University. The primary justification of selecting these five universities was to achieve geographical and regional diversity. The University of Hail and Tabuk University were selected to represent the Northern/North-Western parts of the Kingdom. The King Khalid University was the major South-Western university area. This type of geographical spread was important so that the research could account for any regional differences in student demographics, healthcare needs and instructional resources across the Kingdom thus enhancing the external validity and generalizability of the findings about nursing education.

Participants and sampling

A three-stage sampling design was adopted to provide representation of all regions within the Kingdom. In Stage I, cluster sampling was performed to obtain a list of five Universities. Subsequently, a proportionate distribution of the desired sample size was applied to each University in Stage II. Finally, in Stage III, the list of faculty members at each University was obtained through an official faculty list. The sample size was then drawn from this list via random number generator to create the sample frame.

A sample size calculation based on the population proportion formula with Z = 1.96 (95% CI), and E = 0.05 (margin of error) was completed prior to collecting data. After performing a finite population correction (FPC), a total sample size of 197 was established. However, due to possible non-responses to the invitation to participate, a total of 280 educator invitations were extended. Ultimately, a sample of 257 educators responded to the invitation, establishing a response rate of 91.7%.

Institutional restrictions prevented the investigators from obtaining direct contact information for faculty members, and therefore department heads acted as local gatekeepers to forward the survey link to those randomly selected individuals. A gatekeeper assisted method was implemented for three reasons: (a) administrative restrictions prohibited investigators from directly contacting faculty; (b) the method ensured that only the randomly selected individuals received the survey link, and no substitutions or additions occurred; (c) the gatekeeper assisted method permitted department heads to allocate a small amount of professional time to complete the survey, thereby increasing participation. Additionally, utilizing Google Forms enabled investigators to collect responses from a geographically dispersed group of universities. Furthermore, Google Forms provided for a secure means of storing data that is password protected and accessible only by the primary investigator. Although this may introduce some administrative mediation, the high response rate (91.7%) suggests that there was little systematic bias in final participant selection.

Nurse educators participated in this study met the following inclusion criteria: they were employed in full-time positions at their respective universities; they had been affiliated with their university for six months up to one year, and; they were willing to participate in the study. Excluded from the study were nurse educators on leave during the study period; nurse educators who were in strictly managerial/administrative capacities at their university; and other groups which did not fit within the study’s focus on Academic Faculty.

Instrument

The study utilized three psychometric instruments to measure the core variables: Perceived Workplace Civility Climate (PWCC), Job Satisfaction, and Emotional Intelligence (EI).

The first is the PWCC or civility was assessed using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree), where higher scores indicate a more civil and favorable work environment¹⁴. It has an internal consistency of 0.79 in this current study.

The second is the Job Satisfaction (JS) was evaluated making use of a three-item instrument formulated by¹⁵, wherein the focus was on a general, all-embracing feeling pertaining to the job and its facets were undifferentiated. This instrument employed a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree). For analysis, the scores were averaged across the items, resulting in a potential mean score range of 1.00 (minimum) to 6.00 (maximum). Of particular importance was the fact that one item, which was on the reverse scoring end, “In general, I don’t like my job,” was designed to ensure that, statistically, high scores aligned with high satisfaction. This measure overall has been shown to possess excellent internal consistency (alpha = 0.88) in this current study. Furthermore, beyond the global measure, evaluation of specific facets of the job was measured using two of the subscales of Spector’s¹⁶ Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS), which are Coworker Satisfaction and Supervision Satisfaction. Also, both of the facet scales employed the same 6-point Likert scale. Each subscale comprised four items, giving a possible score range of 4 to 24 for the individual facets. The internal consistency for these facets in this present study was at an acceptable to good level, with the Coworker Satisfaction scale yielding an alpha = 0.81 and that of Supervision Satisfaction, an alpha = 0.85.

The third is the EI scale which involved a 33-item inventory where items 5, 28, and 33 required reverse scoring. Total EI scores were then interpreted against normative data: scores below 111 (more than one SD below the mean of 124) were classified as Unusually Low EI, scores between 111 and 137 were Average EI, and scores above 137 (more than one SD above the mean) indicated unusually high EI¹⁷. In this present study, this scale has 0.88 internal consistency.

The instruments were unanimously validated by four experts in the field—two university professors in psychology, one nursing dean, and one nurse researcher—who all agreed on the validity of the items.

Data collection process

This research commenced with the necessary Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval of the participating universities. This established the ethical limits and development of efficient recruitment methods while strictly following IRB regulations. Recruitment was a cooperative process initiated by contacting the Department head at each participating College of Nursing cluster. These department heads agreed to act as local gatekeepers to assist in the distribution and control of the selected, authorized nurse educator population. Each department head was sent a prepopulated survey link using a user-friendly Google Form and was provided with clear instructions for its use.

The eligible nurse educators were allocated minimal professional work time by their Department head to complete the online questionnaire. The first screen of the online survey presented the complete Informed Consent Form, which served to document consent and ensure participation was voluntary and ethical. Data collected during the study were securely stored using Google Forms, with access limited solely to the primary researcher via a password-protected Google repository. The entire data collection process spanned two continuous months, initiating from August 1 to September 30, 2025. The high completion rate, with 91.7% of respondents completing the survey, confirmed that participants were given adequate time to finish the questionnaire.

Ethical consideration

The University of Hail (H-2025-1), King Khalid University (KKU-232), and participating institutions approve this study. Given the nature of the study, and in accordance with regulations regards to research involving human participants, the study maintained the principles of confidentiality, privacy and the voluntary nature of participation and/or withdrawal at any point with minimal to no costs incurred.

Statistical analysis

The study employed a robust, multi-stage statistical analysis using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) via SmartPLS 4.0. This variance-based structural modeling technique is particularly suited for predictive modeling and testing complex relationships with latent variables while simultaneously accounting for measurement error. To test the proposed moderation model, the interaction effect of Emotional Intelligence on the relationship between workplace civility and job satisfaction was assessed via the two-stage approach. This method is preferred in PLS-SEM as it provides higher statistical power and is less sensitive to the distribution of the data compared to the product-indicator approach.

The analysis followed a two-stage process: first, the measurement model was rigorously validated through checks for Internal Consistency Reliability (alpha, rho_c), Convergent Validity (AVE), and Discriminant Validity (HTMT). Second, the structural model was evaluated to test the study’s hypotheses regarding direct and moderating effects. Furthermore, to address potential Common Method Variance (CMV), a full collinearity assessment was performed by examining the Inner VIF values for all constructs, adhering to the conservative 3.3 threshold¹⁸.

Results

Table 1 presents the demographic characteristics of the participants. Of the 257 participated in the study, majority of them belonged to 41–50 years old (56.4%) and with 6–10 years of experience (40.9%). Most of them were Non-Saudi (73%), doing clinical duty (53%), assistant professor (64.6%) and doctorate degree holder (78.2%).

Table 1.

Demographic characteristics of the participants. N = 257.

Variable	n	%
Age group
31–40	32	12.5
41–50	145	56.4
51 and above	80	31.1
Years of experience
11–15 years	86	33.5
6–10 years	105	40.9
above 16 years	54	21
below 5 years	12	4.7
Nationality
Non-Saudi	188	73
Saudi	69	27
Area of assignment
Clinical	137	53
Classroom	120	47
Faculty rank
Assistant professor	166	64.6
Lecturer	76	29.6
Associate professor	15	5.8
Highest educational attainment
PhD	201	78.2
Masters	56	21.8

Table 2 presents the level of EI, civility, and job satisfaction. EI had a mean score of 123.87 (SD = 22.940), with a slight positive skewness (0.171) and a notably flat distribution (Kurtosis =-1.349). The mean score for civility was 3.56 (SD = 0.728), indicating a moderate level of perceived civility; its distribution was nearly symmetrical, with a skewness of -0.106. Finally, Job Satisfaction (JS) showed the highest mean score of 4.21 (SD = 1.037), suggesting a relatively high level of satisfaction.

Table 2.

Level of emotional intelligence, civility, job satisfaction.

Variable	Mean	Median	SD	Minimum	Maximum
Emotional intelligence	123.87	126	22.940	89	163
Civility	3.56	3.59	0.728	1.35	5.00
Job satisfaction	4.21	3.70	1.037	2.60	6.00

Table 3 presents the group comparison between demographic characteristics and civility, job satisfaction, and EI using independent samples welch t-tests. The sex yielded a significant difference only for civility (t=-1.676, p = 0.048), with males reporting higher civility than females. Conversely, there was no significant difference between sexes for JS (t = 0.762, p = 0.447) or EI (t = -0.712, p = 0.239). Nationality produced highly significant results across all variables: Non-Saudi faculty reported significantly higher civility (t = 2.90, p = 0.002), Job Satisfaction (t = 5.80, p < 0.001), and EI (t = 5.69, p < 0.001) compared to Saudi faculty. Similarly, work setting (Classroom vs. Clinical) showed significant differences for all three outcomes, with classroom teachers consistently reporting significantly higher levels of civility (t = 2.28, p = 0.015), JS (t = 5.03, p < 0.001), and EI (t = 2.09, p = 0.023) than clinical instructors.

Table 3.

Independent samples Welch t-tests for civility, JS and EI across selected groups.

Grouping variable	Outcome variable	Welch’s t	p	Decision on H₀	Interpretation
Sex	Civility	-1.676	0.048	Reject H₀	There is a significant difference, with males reporting higher civility than females.
	Job satisfaction	0.762	0.447	Fail to reject H₀	No significant difference in job satisfaction between males and females.
	Emotional intelligence	-0.712	0.239	Fail to reject H₀	No significant difference in emotional intelligence between males and females.
Nationality	Civility	2.90	0.002	Reject H₀	Non-Saudi faculty report significantly higher civility than Saudi faculty.
	Job satisfaction	5.80	< 0.001	Reject H₀	Non-Saudi faculty have significantly higher job satisfaction than Saudi faculty.
	Emotional intelligence	5.69	< 0.001	Reject H₀	Non-Saudi faculty report significantly higher emotional intelligence than Saudi faculty.
Work Setting	Civility	2.28	0.015	Reject H₀	Classroom teachers perceive significantly higher civility than clinical instructors.
	Job satisfaction	5.03	< 0.001	Reject H₀	Classroom teachers report significantly higher job satisfaction than clinical instructors.
	Emotional intelligence	2.09	0.023	Reject H₀	Classroom teachers report significantly higher emotional intelligence than clinical instructors.

Table 4 presents the correlation between demographic characteristics civility, JS and EI. Age group shows significant positive relationships with civility (r = 0.302, p < 0.001), JS (r = 0.382, p < 0.001), and EI (r = 0.336, p < 0.001). This means that, in general, older faculty members tend to perceive a more civil work environment, report higher satisfaction with their jobs, and show higher EI compared to younger colleagues. Years of experience is also significantly related to the main constructs. It has a small but significant positive correlation with civility (r = 0.145, p < 0.05), and a stronger positive correlation with Job Satisfaction (r = 0.413, p < 0.001) and EI(r = 0.237, p < 0.001).

Table 4.

Correlation matrix between demographic characteristics and civility, JS and EI.

Demographic variable	Civility	Job Satisfaction	Emotional Intelligence
Age group	0.302***	0.382***	0.336***
Years of experience	0.145*	0.413***	0.237***
Faculty rank	0.234***	0.120	-0.036
Highest educational attainment	0.005	0.050	-0.190**

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001.

For faculty rank, a significant positive relationship is observed only with civility (r = 0.234, p < 0.001). This indicates that those who hold higher academic positions tend to perceive higher levels of civility in their institutions. However, faculty rank is not significantly related to JS (r = 0.120) or EI (r = -0.036).

Finally, highest educational attainment does not show significant correlations with civility (r = 0.005, ns) or JS (r = 0.050, ns), but it has a small negative correlation with EI (r = -0.190, p < 0.01).

The measurement model was further evaluated at the indicator level to ensure the reliability and validity of each item. As shown in Table 5, all retained indicators exhibited outer loadings above the 0.708 threshold, confirming sufficient indicator reliability. Furthermore, internal consistency was supported by bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals, which did not include zero for any of the retained items. Potential issues with lateral collinearity were ruled out as all indicator-level Variance Inflation Factors (VIF) were well below the threshold of 5¹⁹.

Table 5.

Indicator reliability and validity (loadings, outer VIF, bootstrapped CIs).

Construct	Item	Loading	VIF	95% CI [Low, High]	P-value
Workplace civility	CIV1	0.824	1.95	[0.782, 0.865]	< 0.001
	CIV2	0.795	1.88	[0.745, 0.840]	< 0.001
Emotional intelligence	EI1	0.85	2.1	[0.810, 0.890]	< 0.001
	EI2	0.812	2.05	[0.770, 0.855]	< 0.001
Job satisfaction	JS1	0.88	2.45	[0.840, 0.915]	< 0.001

The measurement model for civility, EI, and JS is characterized by strong psychometric properties, supporting both reliability and validity. All constructs in this study met or surpassed the reliability requirement of 0.70. Specifically, EI had the strongest internal consistency (0.983; 0.984); followed by civility (0.954; 0.961); and lastly, JS (0.928; 0.940).

While the Cronbach’s alpha values for EI and Civility are high, further diagnostics were performed to rule out potential collinearity or item redundancy. The Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) values (all < 0.85) and the Inner VIF values (all < 1.9) confirm that the indicators effectively measure distinct constructs without problematic redundancy or multicollinearity¹⁸.

The constructs also demonstrated convergent validity as each construct’s Average Variance Extracted (AVE) exceeded the 0.50 threshold: civility (AVE = 0.605); EI (AVE = 0.677); and JS (AVE = 0.610). In addition to establishing convergent validity, the constructs also demonstrated discriminant validity, as the Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) values were less than the 0.85–0.90 threshold (the largest HTMT value was 0.762). Therefore, the constructs can be deemed as being statistically distinct, thereby providing a foundation for credibility in the subsequent structural analysis (Table 6).

Table 6.

Measurement model for civility, EI and JS.

Construct	Cronbach’s α	Composite reliability (ρc)	Average variance extracted (AVE)	HTMT (civility)	HTMT (emotional intelligence)	HTMT (job satisfaction)
Civility	0.954	0.961	0.605	N/A	0.68	0.702
Emotional intelligence	0.983	0.984	0.677	0.68	N/A	0.762
Job satisfaction	0.928	0.94	0.61	0.702	0.762	N/A
Interaction*	N/A	N/A	N/A	0.212	0.157	0.353

Furthermore, to address potential Common Method Variance (CMV), a full collinearity assessment was performed. Following Kock¹⁸, the Inner VIF values were examined for all constructs. As shown in Table 6, the VIF values for Civility (1.816), Emotional Intelligence (1.806), and the Interaction Term (1.009) are all well below the 3.3 threshold. This confirms that the model is free from common method bias.

The structural model demonstrates that civility directly and positively predicts JS (beta = 0.362), and this relationship is significantly moderated by EI (beta = 0.096). Collectively, these variables explain a substantial 68.1% of the variance in JS (R2 = 0.681), indicating the model has strong explanatory power (Table 7).

Table 7.

Structural Model Results: Path Coefficients, Effect Sizes, and Model Fit for Job Satisfaction.

Path / statistic	β	SE	t	p	f2 Effect Size	VIF	R2	Q2
Path coefficients
Civility → Job satisfaction	0.362	0.03	10.65	< 0.001	0.226 (Medium)	1.816
Emotional intelligence → job satisfaction	0.523	0.03	15.25	< 0.001	0.475 (Large)	1.806
EI × Civility → job satisfaction	0.096	0.02	4.37	< 0.001	0.031 (Small)	1.009
Model fit
Job satisfaction (endogenous variable)							0.681	0.366

Q² was calculated using blindfolding (omission distance = 7); Q² > 0 indicates predictive relevance.

Moderation analysis

The significant interaction effect (B = 0.096, p < .001) indicates that Emotional Intelligence acts as a critical boundary condition. For nurse educators, particularly those in clinical settings who reported lower baseline civility (Table 3), higher EI serves as a psychological resource that buffers the negative impact of workplace incivility on job satisfaction. This suggests that while civility is a baseline requirement, the ‘novelty’ of educator satisfaction lies in the internal emotional regulation (EI) required to navigate the dual demands of clinical instruction and academic rigor.

As shown in Fig. 1, the positive relationship between workplace civility and job satisfaction is significantly moderated by emotional intelligence. For faculty with high levels of emotional intelligence (+ 1 SD), the slope is steeper, indicating a stronger positive impact of a civil climate on satisfaction. Conversely, for those with low emotional intelligence (-1 SD), the relationship is dampened, suggesting that personal emotional resources are necessary to fully ‘harvest’ the benefits of an environmental resource like workplace civility.

Fig. 1.

Simple slopes plot of the interaction between workplace civility and emotional intelligence on job satisfaction.

The model demonstrated strong explanatory power. The combined effects of civility, EI, and their moderation term explained 68.1% of the variance in JS (R² = 0.681). This level of R² is considered moderate to substantial (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.

Structural model showing the direct effect of civility on job satisfaction and the moderating effect of emotional intelligence.

Discussion

On EI, civility, and job satisfaction

A current analysis of the present data suggests a fairly even distribution of EI. Such an evenly distributed distribution could suggest that there are many participants who have some level of a certain degree of EI. There was also found a positive correlation between EI and JS, as stated previously in previous studies²⁰ and found again in the data collected in this study. As per prior research, EI can act as a mediator between psychosocial factors and job satisfaction²¹. Prior research based upon theories supports that the results presented in this paper are consistent with those theories. Due to relatively moderate scores of civility, it appears that there is an opportunity for organizations to develop a civil work environment so as to enhance an employee’s total experience. The nearly symmetrical distribution of responses to questions concerning civility indicates that there is agreement among employees as to what they consider to be civil. Additionally, the positive association between civility and job satisfaction highlights the significance of developing a workplace culture that respects employees and values them; otherwise the workplace will likely be characterized by dissatisfaction with their jobs²². Furthermore, according to prior literature, demonstrating civility is critical in developing job satisfaction²².

In terms of theory, the significance of the findings in this paper lies within the educational clinical interface that is uniquely positioned by nurse educators. That is to say, unlike the primary goal of bedside nursing being to stabilize patients, the goal of nurse educators is to create complementary fits for students to grow. Given the rapid evolution of academic institutions in the Saudi context, the “toxicity trickle down” effect presents a high stakes risk. These findings indicate that EI is essential to driving future nursing practices. If an educator is unable to control the emotions resulting from lack of civility, then he/she is also incapable of delivering effective mentorship for the subsequent generations of Saudi Nurses. This shifts the focus away from standard training requirements and toward a strategic necessity for institutional stability. An empirical contribution of this study is the critique of the additive logic inherent in the JD-R model. Rather than looking at how negative demands in a given situation are mitigated, we described a process referred to as “RRC.” In high resource environments (e.g., areas of nursing education), environmental resources such as civility exist in latent form until a personal resource such as emotional intelligence (EI) serves as a trigger to activate RRC. The significant interaction term (beta = 0.096, p < 0.001) substantiated our claims regarding the Resource-Resource Catalysis framework: the educator’s emotional competencies serve as catalysts to convert latent environmental resources into realized job satisfaction through civility. The evidence depicted in Fig. 1 also supports the claim that EI is a catalytic variable. When an individual lacks sufficient emotional intelligence to recognize and integrate social cues, then workplace civility contributes no gain to workplace satisfaction. Thus, workplaces that provide employees with a climate that is both civil and respectful contribute directly to increased job satisfaction when other emotional resources are available. These contributions allow us to begin moving the JD-R model toward more systemic representations of resource complementarity.

Results from this current study show that JS is the highest scoring construct. This outcome illustrates that many staff members report they are highly satisfied with their jobs. This supports models of EI, as well as supportive organizational practices on JS²³. Previous studies have found that an employer who develops and fosters EI in its employee base will experience higher rates of job satisfaction, which can lead to better overall organizational performance²⁴. Therefore, by spending money to grow EI among its employee base, employers may gain advantages. Employees who are satisfied with their employment typically possess the characteristics of being more productive than those who are not. Satisfied employees also typically do not plan to leave the employer.

A multitude of implications exist regarding the previously discussed outcomes. High EI levels correlate positively with JS; therefore, it is possible that organizations could benefit from creating interventions designed specifically to enhance EI through training programs²⁵. Past research has shown that when employers implement EI training programs, both work engagement and JS improve. These improvements often lead to better organizational outcomes²⁶. The consistency of the previous research with the current findings supports the belief that EI, civility, and JS are interconnected constructs that significantly influence workplace dynamic. Growing EI will create a civil working environment, and will lead to improved JS, resulting in increased organizational success. Although cross-sectional data is valuable to understand the behavior of nurse educators, there exists potential for future research using longitudinal designs to further understand the relationship between EI, civility, and JS over time.

On demographic characteristics and EI, civility and JS

Our analysis of the relationship between demographic features and EI, civil conduct, and JS provided evidence of many important and interesting results. Most notably, we discovered that there was a relationship between sex and the dimension of civil behavior; male faculty members exhibited greater amounts of civil conduct than did female faculty members. This finding supports previous studies regarding the existence of gender-based differences in the expression of emotions and social skills, particularly in terms of expressing civility²⁷, that males express more civility. Therefore, this could be a result of societal expectations of what type of behaviors are acceptable in a masculine context. However, we did not discover any statistically significant differences in EI or JS for male and female faculty members. These findings support previous research that indicates gender is not a predictive variable for EI for educators²⁸.

Nonetheless, it can be said that nationality was a much larger predictor for each of the three dimensions we examined. There were statistically significant differences in all three areas. In particular, non-Saudis demonstrated greater levels of civility, JS, and EI when compared to Saudi nationals. The results of this study could be the result of cultural variations in assessing and demonstrating civility and JS in the workplace. Alternatively, the results could be attributed to the various education and work environments of expatriate faculty. Previous research suggests that one’s degree of cultural intelligence moderates the relationship between psychological constructs (i.e., Emotional Intelligence), and job-related outcome measures (i.e., Job Satisfaction)²⁹.

The effects of work environment were also evident as classroom teachers showed greater levels of both civility and EI than did clinical instructors. Interpersonal dynamics and stressors may be some contributing factors to the differing emotional responses and JS levels of educators in the two types of teaching environments²⁹. Previous research has shown that educational environments that are characterized by large numbers of positive interpersonal interactions, and small numbers of stressful events, are associated with high levels of EI and JS among faculty³⁰. Overall, these findings clearly illustrate the complexity of JS and emotional dynamics at both the societal and workplace levels. These findings provide evidence of a continued need for additional research using multiple educational frameworks in order to create a comprehensive model to explain these concepts.

Correlations between demographic characteristics (continuous variables) and civility, JS, and EI

Age, along with the other variables (JS and EI) had a statistically significant, positive correlation; therefore, older faculty members would report having a more civil work environment and greater amounts of JS than their younger counterparts. Prior research has demonstrated that age does impact both social interaction and emotion management — two key components of EI³¹.

Furthermore, a positive correlation existed for years of experience with respect to both JS and EI. There is considerable prior research that shows most senior faculty are emotionally intelligent due to many years of professional experience; however, researchers do not know if this contributes to better job satisfaction. Research found that although years of teaching correlated positively with emotional intelligence among teachers, years of teaching were unrelated to job satisfaction among teachers³². Similarly, while a positive association was also noted for years of experience and perceived civility, the relationship was weaker; which may imply that employees’ perceptions of civility within an organization may be impacted by environmental/organizational factors as opposed to employee experience. A weak positive relationship was noted between faculty rank and perceived civility. However, no positive relationship was established between faculty rank and either JS or EI. Consequently, although academic positions may offer access to additional resources/institutional support that will enhance an employee’s perception of civility; there was no indication that this results in improved JS or EI. Additionally, factors such as job-related stress and interpersonal interactions may be more impactful upon JS and EI than faculty rank³³.

Finally, it is worth noting that even though highest level of education achieved showed minimal correlation with either Civility or JS and a slight negative relationship with EI; prior research has indicated that individuals who attain higher levels of formal education are frequently characterized as possessing enhanced EI³⁴. As a result, it is possible that a combination of practical experience and environmental factors have a larger influence on an individual’s EI than formal education. Overall, the statistically significant positive relationships identified between age and years of experience and both JS and EI; suggest that institutions may be able to provide benefits through mentorship programs to younger faculty to potentially enhance these dimensions of their employment. Also, the lack of significance regarding highest educational attainment indicates a need for developing methods to encourage empathy and EI, independent of formal qualifications. This research is significant because it supports prior research and illustrates the value in examining all relevant demographics in conjunction with faculty workplace experiences in academic institutions.

Measurement model for civility, EI and JS

Results of our study validate prior evidence indicating EI is associated positively with job-related outcomes (JS), e.g., as demonstrated previously^20,35, and also supported the finding of a very significant relationship between EI and work attitudes; in addition, we supported the mediation relationship of EI to JS via job performance²⁰; furthermore, as evidenced previously, individuals who have high EI tend to exhibit higher JS and organizational commitment²⁰ indicating a robust positive association which could contribute to increased occupation stability. Researchers have also identified the construct of civility as an important factor in creating a positive workplace environment for increasing employee well-being and JS^22,36. As civility has been established in our study to have strong psychometric support, it contributes to a broader knowledge base in organizational behavior/employee engagement. The prior meta-analysis has identified the importance of civility in developing a collaborative work culture and the positive relationship between civility and JS²². Thus, the results of our study demonstrate the possibility of using the measurement model in various organizational settings. Overall, the strong reliability and validity of the constructs provide a good foundation for future research on these topics. Longitudinal studies will help to identify causality between EI and workplace variables, as suggested in the past literature.

On structural equation modelling

The PLS-SEM analysis provided support for all of the hypotheses and also provided evidence of the strong explanatory power (R2) and predictive relevance (Q2) of the model. The structural model results supported a direct and positive relationship between JS through civility, moderated by EI. These results related to workplace dynamics and interactions among coworkers support a meaningful relationship. The R2 value (0.681) achieved by the model is indicative of a very high amount of the variance of JS explained compared to other studies that have been conducted, which reported much less explanatory power of the variance of JS.

Much of the literature regarding job satisfaction in organizations has determined that job satisfaction can be caused by many separate reasons (e.g. salary, autonomy, workload). In contrast, given the effect size of this study, it appears that for nurse educators, the combination of EI and a Civil Climate are not simply another reason for job satisfaction, but are most likely the single most important reason for enriching their professional lives. Therefore, a “Critical Resource Dependency” condition exists where if either of the two (high EI or civil climate) conditions exist, then the educator’s job satisfaction does not decline; it collapses. Thus, it appears that in academic nursing settings, the JD-R model functions as a “High Sensitivity” model where the interaction between resources defines the primary cause of job retention as opposed to merely being an ancillary mechanism supporting retention. Some studies were found that varied in how EI affected JS²⁰; however, some of those studies had lower coefficient estimates or R2 values < 0.5 indicating that those studies had less explanatory capacity for JS^20,37.

There was a strong association between civility and JS as previously shown by research demonstrating the connection between workplace civility and both employee engagement and JS^22,38. That prior research demonstrates that civility leads to a positive perception of the workplace, and in addition to creating such perceptions, reduces the negative impact of burnout and stress leading to improved JS. Additionally, the moderating effect of EI enhances previous research showing that employees who possess high levels of EI will report an improvement in JS^29,39. Such relationship is consistent with research demonstrating that emotionally intelligent employees are able to more effectively engage in relationships at work and manage stressful situations leading to an enhancement in their JS^33,40. Finally, the moderation effect of EI on the relationship between civility and JS suggests that there may be additional managerial implications for understanding the interplay of these variables. By translating the practical meaning of the moderation (f2 = .031), simple slopes plots show a distinct divergence. Specifically, for educators with High EI, the positive relationship between civility and satisfaction is ‘robust and steep,’ demonstrating their ability to optimize environmental resources. However, for educators with Low EI, the slope is substantially flatter, implying they are ‘resource blind,’ i.e. they do not benefit from the same degree of enhanced satisfaction even though they are working in a civil environment. Therefore, a ‘vulnerability gap’ for faculty exists: without EI developmental opportunities, institutional initiatives to promote civility may be ineffective with regard to reaching a substantial proportion of the workforce. As such, institutions would appear to benefit by establishing EI development programs that ultimately enhance overall JS³³, and authors showed that EI significantly improves the predictive validity of various workplace behavior (including JS)²⁰ thereby supporting such findings.

As a result of the research described above, while it was determined that both civility and EI, as well as their interaction, play a role in employee JS, prior studies on the topic were limited in their investigation of interaction. Many of the studies in the area have examined the relationship between each variable independently, however, few have considered the combined impact of both variables. Consequently, collectively the results provide evidence for the necessity of conducting additional empirical research on this topic to increase our understanding of which factors influence employee satisfaction. As such, based upon the results from this model, encouraging employees to develop civility and EI in the workplace could lead to a significant improvement in employee JS. The fact that the model has accounted for a substantial proportion of variance in JS, reinforces the notion that employers should begin developing workplace civility and EI enhancing programs/strategies to enhance employee satisfaction.

Furthermore, the high explanatory power of this model (R2 = 0.681) indicates empirical value of this model, and demonstrates that the interaction between Emotional Intelligence (EI) and workplace civility is not merely an “incremental buffering” effect associated with JD-R replications. Rather than being a buffer to job demands, we have identified “resource-resource catalysis,” (RRC) within the high-complexity resource zone of nursing education. Often, civility as an environmental resource is latent or inactive due to its passive nature. However, EI acts as a cognitive/emotional catalyst that activates these environmental resources. When a sufficient amount of EI exists, a civil workplace will fail to yield job satisfaction illustrating the coupled nature of these resources. This coupled nature adds a new dimension to the JD-R model through introducing a functionally synergistic resource activation paradigm that expands on the deficit compensation paradigm that views personal resources solely as a means to compensate for job demands. Thusly, when educators possess adequate emotional competence, they will be better positioned to leverage the benefits inherent to an environment that is supportive and respectful (i.e., civil); conversely, if staff do not possess adequate emotional competency, they may not be capable of leveraging an institutions resource. Civil workplace initiative and institutional healthy work environments are merely foundational elements unless accompanied by training in emotional intelligence. Therefore, when staff members possess the requisite emotional intelligence skills, they will be empowered to utilize all available institutional resources. Accordingly, this study represents a contextual replication that isolates an atypical dual-resource mechanism at the academic-clinical interface.

Study implications

This research has many important implications for how higher education institutions promote workplace civility and help to grow EI (Emotional Intelligence) to improve Job Satisfaction (JS) of faculty members. Since the tested model was found to have robust predictive power, the following institutional strategies can be recommended based upon this result. Since EI was found to be the strongest predictor of faculty JS and because it also increases the impact of workplace civility, institutions must establish EI training programs that are both mandatory and continuous as an initial priority for faculty development. These programs must include teaching cognitive and emotional regulation skills so that these skills may enable faculty members to effectively cope with the stress of working in academe or clinical settings.

Institutional policy reforms and targeted intervention programs must be developed to address the observed differences in workplace civility, EI, and JS of faculty from Saudi Arabia. It is imperative that administrations develop policies and professional development opportunities that recognize and respond to the specific barriers experienced by this demographic. In addition, it is critical that all demographics of faculty members receive equal levels of support within an institution; such support could be provided through culturally-tailored professional development and inclusive policy making.

Finally, the association of experience/age with each of the three variables indicates that senior faculty members would likely be effective mentors when establishing a positive work place culture for new employees. As there exists no other type of educational position that positions individuals as closely at the Academic-Clinical interface as those who teach nursing students at universities, we suggest that institutions develop a multi-pronged approach to developing practical interventions. First, “Relational Stewardship” must be implemented. This means that context-specific strategies must be developed to prevent cross-domain incivility among faculty members and to train them in ways they can mitigate the conflicts that exist between the competing demands of the university setting versus the clinical site. Second, our model suggests that “EI-Based Mentorship Sequencing” should occur. Since EI “enables” civility dividends, mentoring must occur in tiers where junior faculty members are paired with high-EI mentors so that “emotional co-regulation” can occur while the environment is being organized and therefore “resource-resource catalysis” can continue throughout the transition period from early-career to mid-career. Finally, workplace administrators must conduct “environmental resource audits” to ensure that “resource readiness” exists for all employees prior to investing time and money into improving workplace climates. Our results indicate that unless faculty EI exists to allow faculty members to exploit available civility resources, then investments made in workplace climates will not pay off. Therefore, solutions developed must be paradoxical; i.e., the solution must simultaneously solve the problem of creating a balance in workplace climates while providing adequate emotional literacy so that employees can fully use those climates.

Study limitations

The major drawback with the current study is its cross-sectional design and thus it could never assess a potential causal linkage among the different variables. Another limitation is reliance on self-reporting methods which can be impacted by biases. The overall applicability of the results was also somewhat constrained due to the fact that the data were only collected at public institutions in Saudi Arabia. The study did not collect or compare data regarding administrative nurse faculty. Despite some of the above-mentioned limitations, however, the authors employed international geographic diversity using cluster sampling. They also obtained a very high response rate and used rigorous validation of their measurement tools and state-of-the-art statistical analyses (i.e., Moderated Multiple Regression). These factors provided the authors with great assurance of the validity of the structural relationships they found. Future studies should use longitudinal assessments as well as objective assessment procedures to mitigate against the limitations inherent in the current study.

While there appear to be significant interactions presented within the findings, the researchers note that these are documented, as with other types of time-limited cross-sectional research. While longitudinally it can be true that empirically there exists a structural relationship versus a temporal relationship; longitudinally assessing these relationships will help to clearly define both causative pathways and buffering effects over time.

Conclusion

The current research demonstrates that both EI and workplace civility have a statistically and positively significant relationship to JS. EI functions as a critical source of personal resources; it acts as an intermediary variable that allows nurse educators to experience the most benefit from working in a civil work environment. Clearly, the structural model accounted for a large portion of the total variance in JS (R2= 0.681). Specifically, the largest single predictor of JS was EI and the large and significant direct effect of civility illustrated that a civil work environment is beneficial to JS. The moderation effect of EI clearly illustrates that those nurse educators possessing high levels of emotional skills will be able to use their civil work environments to maximize JS. By establishing a large and statistically significant moderate relationship, this Study extends theoretical knowledge regarding the relationships among these variables within this population. As such, it also establishes a practical application for nursing administration. To enhance JS among nurse educators, nursing administrators must implement multi-faceted (Dual Focus) strategies to develop EI in nurse educators. This is concurrently with developing/enforcing a consistent civil work place culture.

Author contributions

M.A. and S.V. conceived and designed the study. I.A., R.H.A., and F.G. coordinated the multi-university data collection and managed the online surveys. S.R.S., R.J.M., and A.G. performed the statistical analysis and hierarchical regression modeling. J.B., K.E.A., and E.A. interpreted the data and drafted the initial results section. B.A. and A.J.D. conducted the literature review and prepared the introduction and discussion sections. R.H.A. served as the corresponding author and oversaw the administrative requirements. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript for intellectual content and approved the final version for submission.

Funding

This research was funded by the Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers supporting project (No. PNURSP2026R875), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Data availability

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Ethical approval for this study was provided by the University of Hail (H-2025-1), King Khalid University (KKU-232), and other participating universities. Informed consent was obtained from all the survey and interview participants. This study adhered to the Declaration of Helsinki.

Declaration on the use of AI-assisted technologies

During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used Grammarly to refine the language and improve readability. The author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the final text.