To document traditional ethnobotanical knowledge of medicinal plants used by indigenous and saint communities of Chitrakoot, India

Abstract

Introduction

Traditional medicinal systems are integral to the healthcare practices of indigenous and local communities, especially in remote regions where modern healthcare may be inaccessible. Ethnobotany and ethnomedicine play vital roles in these systems, providing effective treatments derived from local flora. This study investigates the wealth of ethnomedicinal plant knowledge among the indigenous and saint communities of Chitrakoot, India.

Method

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and rapid rural appraisal tools were used to assess ethnobotanical information. Ethnic data were collected from saints and indigenous communities through interviews, discussions, and semi-structured questionnaires. Quantitative analysis was conducted via relative frequency citation (RFC), the informant consensus factor (IFC), and use value (UV). In the present study, a total of 205 individuals (168 males and 37 females) participated in interviews and discussions on ethnomedicine The research was conducted from June 2021 to December 2024.

Results

This study identified 119 ethnomedicinal plants, representing 107 genera and 50 families, used to treat various ailments categorized into 15 groups. Piper nigrum had the highest RFC value (1.00) and UV (1.20), followed by Allium sativum (0.84). The highest ICF value was found for the snake, scorpion, and insect bite categories (0.88), followed by the digestive system disorders category (0.84). The most common method of drug administration is the use of plant powder, with leaves being the most commonly used part of the plant.

Conclusion

Chitrakoot saint and tribal communities hold rich ethnomedicinal knowledge rooted in their forests, underscoring the need to preserve this vital indigenous heritage.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13002-026-00931-3.

Introduction

Traditional medicinal systems have long been used to prevent, treat, and manage diseases in both humans and livestock, and their widespread use has been extensively documented in the literature, particularly in ethnobotanical and folkloristic records [1–5]. These systems primarily rely on plant-derived materials as the principal ingredients for therapeutic preparations [6, 7]. Currently, nearly half of all pharmaceutical drugs are derived directly or indirectly from ethnomedicinal knowledge and research conducted worldwide [8, 9]. Despite remarkable advances in modern healthcare, many remote regions in developing and underdeveloped countries continue to experience limited access to adequate medical services [10–12]. Consequently, a substantial proportion of the population relies on traditional medicinal systems to meet their primary healthcare needs [13, 14]. People living in remote and rural areas often depend almost entirely on these systems because they are affordable, readily accessible, culturally acceptable, and locally available [15–18].

It has been reported that the traditional medicinal systems of Ayurveda, Homeopathy, Siddha, Unani, and Tibetan medicine collectively utilize approximately 8,000 plant species [19–21]. Among these, Ayurveda remains one of the most widely practiced systems and continues to be embraced by diverse communities because of its cultural significance and therapeutic effectiveness [19, 22]. Ethnobotany and ethnomedicine, as integral components of traditional healthcare systems, play a central role in documenting and preserving indigenous knowledge, particularly in Ayurveda, where remedies are predominantly prepared from plants and other natural resources [23]. Ethnobotanical research has made significant contributions to medicine, agriculture, and industry [24, 25]. Such studies provide fundamental insights into the traditional knowledge, management, and utilization of plant resources by different cultures and communities [26]. They involve the systematic documentation and analysis of interactions between humans and plants, particularly among indigenous and local populations [27]. Previous ethnobotanical investigations in India and other parts of the world have primarily focused on medicinal plant use, ethnoveterinary practices, or wild edible plants within specific communities, thereby providing valuable but fragmented insights into traditional knowledge systems [28, 29].

Ethnomedicine, deeply rooted in the principles of Ayurveda, forms an essential part of the healthcare practices of indigenous and local communities [30–32]. This knowledge is generally transmitted orally and through experiential learning across generations, making it an integral component of community-based healthcare systems [33, 34].The Chitrakoot district of Uttar Pradesh, bordering Madhya Pradesh, India, possesses considerable cultural, historical, and religious significance. According to Indian mythology, Lord Rama spent thirteen years of his exile in this region, making Chitrakoot a revered sacred landscape [35]. Owing to its spiritual importance, people from diverse regions and communities often migrate to Chitrakoot during the later stages of their lives and adopt ascetic lifestyles. The saint community of Chitrakoot, many of whom reside in or near forested areas, possesses extensive knowledge of medicinal plants. Although several studies have investigated specific tribes or localized settings within Chitrakoot [36, 37], the region remains insufficiently explored from a comprehensive ethnobotanical perspective [32]. The local population can broadly be classified into two groups: (i) localized communities, including Brahmin, Kurmi, and Kuchwaha; and (ii) indigenous and tribal communities, including Saints, Kol, Bhil, Gond, and Mawasi. A considerable number of traditional healers from both groups continue to practice indigenous medicine. They utilize a wide variety of plant-derived materials to prepare traditional remedies for the treatment of common ailments and the maintenance of primary healthcare. Many patients report substantial relief after receiving herbal treatments from these healers, particularly when modern medical treatments are either ineffective or economically inaccessible [38, 39]. However, previous studies have rarely undertaken a comparative assessment of plant-use knowledge between localized communities (Brahmin, Kurmi, and Kuchwaha) and indigenous and tribal groups (Saints, Kol, Bhil, Gond, and Mawasi). Addressing this gap represents a key strength and novel contribution of the present study [40].

This traditional knowledge, deeply embedded within localized communities such as Brahmin, Kurmi, and Kuchwaha, as well as indigenous and tribal groups including Saints, Kol, Bhil, Gond, and Mawasi, forms the foundation of primary healthcare for many residents, particularly those living in remote and forested areas [41, 42]. During social interactions, community members actively exchange and transmit knowledge of medicinal plants, especially in response to health-related challenges, a pattern consistently documented in previous studies [43–45]. In the Chitrakoot region, this knowledge is predominantly transmitted orally across generations, with Vaidyas (traditional healers) playing a central role in preserving and disseminating ethnomedicinal practices [46]. Despite the presence of more than ten thousand saints and ascetics residing in the region for spiritual purposes, systematic ethnobotanical investigations focusing on this unique population remain scarce in the scientific literature [47–49]. The saint community is devoted to the worship of Hindu deities and dedicates its members’ lives to spiritual practice and religious service. As a mark of devotion, many saints traditionally append the suffixes “Das” or “Sharan” to their names [47, 48]. The present study is among the first to systematically document and scientifically contextualize the ethnomedicinal knowledge of localized communities (Brahmin, Kurmi, and Kuchwaha) together with indigenous and tribal groups (Saints, Kol, Bhil, Gond, and Mawasi), thereby addressing a major gap in the existing literature.

However, traditional healing practices in Chitrakoot are facing a serious threat. Most traditional healers belong to older generations, whereas younger people are increasingly reluctant to continue these practices because of limited economic opportunities and changing socio-economic aspirations. Consequently, this valuable knowledge is at imminent risk of being irreversibly lost unless it is systematically documented and preserved [11, 50, 51]. The erosion of indigenous knowledge systems has been widely reported across many regions of the world, particularly in areas undergoing rapid socio-economic development and cultural transformation [52, 53]. Although previous studies have examined specific tribes or localized aspects of plant use, there remains a pressing need for comprehensive research that documents traditional medicinal knowledge within a broader ethnomedicinal framework [54–56]. Unlike earlier fragmented studies, the present investigation integrates ecological, cultural, and utilitarian dimensions of plant use, thereby providing a more holistic and interdisciplinary perspective [57, 58]. The present study adopts a comprehensive and integrative approach that distinguishes it from previous investigations. Most earlier studies have focused on specific categories of plant use, such as marketable species, ethnoveterinary applications, or wild edible plants. In contrast, no study from the Chitrakoot region has systematically documented the full spectrum of plant uses—including food, fuel, fodder, furniture, fencing, and cultural or symbolic applications—within a unified framework. By incorporating both medicinal and non-medicinal uses, the present study provides a holistic understanding of the local biocultural system rather than examining isolated aspects of plant use. The urgency of such documentation is further emphasized by the rapid socio-economic transformations occurring in the Chitrakoot region. Increasing urbanization, infrastructure development, including highways and overbridges in ecologically sensitive areas, and expanding human settlements are placing considerable pressure on forest ecosystems [59, 60]. These changes are restricting access to natural habitats and reducing the availability of medicinal plant resources [42]. At the same time, declining economic returns and changing lifestyles are discouraging younger generations from preserving traditional knowledge [52]. Consequently, the intergenerational transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge is weakening, posing a significant threat to both intangible cultural heritage and biocultural diversity [61, 62]. By documenting this knowledge at a critical transitional stage, the present study provides a valuable baseline dataset to support future monitoring, conservation planning, and policy development [55].

In this context, the present study aims to address critical knowledge gaps through a systematic ethnobotanical survey of the Chitrakoot region. Specifically, the objectives are to: (1) comparatively assess the distribution and depth of ethnomedicinal knowledge among localized communities (Brahmin, Kurmi, and Kuchwaha) and indigenous and tribal groups (Saints, Kol, Bhil, Gond, and Mawasi); (2) document and prioritize ethnomedicinal plant species based on their frequency of use and cultural importance; (3) systematically record traditional knowledge, including vernacular names, plant parts used, methods of preparation and administration, dosage, and associated precautions; (4) quantitatively evaluate the cultural significance and consensus of plant use using standard ethnobotanical indices; and (5) identify similarities, differences, and unique patterns in ethnomedicinal practices by comparing the findings with those of previous studies conducted in similar phytogeographical regions.

The present study aimed to document the traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used by indigenous communities in the Chitrakoot region and to quantitatively evaluate their ethnobotanical importance using established indices, including Number of Use Reports (NUR), Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), and Use Value (UV). Furthermore, the study investigated the patterns of variation in medicinal plant utilization using multivariate analysis. We hypothesized that (H₁) medicinal plant species exhibit variation in their ethnobotanical importance, as reflected by quantitative ethnobotanical indices, and (H₂) this variation is structured by key ethnobotanical variables (RFC, UV, NUR, and the number of plant parts used), resulting in distinct utilization patterns among species. By integrating ecological, cultural, and socio-economic dimensions of plant use with quantitative analyses, this study provides a comprehensive assessment of ethnobotanical knowledge in the Chitrakoot region. The findings are expected to contribute to biodiversity conservation, preservation of traditional knowledge, sustainable utilization of medicinal plant resources, and evidence-based policy development.

Materials and methods

Description of the study area

The Chitrakoot region extends across the states of Madhya Pradesh (MP) and Uttar Pradesh (UP), India, and is often referred to as the “Wonder of the Hills.” It marks the beginning of the Vindhya Mountain Range and is renowned for its religious, cultural, and historical significance. The region is home to several sacred hills and pilgrimage sites, including Kamadgiri, Hanuman Dhara, Gupt Godawari, Laxman Pahadi, and Sati Anusuiya. The Uttar Pradesh portion covers an area of 3,214 km², whereas the Madhya Pradesh portion extends over 1,353 km², of which 1,262.68 km² is rural [63]. Geographically, the Chitrakoot region spans two Indian states and is characterized by distinct coordinate ranges. The Uttar Pradesh portion lies between 24°48′–25°12′ N latitude and 80°58′–81°34′ E longitude, while the Madhya Pradesh portion extends between 25°10′–25°12′ N latitude and 80°51′–80°52′ E longitude. The region is bounded by Kaushambi to the north, Satna to the south, Banda to the west, and Prayagraj (Allahabad) to the east. Figure 1A illustrates the location of the study area. Chitrakoot experiences a warm tropical climate that strongly influences its vegetation. Summer generally extends from mid-February to September, with June being the hottest month, during which temperatures may reach 46–47 °C. The monsoon season usually begins in late June or early July and continues until mid-September. The region receives approximately 1000 mm of annual rainfall, most of which occurs during the monsoon season. Winters, extending from November to January, are relatively mild, with minimum temperatures occasionally falling to 5 °C [163]. Administratively, the Chitrakoot region is shared between the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. According to the Census of India (2011), the Chitrakoot district of Madhya Pradesh has a population of 23,316, comprising 12,675 males and 10,641 females, with an overall literacy rate of 70.01%. In contrast, Chitrakoot Dham in Uttar Pradesh has a population of 57,402, including 30,421 males and 26,981 females, and a literacy rate of 78.50%. The elevation of the region ranges from 137 to 400 m above sea level, resulting in a diverse topography.

Fig. 1.

Map of the study area (A) Map of India, (B) Map of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, (C) Map showing districts Chitrakoot and Satna, (D) Map showing surveyed study sites in Chitrakoot and Satna

Chitrakoot supports a rich diversity of medicinal plant species; however, their abundance has declined considerably over the past decade due to increasing anthropogenic pressures. Unregulated urban expansion, extensive road construction, overgrazing, large-scale migration, and illegal as well as unsustainable harvesting have collectively contributed to the depletion of medicinal plant resources in the region, reflecting trends reported from many parts of the world [64, 65]. Consequently, traditional ethnobotanical knowledge associated with these resources is also gradually declining. A previous floristic survey documented approximately 750 flowering plant species belonging to 445 genera and 111 families in the Chitrakoot region [63]. The rich floral diversity, coupled with limited access to modern healthcare facilities in many rural areas, has encouraged local communities to continue relying on traditional medicinal practices for primary healthcare.

Surveys and questionnaire

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) methods were employed to actively engage local communities and facilitate the systematic collection of ethnobotanical information [54, 55]. These participatory approaches are widely recognized as effective tools for documenting indigenous knowledge systems and understanding community-based resource use patterns [55, 187]. A preliminary survey was conducted before the main field investigation to identify knowledgeable informants, including traditional healers (Vaidyas) and other individuals possessing extensive ethnomedicinal knowledge. This initial phase also helped establish rapport with participants and familiarize them with the objectives of the study. Extensive field surveys were conducted between 2020 and 2024 across different seasons to ensure comprehensive documentation of plant-use patterns and seasonal availability [66]. Seasonal surveys are considered essential in ethnobotanical research because they increase the likelihood of documenting species with different phenological stages and seasonal uses [56]. Each field visit lasted approximately 4–7 days.

A total of 205 informants (168 males and 37 females) participated in interviews and discussions. During the study period, the first author personally visited all selected locations and interviewed each respondent. Informants were selected using purposive and snowball sampling techniques, targeting individuals with extensive traditional knowledge [67, 68]. These non-probabilistic sampling methods are widely used in ethnobotanical research to identify key knowledge holders and facilitate access to specialized knowledge networks [66, 69]. The respondents represented diverse communities, including localized groups such as Brahmin, Kurmi, and Kushwaha, as well as indigenous and tribal communities including Kol, Mawasi, Gond, Bhil, and members of the local saint community. Their demographic characteristics are summarized in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1.

Participant location, GPS, altitude ethnicity language, number of participants, gender age range and occupation

Name of Location	Longitute	Latitude	Altitude	Ethnicity	Language	Population	No. of Participants	Age- Range	Gender	Occupation
Arogya dham	2509’22.0”	8051’48.5”	155 m	Brahmin & Saint	Hindi	1560	12	60–75 Above 75	All are male	6 are priests and 6 are traditional healers
Sirsawan	25°09’18”	8051’46”	157 m	Brahmin & Saint	Hindi	2574	5	40–60	All are male	All are traditional healers
Ramghat	25°10’33.91”	80°52’08.90”	149 m	Kurmi	Hindi	5061	12	40–60 Above 75	All are man	All are traditional healers
Sati Anusuiya	25°04’30.67”	80°52’05”	206 m	Kurmi	Hindi	516	13	20–40, 40–60 60–75, Above 75	All are male	8 are farmers 5 are traditional healers
Gupt Godawari	25°5’54.7”	8046’08”	248 m	Bhil	Hindi	2074	8	40–60	6 are female and 2 male	All are Traditional healers
Patha	25°06’04.84”	81°04’59.10”	196 m	Gond & Kol	Hindi	1206	5	40–60 60–75	All are male	Two of them are Teacher and rest all are traditional healers
Sitapur	25°11’22.49”	80°51’31.52”	161 m	Kushwaha	Hindi	2560	14	40–60 60–75 Above 75	5 Female and 9 male	Five are farmers and rest all are Traditional healers
Majhgawan	24°55’01”	80°48’36.87”	420 m	Kol, Kurmi	Hindi	4163	12	40–60, 60–75 Above 75	7 Female, 5 male	One traditional healers and rest all are farmers
Shivrampur	25°14’00.60”	80°49’54.78”	153 m	Kol, Kuchwaha	Hindi	1865	10	25–40, 40–60	6 female and 4 male	2 are traditional healars and 8 are farmers
Pramodwan	25°09’58.05”	80°52’01.72”	154 m	Brahmin & Saint	Hindi	465	5	40–60, 60–75 Above 75	5 male	2 are traditional and 3 are
Ramnagar	25°09’24.63 “	80°51’46.00”	152 m	Brahmin & Saint	Hindi	715	16	40–60, 60–75 Above 75	4 are female and 12 male	4 housewife and 12 traditional healers
Karwi Maafi	25°11’47.60”	80°11’55.21”	151 m	Kol & Baghel	Hindi	2452	6	40–60 Above 75	4 male and 2 female	4 are retired teacher and 2 are housewife
Manikpur	25°04’27.16”	81°06’05.21”	252 m	Kol	Hindi	3750	13	40–60, 60–75 Above 75	7 are male and 5 female	7 are farmers and 5 are wood cutters
Pahadi	25°21’03.79”	80°58’23.57”	130 m	Kol & Brahmin	Hindi	1256	17	25–40, 40–60, 60–75	17 male	All are farmers
Kamadgiri Parikrama Marg	2509’54.8”	8051’45”	259 m	Brahmin and Saint	Hindi	5400	10	60–75 Above 75	8 male and 2 female	2 are housewife and 8 are traditional healers
Hanuman Dhara	25°09’23.53”	80°53’00.32”	189 m	Saint	Hindi	760	8	40–60, 60–75	8 male	5 are priest and 2 are farmers
Ranipur	25°18’09.90”	81°00’39.25”	130 m	Kol and Kurmi	Hindi	1400	9	40–60	9 male	All are farmers
Kapna	24°55’56.04”	81°03’20.53”	368 m	Kol	Hindi	625	5	40–60	5 male	1 is Traditonal healers and 4 are farmers
Rasoiya	25°12’19.34”	80°58’56.80”	151 m	Brahmin and Saint	Hindi	568	4	40–60, 60–75 Above 75	4 male	3 Priest and 1 sweeper of temple
Khoh	24°57’07.78”	80°48’04.64”	355 m	Brahmin and saint	Hindi	732	7	25–40, 40–60	7 male	7 are farmers
Rampurwa	25°09’35.96”	81°01’33.96”	176 m	Kol	Hindi	300	2	40–60, 60–75	2 male	2 are farmers
Aichwara	25°14’19.09”	81°04’53.36”	141 m	Kol, Gond	Hindi	1200	3	40–60, 60–75	3 male	2 are farmers and one is tradition healers
Bagrehi	25°13’56.05”	81°02’54.14”	142 m	Kol	Hindi	1652	2	60–75	2 male	2 are farmers
Bhauri	25°13’01.41”	80°54’21.79”	146 m	Brahmin	Hindi	1403	1	60–75	1 male	Traditional healer
Janki Kund	24°51’43.53”	80°55’41.19”	392 m	Saint and Brahmin	Hindi	854	3	60–75	3 male	All three are Priest in temple
Suteekshna Ashram	24°49’45.49”	80°55’58.73”	370 m	Saint	Hindi	120	1	60–75	1 male	Traditional healer
Baidan Tola	24°56’09.52”	81°09’33.52”	374 m	Saint	Hindi	325	1	60–75	1 male	Traditional healer

Table 2.

Demographic information of the participants

Demographic features	Categories	No. of person	Percentage
Gender	Male	168	81.95
	Female	37	18.04
Age-group	20–40	10	4.87
	40–60	56	27.31
	60–75	79	38.53
	Above 75	60	29.26
Education	Postgraduation	12	5.85
	Graduate	28	13.65
	Matriculation	55	26.82
	Elementary Knowledge	92	44.87
	Illiterate	18	8.78
Source of Knowledge	Self- Experiment	88	42.30
	Parents	117	57.07
Religion	Hindu	205	100.00

Data were collected primarily through individual semi-structured interviews supplemented with open-ended questions, following standard ethnobotanical survey protocols [177]. Group discussions were conducted where appropriate to validate and enrich the information obtained during individual interviews. In addition, participant observation and guided field (transect) walks were undertaken with key informants to identify plant species in their natural habitats and verify their traditional uses. Guided field walks are widely recognized as an effective validation method because they enable direct observation of plant species and their utilization in the local context [54]. Each informant was interviewed two to three times, and in some cases more frequently, to improve data reliability. Repeated interactions facilitated trust-building, cross-verification of information, and the collection of detailed ethnomedicinal knowledge. Such repeated verification and data triangulation are recommended to enhance the reliability and validity of ethnobotanical datasets [70–73]. All interviews were conducted in the local Bundelkhandi dialect or Hindi to ensure effective communication. Information recorded included local plant names, plant parts used, methods of preparation, routes of administration, dosage, precautions, reported side effects, harvesting locations, and conservation practices. To develop a comprehensive inventory of plant uses, informants were also asked about additional use categories, including food, fuel, fodder, furniture, fencing, and cultural or ritual applications. The information obtained was subsequently cross-verified through repeated interviews with multiple informants and validated during field observations, thereby enhancing the consistency and reliability of the recorded ethnobotanical knowledge [70–73].

Collection and identification of plant material

Plant materials used for ethnomedicinal purposes were collected from open forests, grasslands, and roadside vegetation throughout the Chitrakoot region. Traditional healers guided the researchers to the natural habitats of medicinal plants, enabling direct observation of their ecological distribution and traditional harvesting practices. Voucher specimens were collected during field surveys for taxonomic verification. The collected specimens were identified based on their morphological characteristics using standard taxonomic procedures and authenticated with the aid of published botanical literature [74–76]. Voucher specimens were assigned accession numbers ranging from CDKU1 to CDKU119 and deposited in the Herbarium of the Department of Botany, Kalinga University, for future reference. Taxonomic authentication was further supported by consulting regional floras, including Flora of Madhya Pradesh (Vols. I–III) and Flora of Uttar Pradesh (Vols. I–III) [75, 77]. Herbarium voucher documentation represents a fundamental standard in ethnobotanical research, ensuring taxonomic accuracy, reproducibility, and future verification of the reported plant species [188].

Quantitative analysis of ethnomedicinal data

Relative frequency of citation (RFC)

The Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) was used to assess the local importance and recognition of each medicinal plant species. A higher RFC value indicates greater recognition and more frequent citation of a plant by the informants. RFC was calculated using the formula proposed by previous researchers [78, 79]:

where FC is the number of informants who cited a particular plant species for ethnomedicinal use, and N is the total number of informants included in the study.In this context.

Informant consensus factor (ICF)

The Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) was used to evaluate the degree of agreement among informants regarding the use of medicinal plants for specific disease categories. The ICF ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating stronger consensus and greater consistency in ethnomedicinal knowledge. The ICF was calculated according to the following formula [25, 80, 81]:

where Nur is the total number of use reports for a particular disease category, and Nt is the number of plant taxa used to treat that category. This index was used to assess the consistency of ethnomedicinal information collected from the informants.

Use value (UV)

The Use Value (UV) is a quantitative index used to evaluate the relative importance of a plant species based on the diversity of its reported uses [32, 72].

where U is the total number of use reports for a given species, and N is the number of informants who reported that species.

Fidelity level (FL)

The Fidelity Level (FL) was calculated using the following formula:

where IP represents the number of informants who cited a plant species for treating a particular ailment, and IU represents the total number of informants who reported the same species for any medicinal purpose [82].

Jaccard similarity index (JI)

The Jaccard Similarity Index (JI) was used to compare the ethnobotanical data generated in the present study with those reported from other regions of India and different countries. It was also used to compare similarities in medicinal plant use among the indigenous communities included in this study. The index was calculated according to González-Tejero et al. [83]

where a is the total number of plant species recorded in study area A, b is the number of species recorded in study area B, and c is the number of species common to both study areas. For comparisons among indigenous communities, a and b represent the number of species reported by communities A and B, respectively, whereas c denotes the number of species shared by both communities.

Preference ranking exercise

Following the methodology of previous researchers [84], a preference ranking exercise was conducted with ten key informants to evaluate the perceived efficacy of five medicinal plants traditionally used to treat asthma. Asthma is one of the common respiratory disorders in the Chitrakoot region, and its prevalence has reportedly increased in recent years, partly because of increasing environmental pollution. Initially, the key informants identified five medicinal plant species commonly used for asthma treatment. Through group discussions, each informant ranked the plants according to their perceived therapeutic effectiveness using a scale from 1 (least effective) to 5 (most effective). The final preference ranking for each species was obtained by summing the scores assigned by all informants, thereby identifying the most preferred medicinal plants for asthma management.

Direct matrix ranking exercise

The direct matrix ranking method described by Martin [55] and Cotton [54] was employed to evaluate the multipurpose uses of selected medicinal plant species. Species with diverse uses were selected for assessment. Key informants assigned scores ranging from 5 (highest importance) to 0 (not used) for each use category. The average scores for each species were calculated and used to determine their overall ranking. Additionally, a priority ranking exercise involving ten key informants was conducted to identify and rank the major threats affecting medicinal plant species in the study area. Each quantitative index used in this study assessed a different aspect of ethnomedicinal knowledge. RFC measured the relative popularity of plant species, UV reflected the diversity of reported uses, ICF quantified the level of agreement among informants, FL identified species with high therapeutic specificity, JI enabled comparisons with previous ethnobotanical studies and among indigenous communities, whereas preference and direct matrix ranking evaluated perceived therapeutic effectiveness and multipurpose utility. Collectively, these indices provided a comprehensive and multidimensional assessment of ethnomedicinal plant use in the study area.

Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were conducted to quantitatively evaluate the ethnobotanical importance and utilization patterns of medicinal plant species documented in the Chitrakoot region. Two complementary hypotheses were examined. Hypothesis 1 (H₁): Quantitative ethnobotanical indices, including the Number of Use Reports (NUR), Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), and Use Value (UV), exhibit significant variation among the documented medicinal plant species, reflecting differences in their cultural importance and utilization patterns. Hypothesis 2 (H₂): Variation in the ethnobotanical importance of medicinal plant species is structured by quantitative ethnobotanical indices (RFC, UV, NUR, and the number of plant parts used), resulting in distinct utilization patterns among species. To evaluate Hypothesis 1, descriptive statistical analyses were performed for NUR, RFC, and UV. Measures of central tendency and dispersion, including the mean, standard deviation, range, and 95% confidence intervals, were calculated to summarize the distribution of each ethnobotanical index and to characterize variation in the cultural importance and utilization of medicinal plant species. Statistical analyses were conducted at a significance level of α = 0.05 using appropriate methods based on the distributional characteristics and measurement scales of the respective variables. To evaluate Hypothesis 2, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed using four quantitative ethnobotanical variables: Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), Use Value (UV), Number of Use Reports (NUR), and the number of plant parts used. PCA is a widely used multivariate technique for reducing data dimensionality and identifying the principal variables responsible for species differentiation and utilization patterns [32, 164]. Prior to analysis, all variables were standardized to eliminate differences in measurement scales [164].

The PCA was performed in R software (version 4.1.2) using the PCA() function of the FactoMineR package, together with the factoextra, patchwork, and ggplot2 packages [165, 166]. Principal components were retained according to the Kaiser criterion (eigenvalues > 1) [167], and the first two principal components (PC1 and PC2), which explained the greatest proportion of the total variance, were selected for interpretation.

The PCA results were visualized using the fviz_pca_biplot() function. Plant species were represented as points, while ethnobotanical variables were displayed as loading vectors. Species were colour-coded according to growth habit (herb, shrub, tree, and liana), and 95% confidence ellipses were included to illustrate clustering patterns among habit groups. The contribution matrix (res.pcacontrib) was used to identify the ten plant species contributing most strongly to PC1 and PC2, and these species were labelled in the PCA biplots to facilitate interpretation of the major sources of variation in ethnobotanical utilization patterns.

Results

Demographic information of the participants

Several field visits and repeated interviews with traditional healers were conducted to document ethnobotanical knowledge. A total of 205 participants representing diverse communities contributed to the study, including members of the saint community (38.98%), Kol (15.25%), Kurmi (13.55%), Brahmin (12.71%), Kuchwaha (11.86%), Bhil (4.32%), Gond (1.68%), Nai (0.84%), and Baghel (0.84%). Of the participants, 168 were male and 37 were female, with ages ranging from 30 to 82 years. The educational background of the participants varied: 12 had completed postgraduate education, 28 were graduates, 55 had completed matriculation, and 92 had attained only elementary education, while the remaining participants were illiterate. Most participants (57.07%) reported that they had inherited their ethnomedicinal knowledge from their forefathers, whereas 42.30% acquired their knowledge through self-experimentation. All participants belonged to the Hindu religion and identified Hindi as their primary language. Detailed demographic characteristics of the participants, including community affiliation, educational level, and occupation, as well as information on the study sites—including location, GPS coordinates, altitude, habitat, ethnicity, language, religion, population, and participant characteristics—are presented in Tables 1 and 2 and illustrated in Fig. 1B (Supplementary file).

Documented plant species

A total of 119 plant species belonging to 107 genera and 50 families were documented based on information provided by the participants. Of these, 90 species were collected from wild habitats, whereas 29 were cultivated. The documented species are listed alphabetically by botanical name in Table 3, together with their local names, families, plant parts used, and ethnomedicinal applications. Among the recorded families, Fabaceae was the most dominant, comprising 14 species, followed by Malvaceae (8 species) and Apocynaceae (6 species). At the generic level, Ficus was the most represented genus with four species, followed by Terminalia (three species), and Piper and Solanum (two species each). The distribution of plant families is presented in Fig. 2. Based on growth habit, herbs constituted the largest proportion (39%), followed by trees (29%) and shrubs (29%), whereas lianas accounted for only 3% (Fig. 3). Leaves were the most frequently utilized plant part (36.11%), followed by roots (13.19%), seeds (11.80%), and whole plants (10%). Other plant parts included fruits (9%), bark (5%), rhizomes and flowers (4% each), and tubers, bulbs, and gums (1% each) (Fig. 4). Powder was the most common method of preparation (29%), followed by decoction (24%), paste (23%), and fresh plant parts or juice (9%), whereas oil-based preparations were the least common (1%). Most remedies were administered orally (72%), while the remaining 28% were applied topically (Fig. 5).

Table 3.

List of plants used by localized communities indigenous and tribal groups of Chitrakoot for ethnomedicinal purposes

Botanical name voucher no.	Habit	IUCN red list categories	Vernacular name	Family	Localities and tribes using plants	RFC	UV	Part(s) used	Method of drug administration
Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet CDKU01	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Atibala	Malvaceae	Arogya dham/Bhil	0.08	0.12	Leaves	Leaves powder of Abutilon indicum is first mixed with an equal amount of leaf powder of Sida Cordifolia and then taken with rock sugar in the quantity of 10 g to treat frequent urination
Achyranthes aspera L. CDKU02	Herb	Not Evaluated	Apmarg, latjeera	Amaranthaceae	Jankikund/Saint	0.20	0.26	Seed	The entire plant is utilized in the form of a decoction for addressing asthma, while a paste made from the leaves is employed to alleviate the effects of scorpion and insect bites
Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa. CDKU03	Tree	Near Threatened	Bel	Rutaceae	Ramnagar/Saint	0.41	0.53	Leaves	To manage diabetes, orally consume 2 ml of leaf sap
Agave americana (L.) CDKU04	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Kandmool	Asparagaceae	Ramghat/Saint	0.15	0.28	Root	Roots are edible and given to patients with constipation
Alectra parasitica subsp. chitrakutensis (M.A.Rau) K.K.Khanna & An.Kumar CDKU05	Herbs	Critical Endangered	Nirgundi Kand	Orobanchaceae	Ramnagar/Saint	0.18	0.32	Whole plant	For the treatment of leprosy, the entire plant is used to prepare a decoction. To make the decoction, 10 g of plant powder is mixed with 100 ml of water and boiled until the volume is reduced to half. The resulting 25 ml of decoction is administered twice daily
Allium sativum L. CDKU06	Herb	Not Evaluated	Lahsun	Amaryllidaceae	Ramnagar/Saint	0.73	0.84	Bulb	10 cloves of Garlic (Allium sativum L.) are taken. Slightly warm and then it is taken with salt to treat Haemorrhoids. 5 cloves of Allium sativum are taken, chewed properly or ground and mixed with lukewarm water, then taken to treat Asthma and bronchitis
Amaranthus viridis L. CDKU07	Herb	Not Evaluated	Chaurai	Amaranthaceae	Sitapur mafi/Kuchwaha	0.21	0.35	Root	Root sap (5 ml) is mixed with 2.5 g of Honey. This mixture is recommended to treat irregular menstruation
Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) Lag. CDKU08	Herb	Vulnerable	Akarkara	Asteraceae	Pahadi/Kuchwaha	0.15	0.24	Root and Flower	Chewing the flowers of Akarkara reduces the headache caused by colds, swelling of the gums, and toothache. Mix equal amounts of roots of Akarkara, Majuphal, Nagarmotha, roasted alum, black pepper, and table salt, and grind them finely. Brushing with this mixture daily cures all diseases of teeth and gums, and eliminates bad breath
Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees CDKU09	Herb	Not Evaluated	Kalmegh, Chiraita	Acanthaceae	Khohi/Kurmi	0.54	0.65	Leaves	A remedy for fever involves preparing a decoction using the leaves of Azadirachta indica, Justicia adhatoda, Oldenlandia corymbose, and Andrographis paniculata
Annona squamosa Delile CDKU10	Tree	Least Concern	Ramphal	Annonaceae	Sati Anusuiya/Kurmi	0.29	0.54	Seed	Seed oil is used to kill lice. A paste of seed is externally applied over the head to treat headaches. Root powder is mixed with water and then given to the patient suffering from enuresis
Argemone mexicana L. CDKU11	Herb	Not Evaluated	Swarnakshiri	Papaveraceae	Ramnagar/Gond	0.30	0.41	Root Bark, Root	The root bark of Ficus carica along with the seed oil of Argemone mexicana is used to treat Leukoderma, To address asthma or allergies and alleviate cough, consume 0.5 g of root powder with milk
Aristolochia indica L. Creeper CDKU12	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Eswaramooli	Aristolochiaceae	Gupt Godawari/Saint	0.04	0.08	Leaves	To treat a snakebite, administer 2 g of freshly prepared leaf paste orally
Asparagus racemosus Willd. CDKU13	Liana	Not Evaluated	Shatawar	Asparagaceae	Sirsawan/Kol	0.37	0.51	Root	A decoction made from root powder is ingested to address vaginal and urinogenital infections. Additionally, 0.05 g of the same root powder can be taken orally for treatment. Root decoction is used to treat infertility. Root powder with milk is recommended to prevent ageing. Root powder (500 mg) is also given to the patient suffering from diabetes two times a day
Azadirachta indica Juss. CDKU14	Tree	Least Concern	Neem	Meliaceae	Sirsawan/Kol	0.53	0.40	Leaves	The sap extracted from the anterior portion of the leaflet is utilized for the treatment of indigestion, while the application of leaf paste on the affected area is recommended to alleviate the burning sensation
Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell. CDKU15 (Least Concern)	Herb	Least Concern	Brahmi	Plantaginaceae	Ramghat/Saint	0.65	0.56	Whole plant	Boiling 10 g of dried plant powder in 200 ml of water until it reduces by half and consuming the resulting decoction can effectively help in controlling high sugar levels
Balanites roxburghii Planch. CDKU16	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Ingudi, Hingot	Zygophyllaceae	Sati Anusuiya/Brahmin	0.04	0.08	Leaves	Leafy decoction is given to the patient suffering from Jaundice. Fruit is given to treat acne and mouth ulcers
Barleria prionitis L. CDKU17	Herb	Least Concern	Brajdanti	Acanthaceae	Gupt Godawari/Brahmin	0.16	0.26	Leaves Root	Twice a day, decoctions made from 50 g of dried leaves were administered to treat fever, while root powder was applied to address gum swelling
Bauhinia variegata L. CDKU18	Shrub	Least Concern	Kachnar	Fabaceae	Patha/Kurmi	0.28	0.26	Bark	Bark decoction is used to treat goiter and stomach ulcers. Leave decoction is used to treat inflammation
Boerhavia diffusa L. nom. cons CDKU19	Herb	Not Evaluated	Punarnava	Nyctaginaceae	Sitapur/Kol	0.35	0.41	Whole plant, root	The decoction of the root is effective in treating inflammation, and the consumption of 2 g of whole plant powder with honey is known to be a remedy for jaundice. Decoction of root is helpful for the treatment of Asthma
Bombax ceiba Burm.f. CDKU20	Tree	Least Concern	Semal	Malvaceae	Majhgawan/Bhil	0.39	0.48	Rhizome	Rhizome decoction is used to treat diabetes. Equal quantities of bark of Bombax ceiba and Moringa oleifera are taken. Decoction of this mixture will help treat involuntary ejaculation
Butea monosperma Lam.) Taub. CDKU21	Tree	Not Evaluated	Palash	Fabaceae	Shivrampur/Kuchwaha	0.05	0.15	Flower and Root	The mixture containing equal volumes of dried flower and root, combined with milk and sugar, is employed to treat erectile dysfunction. Additionally, a solution made by boiling 10 g of bark with an equal volume of dried Zingiber officinale in 100 ml of water until it reduces by half is used for treating ulcers
Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand. CDKU22	Shrub	Least Concern	Madar	Apocynaceae	Pramodwan/Brahmin	0.26	0.40	Leaves	To treat the sprain use the leaf of this plant, Wash the plant leaves with water, gently heat the whole leaves in a pan with mustard oil tie this leaf in the affected area. Sap or latex is applied to the itching area to treat itching
Carissa carandas Lour. CDKU23	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Karonda	Apocynaceae	Ramnagar/Saint	0.36	0.45	Fruit	Fruit chutney is recommended to treat dysentery and constipation
Cassia fistula L. CDKU24	Tree	(Least Concern)	Amaltas	Fabaceae	Karwi Maafi/Kuchwaha	0.39	0.21	Leaves, Seed pod	Flower paste is applied to treat ringworms and pimples. Prepare a paste by grinding the leaves of the Amaltas tree, Jasminum officinale, and Pongamia pinnata with cow urine. Apply this paste to the wound, and it is believed to have healing properties, even for longstanding wounds
Cassia tora (L.) Roxb. CDKU25	Herb	Not Evaluated	Charota	Fabaceae	Ramnagar/Saint	0.21	0.23	Leaves	Create a paste using fresh leaves and apply it over the affected area with ringworm or fungal infection
Cenchrus americanus (L.) Morrone CDKU26	Herb	Not Evaluated	Bajra	Poaceae	Karwi Maafi/Kurmi	0.23	0.37	Seed	1 kg Sorghum seed + 1 kg Pennisetum glaucum seed + 1 kg Hordeum vulgare + 1 kg of Cicer arietinum seed + 1 kg Triticum aestivum is grounded together. Black salt can be added to this flour. This flour will eradicate gastric problems, loss of appetite
Centella asiatica L. CDKU27	Herb	(Least Concern)	Mandookparni	Apiaceae	Manikpur/Kuchwaha	0.32	0.48	Whole plant	Grind 3 g of fresh leaves with a small amount of cow milk. Consume this paste with one glass of milk before breakfast to improve and sharpen memory
Chlorophytum borivilianum Santapau & R.R.Fern CDKU28	Herb	Least Concern	Safed Musli	Asparagaceae	Pahadi/Brahmin	0.42	0.58	Root	5 g of root powder with milk is given to the patient suffering from erectile dysfunction
Cinnamomum verum J.Presl CDKU29	Tree	Not Evaluated	Dalchini	Lauraceae	Kamadgiri Parikrama Marg/Kurmi	0.65	0.82	Bark	Cinnamomum verum (5 gram)+ Elettaria cardamomum (5 gram)+ Leaves of Cinnamomum tamala (5 gram)+ Roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra (40 gram)+Vitis vinifera (5 gram)+ Piper longum (20 gram) Fruits of Phoenix dactylifera (40 g)+ Rock sugar (40 g) is ground together. Then, add some honey and make the tablet. 3 to 4 times this tablet is taken to treat a cough
Cissus quadrangularis L. CDKU30	Liana	Not Evaluated	Hathjod	Vitaceae	Hanuman Dhara/Saint	0.28	0.39	Stem	Paste of Seed of Lepidium sativum, Rhizome of Curcuma amada, and Stem Cissus quadrangularis is prepared and applied externally on the area of bone fracture
Cloredendrum multifolium Burm.f. Kuntze CDKU31	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Arn	Apocynaceae	Ranipur/Kurmi	0.05	0.12	Leaves	Leaves of arn along with Kalanchoe pinnata given to treat gastric problem
Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.Theob. CDKU32	Herb	Not Evaluated	Chhalhata	Menispermaceae	Kapna/Kuchwaha	0.35	0.43	Root	Root powder (2 g) is ground with 2–3 seeds of Piper nigrum, then mix Root powder of Achyeanthus aspera and Calotropis gigantea. This mixture is given to the patient suffering from snake bite and scorpion-sting
Combretum indicum (L.) DeFilipps CDKU33	Liana	Not Evaluated	Madhumalti	Combretaceae	Rasoiya/Kuchwaha	0.35	0.47	Leaves and Flower	A decoction made from 50 g of leaves provides relief from kidney swelling. Additionally, a decoction of 50 g of leaves or flowers is utilized for the treatment of leucorrhea
Convolvulus prostratus Forssk. CDKU34	Herb	Not Evaluated	Shankhapuspi	Convolvulaceae	Khoh/Saint	0.25	0.35	Leaves	Leave powder or decoction is used to treat dysentery. Leaves powder of Convolvulus prostratus is mixed equal amount of Bacopa monnieri powder along with honey is given to the patient having cognitive problems
Cordia macleodii L. CDKU35	Tree	Not Evaluated	Dahiman	Boraginaceae	Rampurwa/Saint	0.08	0.14	Leaves	Leaf paste is used to cure wounds. Decoction of the leaf is used to prevent inflammation
Croton tiglium L. CDKU36	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Jamalgota	Euphorbiaceae	Aichwara/Kuchwaha	0.18	0.35	Seed	The seed coat is removed and then rubbed like sandalwood on the stone surface (with water). The traditional healer prescribed the application of the paste on the lower side of the forehead just above the eyebrows, ensuring a safe distance from the eyes to treat glaucoma. Before application of this paste, the patient was advised to wash his/her face. Oil in the face may disturb the application
Curcuma amada Roxburgh CDKU37	Herb	Not Evaluated	Aama Haldi	Zingiberaceae	Bagrehi/Kurmi	0.56	0.61	Rhizome	Half a spoon of rhizome powder along with milk is given to the patient suffering from joint pain. Half a spoon of rhizome powder is boiled with mustard oil. When a paste is formed. This paste is applied externally to the patient suffering from wound sprain and joint pain
Curcuma longa L. CDKU38	Herb	Not Evaluated	Haldi	Zingiberaceae	Bhauri/Brahmin	0.65	0.76	Rhizome	Haldi (Curcuma longa) is mixed with an equal amount of white lime and then applied externally to treat inflammation. Along with milk and honey, half a spoon of Curcuma longa L is recommended to treat cold and cough
Cyperus scariosus R.Br. CDKU39	Herb	Not Evaluated	Nagarmotha	Cyperaceae	Janki Kund/Saint	0.39	0.41	Whole plant	Whole plant of Cyperus scariosus+ Tubers of Pueraria tuberosa + Rhizome of Bombax ceiba +Root of Asparagus racemosus+ Root of Withania somnifera+ Mesua ferrea seed is taken equal quantity. Make powder of these drugs. Take 2 g of this powder add 3 g of rock sugar dissolve it into the milk. This milk removes the weakness of the body
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. CDKU40	Tree	(Least Concern)	Sheesham	Fabaceae	Ramnagar/Saint	0.21	0.43	Leaves	Grind 8 to 10 leaves of Dalbergia sissoo with sugar and 4 to 5 seeds of Piper nigrum. Form small tablets from this mixture and consume them twice a day. This is recommended for the treatment of leucorrhea and to address urinary blockage
Datura innoxia Mill. CDKU41	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Dhatura	Solanaceae	Karwi Maafi/Kol	0.26	0.38	Leaf	The sap from the leaves, when combined with Sesamum indicum oil, is applied to sprained or wounded areas to alleviate pain and promote healing
Desmodium gangeticum L. CDKU42	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Shalparni	Fabaceae	Manikpur/Kol	0.28	0.43	Leaves	The application of leaf paste is employed for wound healing, while a decoction made from dried leaves is utilized in the treatment of arthritis
Dioscorea bulbifera L. CDKU43	Tree	Not Evaluated	Varahi Kand	Dioscoreaceae	Pahadi/Saint	0.42	0.50	Tuber	Prepare Varahi Kand decoction by boiling a cup of water with Varahi Kand until it reduces by half. After cooling, strain to remove solids. Mix in Mulethi powder and Mishri in the strained decoction for enhanced digestive power. Ensure thorough blending before consuming. This decoction is given to the patient suffering from indigestion
Diospyros ebenum Koenig ex Retz. CDKU44	Tree	Not Evaluated	Tendu Patta	Ebenaceae	Kamadgiri Parikrama Marg/Saint	0.54	0.66	Fruit	Fruit of plants is recommended for patients with dysentery
Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop CDKU45	Herb	Not Evaluated	Janglee pyaj	Asparagaceae	Hanuman Dhara/Kol	0.34	0.40	Bulb	The bulb is ground and then fried in an iron pot along with mustard oil. Then, filter the oil. This oil is given to patients with joint pain and arthritis for massaging
Eclipta alba L. CDKU46	Herb	(Least Concern)	Bringraj, bhamra	Asteraceae	Ranipur/Brahmin	0.39	0.45	Leaves	To treat jaundice, consume a mixture of 5 g of fresh leaves and 2 g of Piper nigrum with buttermilk
Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton CDKU47	Herb	Not Evaluated	Ilayachi	Zingiberaceae	Kapna/Brahmin	0.58	0.63	Fruit	Fruit powder is mixed with honey and given to the patient suffering from Dysuria
Euphorbia nivulia Buch.-Ham. CDKU48	Shurb	Not Evaluated	Sanohi/Thuar	Euphorbiaceae	Rasoiya/Kurmi	0.20	0.25	Leaves	Leaves of Vitex nergundo, Ricinus communis, Euphorbia neriifolia, Datura stramonium, and Justicia adhatoda are fried in an equal combination of Linseed oil mustard oil, seed oil of Madhuca longifolia
Ficus benghalensis L CDKU49	Tree	Not Evaluated	Bargad	Moraceae	Khoh/Kol	0.51	0.65	Leaves	A large leaf is taken, mustard oil is applied on the front side of the leaf, then foment for 1 to 2 min, applied to the area of joint pain
Ficus carica L. CDKU50	Tree	Least Concem	Anjeer	Moraceae	Rampurwa/Kuchwana	0.38	0.43	Fruit, Root	Fruit is given to the patient suffering from constipation. Ficus carica (Anjeer) root is mixed with seed oil of Argemone maxicana applied over to treat white spots in skin
Ficus racemosa L. CDKU51	Tree	Not Evaluated	Gular	Moraceae	Kamadgiri Parikrama Marg/Kol	0.21	0.28	Leave, Seed, Fruit	A decoction made from 10 g of bark, 1 gram of catechu, and alum is utilized for the treatment of mouth ulcers. Additionally, a mixture of 3 g of Ficus racemosa leaves and 2 seeds of Piper nigrum, ground separately, should be combined, added to malted rice, and mixed with 250 ml of buttermilk. This concoction is recommended for the treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea. Mixing the powder of Vidarikanda with the powder of dried Gular fruits, ghee, and mishri (rock sugar) and consuming it provides strength to the body
Ficus religiosa L. CDKU52	Tree	Not Evaluated	Peepal	Moraceae	Arogya dham/Saint	0.38	0.48	Aerial root	The aerial root of this plant is taken. Lukewarm it. Grind it. The paste of the root is dissolved in water. Solution of the drug is given to the patient in the early morning to treat respiratory problems (The patient should have an empty stomach during drug administration) One-fourth cup of leaves juice of Ficus religiosa and Azadirachta indica is given to the patient with Kidney failure
Ficus virens Aiton CDKU53	Tree	Least Concern	Plaksha	Moraceae	Sirsawan/Saint	0.31	0.45	Leaves	Grind 2 to 4 fresh leaves of Ficus virens along with an equal number of leaves of Lawsonia inermis. Dissolve the resulting mixture in one glass of water and add sugar. This concoction is used to treat heat strokes
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. CDKU54	Herb	Not Evaluated	Saunf	Apiaceae	Ramghat/Saint	0.35	0.47	Seed	10 g of Saunf is soaked in water along with 2 to 4 seeds of Piper nigrum. Kept overnight. Then, ground and taken with a mixture of 25 ml of water and 25 ml of milk to treat indigestion and increase eye-sight
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. CDKU55	Herb	Not Evaluated	Mulethi	Fabaceae	Sati Anusuiya/Saint	0.45	0.62	Stem	2 g of stem powder along with sugar cake is given to the patient suffering from weakness. After taking plant powder drinking milk is necessary
Grewia helicterifolia Wall. ex G.Don CDKU56	Tree	Not Evaluated	Gulsakari	Malvaceae	Gupt Godawari/Saint	0.08	0.18	Root	Root powder (5 g) with an equal amount of sugar cake is added. In quantity of 10 g is given to the patient suffering from infertility
Grewia hirsuta Vahl. CDKU57	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Kukurbicha	Malvaceae	Patha/Kol	0.05	0.11	Leaves and fruits	A paste made from the leaves, combined with seeds of Cuminum cyminum, is administered for the treatment of constipation. Additionally, the fruit is given to address issues of indigestion
Guilandina bonduc Griseb. CDKU58	Shrub	Least Concern	Gotaran	Fabaceae	Sitapur/Kuchwaha	0.36	0.42	Seed	Seed is fried partially then grind and mixed with jaggery and given to the patient suffering from stomach ache
Gymnema sylvestre (Retz.) R.Br. ex Sm. CDKU59	Herb	Not Evaluated	Gudmar	Apocynaceae	Rampurwa/Kol	0.32	0.45	Leaves	Decoction of leaves of Gymnema sylvestre, Azadirachta indica, Syzygium cumini Andrographic paniculata is prepared and taken two times a day to treat diabetes
Helicteres isora L. CDKU60	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Maror phalli	Malvaceae	Aichwara/Bhil	0.28	0.58	Leaf	Grind seeds with legumes together and take 1 gram of the resulting powder to alleviate stomach aches and abdominal cramps
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br. CDKU61	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Anantmool	Apocynaceae	Bagrehi/Brahmin	0.48	0.64	Root	Combine 2 g of root bark with an equal amount of Picrorhiza kurroa and Zingiber officinale, form a tablet, and take it twice a day for the treatment of fever
Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton CDKU62	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Mongra	Oleaceae	Bhauri/Brahmin	0.23	0.42	Leaves	Fresh leaves of the plant are ground and make a paste. Then, fried with clarified butter. After that applied to treat pustules, small boils, blisters, acne
Jatropha gossypiifolia L. CDKU63	Shrub	Least Concern	Ratanjot	Euphorbiaceae	Janki Kund/Saint	0.16	0.21	Leaves	Apply a paste made from the leaves over areas affected by eczema and on itchy, inflamed skin
Justicia adhatoda L. CDKU64	Shrub	Least Concern	Vasa	Acanthaceae	Suteekshna Ashram/Saint	0.39	0.54	Leaves	Grind 2 g of fresh leaves with 4 to 6 Piper nigrum seeds, form a tablet, and consume it thrice a day until the issue of cold and cough persists
Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. CDKU65	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Pattharchatta	Crassulaceae	Baidan Tola/Saint	0.32	0.48	Leaves	One large leaf is divided into three parts. Along with one or two seeds of Piper nigrum is taken three times a day to treat Kidney stones
Kigelia africana subsp. africana CDKU66	Herb	Least Concern	Balam Kheera	Bignoniaceae	Dharkundi/Saint	0.26	0.45	Fruit	Fruit is given to the patient suffering from kidney stones. If fruit is raw, it is given in the form of chutney and if it is dried then the powder of the plant is given to the treatment of kindly stone
Lepidagathis trinervis Nees CDKU67	Herb	Not Evaluated	Siyarbaithka	Acanthaceae	Arogya dham/Saint	0.08	0.15	Whole plant	Plant powder along with powder of Tinospora cordifolia is taken to treat kidney stones. Plant powder is burnt then mixed with sap of Argemone mexicana then applied to the anus to treat Hemmorides and fistula
Leucas cephalotes Spreng. CDKU68	Herb	Not Evaluated	Dronpushpi	Lamiaceae	Sirsawan/Saint	0.21	0.36	Leaves	Leaf sap (2 to 3 ml) is administered to the nose to treat Snakebite
Limonia acidissima Houtt. CDKU69	Tree	Not Evaluated	Kaitha	Rutaceae	Ramghat/Saint	0.64	0.72	Leaves and Fruit	Raw Fruit is given to the patient with Diabetes. Leaf powder is also suggested to be taken orally for the treatment of the same ailments
Madhuca longifolia (J.Konig) J.F.Macbr. CDKU70	Tree	Not Evaluated	Mahua	Sapotaceae	Sati Anusuiya/Saint	0.36	0.54	Stem bark and Flower	The consumption of a decoction made from stem bark is recommended for treating diabetes. Additionally, the juice extracted from the flowers is beneficial in alleviating headaches, sinus issues, and eye irritation
Mangifera indica L. CDKU71	Tree	Not Evaluated	Aam	Anacardiaceae	Gupt Godawari/Kol	0.56	0.65	Seed	Mangifera indica Seed (10 g) + Seed of Syzygium cumini (10 g) along with 10–15 fruits of Elettaria cardamomum is ground and powder is prepared. This powder is taken morning and evening to treat diabetes
Melia azadirachta L. CDKU72	Tree	Least Concern	Bakain	Meliaceae	Patha/Kol	0.10	0.18	Leaves	Leaf juice is obtained from the leaf. One or two drops are administered in the ear to treat earache
Mentha spicata L. CDKU73	Herb	Least Concern	Pudina	Lamiaceae	Sitapur/Kurmi	0.56	0.74	Leaves	Drinking a decoction of mint leaves (10–15 ml) provides relief from inflammation of the airway, often caused by cold
Moringa oleifera Lam. CDKU74	Tree	Least Concern	Sahjan	Moringaceae	Majhgawan/Kuchwaha	0.64	0.78	Leaves	Patients suffering from anemia are given fresh leaves (50 g) as part of their treatment. Leave powder (4–5 g is also given for the treatment of Paralysis 50 g of Moringa leaves along with 1gm of the dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale, 1 gm of seeds of Trachyspermum ammi, and 25 g of Asafoetida are taken in 400 ml of water. Boil and make a decoction of this mixture. 250 ml of this decoction is taken to treat Arthritis and sciatica pain
Morus alba L. CDKU75	Shrub	Least Concern	Shahtoot	Moraceae	Manikpur/Kol	0.34	0.48	Bark, Fruit	Combine lemon juice with Mulberry bark powder, heat the mixture in ghee, apply it to the ringworm, and wrap it with a cloth strip; repeat this process for 15 days to alleviate itching and effectively treat ringworm. Fruit is suggested to patients suffering from Asthma
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC CDKU76	Shrub	Least Concern	Khujali plant	Fabaceae	Pahadi/Kurmi	0.18	0.29	Seed	Boil 5 g of seeds with 350 ml of cow milk, and add 1 spoonful of sugar and clarified butter (ghee). Consume this milk to alleviate back pain and strain
Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng. CDKU77	Shrub	Least Concern	Meethi Neem	Rutaceae	Kamadgiri Parikrama Marg/Saint	0.38	0.58	Leaves	Leaves paste is applied over the blister, acne, and skin diseases. Feeding crushed 2–4 fruits of this plant helps control diarrhoea
Neltuma juliflora (Sw.) Raf. CDKU78	Shrub	(Least Concern)	Shami	Fabaceae	Hanuman Dhara/Saint	0.22	0.36	Leaves	Leaves juice in 10 ml of quantity is given to kill stomach worms. Bark powder mixed with linseed oil is recommended to treat skin problems
Nigella sativa L. CDKU79	Herb	Not Evaluated	Kalaunji	Ranunculaceae	Ranipur/Kol	0.21	0.34	Seed	An equal quantity of seed of Nigella sativa, Seeds of Trigonella foenum-graecum, and leaves of Murraya koeginii, Aloe vera, and flower of Hibiscus rosa sinensis is taken. Paste of this mixture will applied to the hair for 6–7 h for the treatment of Hair fall and whitening of hair
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. CDKU80	Tree	(Least Concern)	Harsingar/Parijat	Oleaceae	Kapna/Kuchwaha	0. 31	0.45	Leaf, Seed	Fresh leaf paste is taken to treat Arthritis. Seed oil is used to treat sciatica pain. Equal weight of leaves of Vitex negundo and Nyctanthes arbor-tristis are taken. A decoction is prepared. This decoction is useful for the treatment of Arthritis
Ocimum sanctum L. CDKU81	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Tulsi	Lamiaceae	Rasoiya/Kurmi	0.54	0.75	Leaves	4 to 6 leaves of this plant with 4 to 6 seeds of Piper nigrum are taken to treat indigestion, anorexic. To make more effective this drug formulation, Piper nigrum seeds are crushed into powder, juice is extracted from leaves of Ocimum mix both the ingredients add cow’s clarified butter to make a paste and give to the patient to treat weakness, body pain, and all kind of physiological disorder
Oldenlandia corymbosa. L. CDKU82	Herb	(Least Concern)	Damjari	Rubiaceae	Khoh/Brahmin	0.21	0.33	Whole plant	The aerial parts of the plant, primarily the leaves, are ground with 10–15 seeds of Piper nigrum. Create small tablets from this mixture and consume them twice a day to treat fever
Oxalis corniculata L. CDKU83	.Herb	Not Evaluated	Khatti-buti	Oxalidaceae	Rampurwa/Kurmi	0.24	0.46	Leaves	A decoction made from leaves (10 g in 250 ml of water) with the addition of Asafoetida can be beneficial for stomach aches. Oral consumption of leaf juice (2.5 ml) is recommended to treat dysentery
Phyllanthus emblica L. CDKU84	Tree	(Least Concern)	Amla	Phyllanthaceae	Arogya dham/Saint	0.46	0.62	Fruit	The combination of fruit juice with garlic sap and honey proves highly effective in addressing cold and cough symptoms. Consuming fruit along with Raphanus sativus is recommended to promote increased urination, aiding in the treatment of urinary infections and kidney stones
Phyllanthus niruri L. CDKU85	Herb	Not Evaluated	Bhumi Amla	Phyllanthaceae	Sirsawan/Saint	0.54	0.70	Whole plant	Phyllanthus niruri along with Boerhavia diffusa and Solanum nigrum is taken in equal amounts then decoction is prepared. Take 100 ml of this decoction two times to treat blood deficiency. It also acts as a live tonic and helps in liver cleaning. This decoction also helps in blood filtering
Physalis minima L. CDKU86	Herb	Vulnerable	Chirpati/Rasbhari	Solanaceae	Ramghat/Saint	0.12	0.20	Fruit	Decoction of fruit helps treat constipation and gastric troubles
Piper longum L. CDKU87	Herb	Not Evaluated	Peepri	Piperaceae	Sati Anusuiya/Kol	0.57	0.75	Fruit	Black salt+ dried rhizome of Zinziber officinale+ fruits of Piper longum+ Trachyspermum ammi+dried fruit of Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia bellirica is used for gastric problems
Piper nigrum L. CDKU88	Herb	Not Evaluated	Kali mirch	Piperaceae	Gupt Godawari/Kol	0.90	1.20	Seed	10-gram Kali mirch (Piper nigrum) along with 50 gm sugar cake was ground, then mixed with ghee. Vision of eyesight will recover if it was damaged by any accident
Plumbago zeylanica L. CDKU89	Herb	Not Evaluated	Chitrak	Plumbaginaceae	Patha/Bhil	0.44	0.54	Root bark	The fresh root of this plant is ground and paste is prepared. This paste is applied over the white spot/Leucoderma
Pongamia pinnata L. CDKU90	Tree	(Least Concern)	Karanj	Fabaceae	Sitapur/Kurmi	0.21	0.32	Stem	The soft and green stem is utilized to clean gums and teeth
Psidium guajava L. CDKU91	Shrub	(Least Concern)	Amrood/Bihi	Myrtaceae	Majhgawan/Gond	0.41	0.56	Leaves	Leaves paste along with catechu is applied to treat mouth sore
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. CDKU92	Tree	Not Evaluated	Vijaysar	Fabaceae	Shivrampur/Kuchwaha	0.24	0.38	Pulp	Pulp of Pterocarpus marsupium, along with leaves of Gymnema sylvestre, Azadirachta indica, Aegle marmelos, Ziziphus mauritiana, Ocimum sanctum, Bougainvillea, Anonna squamosa are ground together, half spoon morning and evening is taken to treat diabetes
Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) DC. CDKU93	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Vidarikand	Piperaceae	Pramodwan/Brahmin	0.52	0.68	Rhizome	Rhizome powder (5 g) is mixed with clarified butter (10 g). This paste is taken the night after the meal. It is recommended to take 1 glass of milk after consuming the drug. This drug is helpful to increase stamina. In females, this formulation increases milk lactation
Punica granatum L. CDKU94	Tree	Least Concern	Anar	Lythraceae	Ramnagar/Saint	0.64	0.82	Fruit peel	Decoction of fruit peel is mixed with black salt and given to the patient suffering from dysentery, Hemorrhoids, Irritable Bowel Syndrome, and stomach cramps
Rosa indica Lour. CDKU95	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Gulab	Rosaceae	Karwi Maafi/Kurmi	0.54	0.78	Flower	An equal quantity of dried flower and root powder of Calotropis procera is taken and mixed with baking soda. A tablet of this mixture is taken to treat Hemorrhoids. One tablet will also applied externally after mixing with mustard oil
Selaginella bryopteris (L.) Baker Herb Not Evaluated CDKU96	Herb	Not Evaluated	Kamraj	Selaginellaceae	Manikpur/Kol	0.42	0.65	Whole plant	Dip the whole plant into the water. When it became swell and green, grinding was performed. Paste of plant mix with sugar candy and drink with milk to treat sexual problems
Senegalia catechu (L.f.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb CDKU97	Tree	Least Concern	Khair	Fabaceae	Arogya dham/Saint	0.64	0.76	Bark	Bark powder was mixed with mustard oil and paste was prepared. This paste is used to treat wounds. Bark powder along with sugar cake is given to the patient suffering from a cold and cough
Sida acuta Burm. f. CDKU98	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Baraira	Malvaceae	Sirsawan/Saint	0.24	0.30	Leaves	Applying leaf paste to wounded areas of the body is recommended. For cases of sprain and pain, massaging the affected area with leaf sap offers immediate relief
Solanum nigrum Lesch. ex Dunall CDKU99	Herb	Not Evaluated	Makoy	Solanaceae	Ramghat/Saint	0.26	0.42	Leaves	Leaves juice in the quantity of 10–15 ml is prescribed to treat Fatty liver. To treat jaundice, a combination of 1 gram of leaf powder with turmeric powder is administered
Solanum virginianum L. CDKU100	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Bhatkataiya	Solanaceae	Sirsavan/Kuchwaha	0.54	0.47	Leaves	Boiling 2 g of Solanum virginianum leaves with an equal amount of Tinospora cordifolia and Justicia adhatoda in 100 ml of water produces a decoction that can be beneficial for cold and cough. Additionally, a decoction with Tinospora cordifolia is also helpful in addressing indigestion
Sterculia urens Roxb. CDKU101	Tree	Not Evaluated	Kullu	Malvaceae	Sirsavan/Saint	0.03	0.09	Gum	50 g of gum is soaked in water and kept overnight. The soaked gum with sugar is given two times a day to treat dysentery
Syzygium cumini L. Skeels CDKU102	Tree	(Least Concern)	Jamun	Myrtaceae	Sphatik Shila/Saint	0.38	0.54	Leaves	Leaf paste is used to applied to treat small boils, blisters, acne
Tephrosia purpurea L. CDKU103	Herb	(Least Concern)	Sharpunkha	Fabaceae	Arogya Dham/Saint	0.35	0.47	Root	The root powder is employed for brushing teeth, while the application of leaf paste is recommended for treating boils. The extract from the fruit is utilized to address inflammation
Terminalia arjuna Wight & Arn. CDKU104	Tree	Not Evaluated	Arjun	Combretaceae	Arogyadham/Nai	0.52	0.67	Stem bark	A decoction of stem bark is beneficial in maintaining a normal heart rate, especially when it exceeds the range of 72 to 150 beats per minute. Boil 10 g of stem bark powder in 200 ml of water until it reduces by half, and consume it throughout the day. Repeat this process until the heart rate normalizes
Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. CDKU105	Tree	Least Concern	Baheda	Combretaceae	Pahadi/Kurmi	0.66	0.81	Seed	Equal quantities of powder of Terminalia bellirica, Terminalia chebula, Phyllanthus emblica, and Trachyspermum ammi are taken to treat gastric problems
Terminalia chebula Retz. CDKU106	Tree	(Least Concern)	Harra	Combretaceae	Kamadgiri Parikrama Marg/Brahmin	0.64	0.78	Seed	Leaves of Vitex negundo along with the seed of Terminalia chebula is used to treat skin-related diseases. During the treatment, it was advised to abstain from spicy and oily food
Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Miers ex Hook.f. & Thomson CDKU107	Herb	Not Evaluated	Giloy	Menispermaceae	Hanuman Dhara/Brahmin	0.56	0.67	Stem	Tinospora cordifolia (50 g) along with Terminalia arjuna (50 g) is taken along with 5 g of Piper nigrum and decoction is prepared. This decoction is given to the patient suffering from heart and respiratory problems
Trachyspermum ammi Sprague Herb Not Evaluated CDKU108	Herb	Not Evaluated	Ajwain	Apiaceae	Ranipur/Baghel	0.58	0.72	Seed	2 g of Ajwain (Trachyspermum ammi) is taken orally and chewed properly. Then, hot water is taken. This remedy will be helpful for patients with stomach ache, dysentery, cough, and in case of over-eating. 2 g of seed is given to the patient suffering from Trachyspermum ammi
Tribulus terrestris L. CDKU109	Herb	(Least Concern)	Gokharu	Zygophyllaceae	Kapna/Saint	0.56	0.76	Fruit	Taking 2 g of Gokhru fruit powder (known for its benefits in Hindi) along with 2–3 dried figs three times a day for several days can alleviate asthma symptoms. Mixing equal proportions of Gokshura and Ashwagandha, adding 2 teaspoons of honey to the powdered mixture, and consuming it twice a day with 250 ml of milk is beneficial for respiratory issues and weakness
Tridax procumbens L. CDKU110	Herb	Not Evaluated	Tridhara	Asteraceae	Rasoiya/Saint	0.68	0.074	Leaves	Leaf paste is used to treat wounds, pimples, pustules, small boils, blisters, acne, and small boil. Leaf decoction is given to treat Headache
Tripidium bengalense (Retz.) H.Scholz CDKU111	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Sakaranda	Poaceae	Khoh/Bhil	0.09	0.16	Root	The root of this plant is given to treat inflammation
Triticum aestivum CDKU112	Herb	Not Evaluated	Gehun	Poaceae	Rampurwa/Kol	0.36	0.42	Whole plant	Plant sap of Triticum aestivum, and Pennisetum glaucum are mixed and then given to the patient with blood deficiency, i.e., anaemia
Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. CDKU113	Shrub	Not Evaluated	chikti	Malvaceae	Aichwara/Kurmi	0.20	0.23	Root,	The root decoction is utilized to treat ulcers, and a decoction made from the leaves is beneficial for addressing diarrhoea
Vitex negundo L. CDKU114	Shrub	(Least Concern)	Nirgundi, Medhaki	Lamiaceae	Pahadi/Kuchwaha	0.38	0.47	Leaves	A decoction made from 10 g of dried leaves is beneficial for arthritis
Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. CDKU115	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Ashwagandha	Solanaceae	Kamadgiri Parikrama Marg/Saint	0.58	0.68	leaves	Boiling 5 g of leaves in 100 ml of water is recommended to reduce blood sugar levels. Additionally, a decoction of the roots is believed to help purify the blood
Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz CDKU116	Tree	(Least Concern)	Dhatki	Lythraceae	Ramghat/Saint	0.42	0.64	Leaves	20 g of Leaves are boiled and decoction is prepared. Add some jaggery. This decoction is given to the patient suffering from asthma. This remedy is also useful for the treatment of dysentery
Wrightia antidysenterica (L.) R.Br. CDKU117	Shrub	Not Evaluated	Kutaj	Apocynaceae	Ramnagar/Saint	0.42	0.57	Leaves	Decoction of Wrightia antidysenterica, Hemidesmus indicus, Pluchea lanceolata is taken to treat skin infection and Psoriasis
Zingiber officinale Roscoe CDKU118	Herb	Data Deficient.	Adrak	Zingiberaceae	Pramodwan/Brahmin	0.78	0.86	Rhizome	The dried rhizome is taken with NH4Cl (Nausadar) to treat loss of Appetite
Ziziphus jujuba Mill. () CDKU119	Tree	Least Concern	Ber	Rhamnaceae	Ramnagar/Brahmin	0.54	0.71	Fruit, Seed	Fruit is given to the patient with constipation. Powder of fruit along with seed can also be used for the treatment of heart patients having high blood pressure. Consuming 2 g of fruit kernels with honey is advised once a day for the treatment of diabetes

Fig. 2.

Distribution of plant families reported in Chitrakoot for the preparation of ethnomedicine

Fig. 3.

Contribution of plant habit

Fig. 4.

Contribution of plant parts to ethnomedicine

Fig. 5.

Method of drug administration

Quantitative analysis of ethnobotanical data

Relative frequency of citation (RFC)

The Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) reflects the proportion of informants who cited a particular plant species relative to the total number of informants surveyed. In the present study, the highest RFC value was recorded for Piper nigrum (1.00), followed by Zingiber officinale (0.86), Allium sativum (0.84), and Curcuma longa (0.76). In contrast, the lowest RFC values were recorded for Balanites roxburghii (0.08), Sterculia urens (0.09), and Grewia hirsuta (0.11).

Informant consensus factor (ICF)

The Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) measures the degree of agreement among informants regarding the use of medicinal plants for treating specific disease categories. In the present study, the highest ICF value was recorded for the category of snake, scorpion, and insect bites (0.88), followed by digestive system disorders (0.84) and respiratory disorders (0.83). The lowest ICF value was recorded for dental disorders (0.64). The disease categories and their corresponding ICF values are presented in Table 4.

Table 4.

Informant consensus factor (ICF) analysed according to ailment categories within the current study

Category of ailment	Diseases and physiological problems	Number of use reports (Nur)	Number of species (Nt)	ICF value
Digestive system disorder	Stomach ache, loss of appetite, indigestion, fatty liver, stomach cramps, jaundice, hemorrhoids, over-eating, ulcer)	178	29	0.84
Microbial and parasitic infection	Dysentery, fungal infection, ringworm, diarrhoea, leucorrhoea, stomach worm	83	17	0.80
Snake scorpion and insect bites	Snake bite, scorpion bite, insect bite	17	3	0.88
Excretory and Kidney related disorders	Frequent urination, urine blockage, enuresis, kidney stone, dysuria	78	15	0.82
Fever and cough	Fever, cold and cough	27	9	0.69
Pain & inflammation	Headache, sinusitis	68	13	0.82
Respiratory disorders	Asthma, allergies	30	6	0.83
General disorder	Weakness, heat strokes, hair fall, hair whitening	34	10	0.73
Rheumatism and Skeleto-muscular problems	Joint pain, bone fracture, arthritis, sciatica pain, back pain, strain	72	13	0.83
Eye nose and throat-related problems	(Glaucoma, eye irritation)	23	8	0.68
Dental disorder	Cleaning of gums and teeth, mouth sore	12	5	0.64
Circulatory and cardiovascular disorders	Diabetes, blood circulation, blood purifiers, anaemia	82	15	0.83
Dermatological disorder	Boils, abscesses, swellings, cuts and wounds, pustules, burning sensation, eczema, blisters, itching, psoriasis, leprosy	124	24	0.81
Sexual and related problems	Involuntary ejaculation, erectile dysfunction, irregular menstruation, infertility	47	9	0.83
Neurological and psychological disorders	Paralysis, cognitive problems, sharpen of memory	8	3	0.71

Use value (UV)

The Use Value (UV) reflects the relative importance of a plant species based on the number of uses reported by informants. In the present study, the highest UV was recorded for Piper nigrum (1.20), followed by Allium sativum (0.84), Cinnamomum verum (0.82), and Punica granatum (0.82). In contrast, the lowest UV values were recorded for Aristolochia indica (0.08) and Balanites roxburghii (0.08).

Fidelity level (FL)

The Fidelity Level (FL) reflects the degree of agreement among informants regarding the use of a particular plant species for treating a specific ailment. In the present study, the highest FL values were recorded for Piper nigrum (fever), Allium sativum (sexual infertility), Cinnamomum verum (cold and cough), Asparagus racemosus (specify ailment), Terminalia bellirica (constipation), Vitex negundo (specify ailment), Terminalia arjuna (hypertension), and Tridax procumbens (cuts and wounds), as presented in Table 5.

Table 5.

Assessing the comparative therapeutic efficacy of the top 12 medicinal plants widely cited for treating human diseases

Disease categories	Species	Ip	Iu	FL (%)
Arthritis	Vitex negundo	9	9	100.00
Hypertension	Terminalia arjuna	16	16	100.00
Cut and wound	Tridax procumbens	24	27	88.89
Cold and cough	Cinnamomum venum	18	21	85.71
Sexual weakness	Asparagus racemosus	32	35	91.43
Constipation	Terminalia bellirica	24	27	88.89
Asthma	Allium sativum	38	42	90.48
Fever	Piper nigrum	15	17	88.24
Sexual infertility	Allium sativum	19	22	100.00
Jaundice	Phyllanthus niruri	24	27	88.89
Hemorrhoids	Calotropis procera	12	15	80.00

Jaccard index (JI)

The present study exhibited the highest similarity with ethnobotanical studies conducted in Central India, particularly in Madhya Pradesh and adjoining regions. The highest Jaccard Similarity Index (JI) was recorded for Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh (22.80%) [170], followed by Pushprajgarh Block, Anuppur District (19.89%) [171], and northeastern Madhya Pradesh (14.29%) [169]. Similarly, studies from Chitrakoot, Madhya Pradesh (14.48%) [41] and Chitrakoot, Uttar Pradesh (14.75%) [89] showed moderate similarity. This relatively high overlap is likely attributable to comparable floristic composition, similar agro-climatic conditions, and long-standing cultural exchange among geographically adjacent tribal and rural communities. Furthermore, the presence of similar ethnic groups and traditional healers may have contributed to the observed similarity in ethnomedicinal knowledge.

Compared with studies from other regions of India, the similarity indices ranged from moderate to low. For example, studies from Chandauli District (17.74%) [93], the Palamalai region of the Eastern Ghats (17.33%) [95], and Sarguja District (10.34%) [121] exhibited moderate similarity, indicating partial overlap in medicinal plant use despite geographical separation. In contrast, lower JI values were reported for the Garhwal Himalaya (7.32%) [168], Madurai District, Tamil Nadu (7.19%) [127], and northern Bengal (3.20%) [162], reflecting regional differences in plant diversity and ethnomedicinal practices. These variations may be attributed to differences in ecological conditions, altitudinal gradients, and cultural traditions that influence the selection and use of medicinal plants.

Comparison with ethnobotanical studies conducted outside India revealed very low JI values, emphasizing the localized nature of traditional medicinal knowledge. The lowest similarity indices were recorded for Central Macedonia, Greece (1.48%) [126], Parbat District, Nepal (2.03%) [123], Woyde District, Ethiopia (2.33%) [122], and Khatling Valley, western Himalaya (3.31%) [94]. Similarly, studies from Ensaro District, Ethiopia (3.83%) [97], Muja District, Ethiopia (3.48%) [125], and Ramechhap District, Nepal (10.73%) [79] also demonstrated limited similarity in ethnomedicinal practices.

Overall, these findings indicate that ethnomedicinal knowledge is highly region-specific and is strongly influenced by local biodiversity, cultural traditions, and the independent evolution of traditional knowledge systems. The limited overlap among geographically distant regions underscores the importance of documenting indigenous ethnomedicinal knowledge before it is irreversibly lost (Table 6).

Table 6.

Assessment of the present study concerning previous research conducted at the local, regional, and global levels via the Jaccard index (JI)

Study area of previous research	References	Total documented species	Total documented species in the present study	Similar use of plant	Dissimilar use of plant	Plants common to both areas	Jaccard index
Ensaro District, Ethiopia	Asfaw et al. 2023 [97]	125	119	0	9	9	3.83
Ramechhap District Nepal	Pradhan et al. 2020 [79]	139	119	6	19	25	10.73
Khatling Valley of Western Himalaya, India	Hussian et al. 2023 [94]	68	119	2	4	6	3.31
Woyde District Wolaita Zone Ethiopia	Megersa and Woldetsadik 2022 [122]	57	119	2	2	4	2.33
Parbat District, Nepal	Malla et al. 2015 [123]	132	119	0	5	5	2.03
Chitrakoot, Uttar Pradesh India	Singh et al. 2020 [89]	21	119	2	16	18	14.75
Bhaktapur, Nepal	Dulal et al. 2022 [124]	96	119	15	4	19	9.69
Muja District, South Gondar Ethiopia	Mekonnen et al. 2022 [125]	89	119	3	4	7	3.48
Chitrakoot Madhya Pradesh India	Tripathi and Sikarwar 2013 [41]	47	119	4	17	21	14.48
Central Macedonia, Greece	Tsioutsiou et al. 2019 [126]	87	119	0	3	3	1.48
Chandauli District, India	Maurya et al. 2015 [93]	100	119	2	31	33	17.74
Madurai District, Tamilnadu, India	Ignacimuthu et al. 2005 [127]	60	119	1	11	12	7.19
Palamalai Region Eastern Ghat, India	Silambarasan & Ayyanar 2015 [95]	118	119	5	30	35	17.33
Sarguja District, India	Kala 2009 [121]	73	119	3	15	18	10.34
Rewa, Madhya Pradesh, India	Shukla et al. 2010 [161]	166	119	14	8	22	10.4
Northern Bengal, India	Raj et al. 2018 [162]	140	119	5	3	8	3.2
Garhwal Himalaya	Kumar et al. 2011 [168]	57	119	7	5	12	7.32
Northeastern Madhya Pradesh (District- Umaria, Shahdol, Dindori) M.P. India	Sharma et al. [2024] [169]	201	119	9	31	40	14.29
Amarkantak M.P. India	Kareti et al. 2021 [170]	118	119	12	32	44	22.80
Pushparajgarh Block, Anuppur, M.P.	Rao et al. 2022 [171]	98	119	9	27	36	19.89

Preference ranking

Preference ranking analysis was conducted for asthma, the most frequently reported disease in the Chitrakoot region. Ten key informants ranked the five most commonly cited medicinal plants used for asthma treatment based on their perceived effectiveness. A scoring system from 1 to 5 was applied, where 5 indicated the highest effectiveness and 1 the lowest. Among the evaluated species, Justicia adhatoda and Allium sativum secured the 1 st and 2nd ranks, respectively, indicating their higher perceived efficacy in asthma management (Table 7).

Table 7.

Preference ranking of medicinal plants used for the treatment of asthma

Name of medicinal plants	Informant from (A-J)										Total	Rank
	A	B	C	D	E	F	G	H	I	J
Justicia adhatoda	4	4	3	5	5	5	5	5	4	2	36	1st
Allium sativum	5	4	3	4	5	4	5	5	4	5	35	2nd
Boerhavia diffusa	3	5	4	2	4	2	3	3	5	3	26	3rd
Asparagus racemosus	4	3	2	1	5	2	2	2	1	2	21	4th
Woodfordia fruticosa	1	2	2	2	5	2	4	2	2	2	20	5th
Achyranthes aspera	2	1	2	2	1	3	2	2	1	2	15	6th
Argemone mexicana	2	2	1	2	2	3	1	1	2	3	14	7th
Morus alba	1	2	3	1	2	1	1	1	1	2	12	8th

Direct matrix ranking

Direct matrix ranking revealed that local communities utilize several plant species for multiple purposes beyond their medicinal applications. These uses include fuelwood, fencing, house construction, food, farm implements, and furniture. The ten most important multipurpose plant species identified were Mangifera indica, Dalbergia sissoo, Madhuca longifolia, Azadirachta indica, Ficus religiosa, Ocimum sanctum, Diospyros ebenum, Ziziphus jujuba, Piper longum, and Zingiber officinale (Table 8). The cumulative ranking across seven use categories showed that the principal uses of these plant species, in descending order of importance, were fuelwood, fencing, farm implements, house construction, medicinal purposes, fodder, and food.

Table 8.

Twelve informants conducted a direct matrix ranking of ten plant species, evaluating them on the basis of seven criteria of use. The ranking scale ranged from 5 for the most preferred use to 0, indicating no perceived value

Species	Use diversity
	Medicine	Fuel-wood	Fence	Industrial	Furniture	Fodder	Food	Total	Rank
Mangifera indica	4	5	1	4	4	4	5	27	1st
Dalbergia sissoo	5	4	1	4	5	3	2	24	2rd
Madhuca longifolia	5	3	1	5	3	2	4	22	3rd
Azadirachta indica	5	4	1	4	5	4	1	19	4th
Ficus religiosa	5	0	0	2	2	5	5	17	5th
Ocimum sanctum	5	2	0	3	0	1	5	16	6th
Diospyros ebenum	2	4	2	4	0	1	3	16	7th
Ziziphus jujuba	4	0	2	3	0	1	5	15	8th
Piper longum	5	0	2	2	0	0	5	14	9th
Zingiber officinale	5	0	0	0	0	0	5	10	10th

Most of the medicinal plants documented in the present study were collected from wild habitats, including open forests, roadside vegetation, and riverbanks. Some medicinal ingredients, particularly spices and seeds used in the preparation of herbal remedies, were purchased from local markets. Only 20.16% of the documented species were cultivated by traditional healers or obtained through commercial sources. The heavy reliance on wild-harvested plants (approximately 80%) with limited cultivation raises concerns about the long-term sustainability of traditional ethnomedicinal practices [128]. The distribution of all recorded species was documented, and their conservation status was evaluated using the IUCN Red List [129] (https://www.iucnredlist.org/). According to the IUCN Red List, one species was classified as Vulnerable (VU), 32 species as Least Concern (LC), one species as Near Threatened (NT), and one species as Data Deficient (DD), whereas the remaining species have not yet been evaluated (NE) for their conservation status.

One-sample t-test analysis

The quantitative ethnobotanical indices, including Number of Use Reports (NUR), Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), and Use Value (UV), were analysed to characterize the ethnobotanical importance and utilization patterns of the 119 medicinal plant species documented in the Chitrakoot region (Tables 9 and 10; Fig. 6A–C). The mean NUR was 1.98 (95% CI: 1.79–2.18), indicating that the recorded medicinal plant species were associated with multiple reported therapeutic uses. The relatively high NUR values reflect the extensive utilization of medicinal plants and the diversity of traditional knowledge maintained by the local communities. The mean RFC was 0.362 (95% CI: 0.328–0.395), suggesting that individual medicinal plant species were cited by varying proportions of informants. This pattern indicates differences in community recognition and familiarity with medicinal plants, with some species being widely known while others were reported by relatively few informants. The mean UV was 0.470 (95% CI: 0.432–0.508), indicating moderate overall utilization of the documented medicinal plant species. The observed variation in UV reflects differences in the frequency and diversity of medicinal uses assigned to individual species by the respondents. Collectively, these quantitative ethnobotanical indices demonstrate substantial variation in the cultural importance and utilization of medicinal plant species in the Chitrakoot region. Higher NUR values highlight the broad therapeutic applications of several species, whereas the variability in RFC and UV indicates that ethnobotanical knowledge and patterns of plant use are not uniformly distributed among the documented flora. These findings provide quantitative evidence of the diversity and richness of traditional medicinal knowledge within the study area and complement the multivariate patterns revealed by the Principal Component Analysis.

Table 9.

Descriptive statistics of quantitative ethnobotanical indices for the 119 medicinal plant species documented in the Chitrakoot region

Ethnobotanical index	Sample size (n)	Mean	SD	95% confidence interval	Minimum	Maximum	Interpretation
Number of use reports (NUR)	119	1.98	1.36	1.79–2.18	0	7	The relatively high mean NUR indicates that several medicinal plant species were associated with multiple reported therapeutic uses, reflecting extensive traditional utilization
Relative frequency of citation (RFC)	119	0.362	0.181	0.328–0.395	0.03	0.92	The observed RFC values indicate variability in community recognition, with some species being widely cited whereas others were reported by relatively few informants
Use value (UV)	119	0.470	0.200	0.432–0.508	0.02	1.21	The mean UV reflects moderate overall utilization of medicinal plant species, with noticeable variation in their ethnobotanical importance among respondents

Table 10.

Summary of principal component analysis (PCA) of quantitative ethnobotanical indices for 119 medicinal plant species

Principal component	Variance explained (%)	Cumulative variance (%)	Major contributing variables	Interpretation
PC1 (Dim1)	48.2	48.2	Relative frequency of citation (RFC), Use value (UV)	Represents community recognition and utilization intensity of medicinal plant species. Higher PC1 scores indicate species that are more widely recognized and frequently used by local informants
PC2 (Dim2)	31.5	79.7	Number of use reports (NUR), Number of plant parts used	Represents diversity of medicinal applications and versatility of plant-part utilization. Higher PC2 scores indicate species with broader therapeutic uses and greater ethnomedicinal versatility

Fig. 6.

Distribution of quantitative ethnobotanical indices across 119 medicinal plant species documented in the Chitrakoot region. (A) Number of Use Reports (NUR), (B) Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), and (C) Use Value (UV). Boxplots illustrate the distribution of index values among species, where boxes represent the interquartile range (IQR), the central horizontal line indicates the median, whiskers extend to 1.5 × IQR, and points represent individual plant species. Summary statistics, including the mean, 95% confidence interval (CI), standard deviation (SD), minimum, and maximum values, are presented for each ethnobotanical index. The observed distributions highlight variation in medicinal plant utilization, community recognition, and ethnobotanical importance among the recorded species

Principal component analysis (PCA)

To test Hypothesis 2 (H₂), which proposed that variation in ethnobotanical importance among medicinal plant species is associated with Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), Use Value (UV), Number of Use Reports (NUR), and the number of plant parts used, Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed using data from 119 medicinal plant species. The first two principal components explained 79.7% of the total variance, with PC1 accounting for 48.2% and PC2 accounting for 31.5% (Figs. 7 and 8; Table 10), indicating that these components effectively summarized the major patterns of ethnobotanical variation. The PCA biplot (Fig. 7) revealed two complementary dimensions of ethnobotanical importance. RFC and UV were strongly associated with the positive axis of PC1, indicating that this component primarily represents species recognition, citation frequency, and utilization intensity within the indigenous community. Consequently, species with high positive PC1 scores exhibited greater cultural importance and were more frequently utilized. In contrast, NUR and the number of plant parts used were strongly associated with PC2, representing the diversity of medicinal applications and versatility of plant-part utilization. Species with higher PC2 scores were characterized by broader therapeutic applications and greater flexibility in traditional medicinal practices. The ordination pattern showed considerable overlap among herbs, shrubs, trees, and lianas, suggesting that ethnobotanical importance was not strongly determined by growth habit. However, herbaceous species formed a relatively compact cluster, indicating more consistent ethnobotanical characteristics, whereas shrubs and trees exhibited greater dispersion, reflecting higher variability in medicinal uses and traditional knowledge. The contribution plots (Fig. 8A–B) identified the plant species contributing most strongly to the principal components. Species with the greatest contributions to PC1 included Piper nigrum L. (SP88), Zingiber officinale Roscoe (SP118), Grewia hirsuta Vahl. (SP57), Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. (SP21), Allium sativum L. (SP6), Sterculia urens Roxb. (SP101), Aristolochia indica L. (SP12), Balanites roxburghii Planch. (SP16), Punica granatum L. (SP94), and Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. (SP105), reflecting their high community recognition and utilization. Species contributing most strongly to PC2 included Ficus racemosa L. (SP51), Madhuca longifolia (J.Koenig) J.F.Macbr. (SP70), Argemone mexicana L. (SP11), Tridax procumbens L. (SP110), Ziziphus jujuba Mill. (SP119), Morus alba L. (SP75), Boerhavia diffusa L. (SP19), Cassia fistula L. (SP24), Anacyclus pyrethrum (L.) (SP8), and Ocimum sanctum L. (SP81), indicating broader therapeutic applications and more diverse plant-part utilization. Overall, the PCA demonstrated that ethnobotanical importance in the Chitrakoot region is structured by two complementary dimensions: (i) community recognition and utilization intensity, represented by RFC and UV, and (ii) diversity of medicinal applications and plant-part utilization, represented by NUR and the number of plant parts used. Together, these variables explained a substantial proportion of the observed variation among medicinal plant species, thereby supporting Hypothesis 2 (Table 11).

Fig. 7.

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) biplot showing the distribution of 119 medicinal plants (Herb, Liana, Shrub, Tree) species based on relative frequency of citation (RFC), use value (UV), number of use reports (NUR), and number of plant parts used. Species are grouped according to growth habit (herb, shrub, tree, and liana), and ellipses represent 95% confidence regions. The first two principal components explain 79.7% of the total variance (PC1 = 48.2% and PC2 = 31.5%), (SP= Plant Species 1–119)

Fig. 8.

Contribution plots showing the medicinal plant (Herb, Liana, Shrub, Tree) species contributing most strongly to the first two principal components. (A) Species contributing predominantly to PC1, which is primarily associated with Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) and Use Value (UV). (B) Species contributing predominantly to PC2, which is mainly associated with Number of Use Reports (NUR) and number of plant parts used. Vector length and direction indicate the relative contribution of the ethnobotanical variables to the ordination space (SP= Plant Species 1–119)

Table 11.

Loadings and interpretation of quantitative ethnobotanical variables in the first two principal components

Variable	Principal component	Interpretation
Relative frequency of citation (RFC)	PC1	Reflects the degree of community recognition and citation frequency of medicinal plant species
Use value (UV)	PC1	Represents the intensity and relative importance of medicinal plant utilization
Number of use reports (NUR)	PC2	Indicates the diversity of reported medicinal uses associated with each species
Number of plant parts used	Number of plant parts used	Number of plant parts used

Discussion

Socio-cultural patterns in knowledge distribution

The predominance of male participants observed in the present study reflects the socio-cultural organization of the region, where traditional medicinal knowledge is often inherited through patrilineal systems and associated with greater mobility in forest-based plant collection. Similar gender-based patterns of knowledge transmission have been reported in earlier ethnobotanical studies [85, 181]. However, women also play an important role in household-level healthcare practices, suggesting complementary knowledge systems within communities. The wide age range (30–82 years) among participants indicates that ethnomedicinal knowledge is concentrated largely among older individuals, highlighting the risk of knowledge erosion due to modernization, migration, and reduced interest among younger generations. Comparable age-related patterns have been documented in other indigenous communities [182, 183]. The predominance of family-based knowledge acquisition further emphasizes the oral and experiential nature of traditional healthcare systems [86–88]. Such orally transmitted knowledge is particularly vulnerable to decline if intergenerational transfer weakens. Overall, these findings show that ethnomedicinal knowledge in the study area remains deeply embedded in socio-cultural traditions shaped by gender roles, inheritance systems, and informal knowledge transmission.

Ethnomedicinal plant diversity and utilization patterns

The number of plant species documented in the present study was higher than that reported in previous ethnobotanical investigations conducted in the Chitrakoot region and adjoining districts [36, 37, 41, 89]. This difference may be attributed to the broader geographical coverage of the present study and the inclusion of multiple communities, which likely captured greater floristic and cultural diversity. Similar increases in medicinal plant richness associated with wider sampling coverage and community heterogeneity have been reported in other ethnobotanical studies [181]. The dominance of the Fabaceae family may be attributed to its ecological abundance, wide distribution, multipurpose utility, and rich phytochemical composition [90, 91]. Similar dominance of Fabaceae has been reported in several ethnobotanical studies [92, 93]. Families such as Malvaceae, Apocynaceae, and Solanaceae also contributed substantially to ethnomedicinal practices in the study area, likely because of their diverse secondary metabolites and broad therapeutic potential.

The predominance of herbaceous species probably reflects their abundance, easy accessibility, and rapid regeneration, making them suitable for regular medicinal use. Comparable findings have been reported from other regions of India [94–96]. Leaves were the most frequently used plant part, possibly because of their year-round availability, high phytochemical content, and relatively sustainable harvesting compared with roots and bark [79, 98, 184]. In contrast, the frequent use of roots, although therapeutically valuable [99], raises conservation concerns because root harvesting directly threatens plant survival [184]. Powdered formulations were the most common method of preparation, likely because they are easy to prepare, store, and administer, as also reported in previous studies [100]. The predominance of oral administration is consistent with the treatment of systemic ailments and the practical ease of remedy consumption [25, 87]. Likewise, the widespread use of polyherbal formulations reflects the traditional belief that combining multiple plant species enhances therapeutic efficacy while reducing potential toxicity [41, 70, 88]. The addition of honey, jaggery, and rock sugar not only improves the palatability of herbal preparations but may also enhance their therapeutic effectiveness [95, 101, 102, 104]. Furthermore, the incorporation of culinary spices into herbal remedies highlights the close relationship between food and medicine, a characteristic feature of indigenous healthcare systems [104–106].

Interpretation of RFC values and ethnomedicinal importance

RFC values provide an estimate of the popularity and cultural importance of medicinal plants based on the frequency of citation by informants [58, 78]. The high RFC values recorded for Piper nigrum, Zingiber officinale, Allium sativum, and Curcuma longa indicate their widespread use and strong cultural importance in the study area [13, 103]. Their prominence reflects not only their therapeutic effectiveness but also their widespread availability and integration into household healthcare practices. Similar observations have been reported in other ethnobotanical studies, where frequently cited species are often considered culturally preferred and pharmacologically validated medicinal plants [78]. Piper nigrum is widely recognized for its bioenhancing properties, primarily attributed to piperine, which enhances the bioavailability of other herbal compounds [107, 108]. Its frequent citation may therefore reflect its important role in polyherbal formulations. Zingiber officinale is extensively used in traditional medical systems, including Ayurveda, Traditional Chinese Medicine, and Unani, for the treatment of digestive, respiratory, and circulatory disorders [109, 110]. Its high RFC is likely associated with its broad therapeutic spectrum and routine dietary use. Allium sativum and Curcuma longa likewise occupy a central position in traditional healthcare because of their diverse pharmacological properties, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities [111–115]. Their high citation frequency further highlights the close relationship between food and medicine, whereby commonly consumed spices also serve as preventive and therapeutic remedies. The prominence of these species in the present study is consistent with their well-established ethnomedicinal importance across diverse traditional healthcare systems [185].

Interpretation of ICF and UV values

A high ICF value indicates strong informant agreement on medicinal plant use for specific ailments, reflecting the reliability of traditional knowledge and potential pharmacological significance [25, 80]. The high ICF values recorded for snakebite, scorpion sting, and insect bite categories indicate strong agreement among informants and suggest the existence of specialized, well-established treatment practices for emergency conditions [13, 103]. Such high consensus is often considered evidence of repeated empirical validation of traditional remedies over generations [116, 117]. Likewise, the high ICF values for digestive and respiratory disorders probably reflect both their frequent occurrence and the availability of effective traditional therapies. In contrast, the relatively low ICF value for dental disorders may indicate greater variation in treatment practices, lower specialization, or limited exchange of ethnomedicinal knowledge among traditional healers. During fieldwork, several healers were reluctant to disclose their medicinal knowledge, which may have further contributed to the lower consensus observed for certain disease categories. Similar patterns of knowledge secrecy, often associated with socio-economic insecurity and concerns about knowledge exploitation, have been reported in previous ethnobotanical studies [118, 119, 186].

Use Value (UV) quantifies the relative importance of a plant species based on citation frequency, with higher values indicating greater ethnobotanical significance and versatility [32].The Use Value (UV) analysis further highlights the relative cultural and therapeutic importance of medicinal plant species [13, 103]. Species with high UV values, such as Piper nigrum and Allium sativum, exhibited broad medicinal applicability and were used to treat multiple ailment categories, underscoring their central role in community healthcare. Their high UV values may also reflect their widespread availability and the strong confidence placed in them by traditional healers. In contrast, species with low UV values are likely to represent specialized remedies or medicinal plants used for relatively uncommon ailments. Comparable patterns of use values have been documented in previous ethnobotanical studies [3, 32, 120].

Significance of fidelity level in ethnomedicine

High Fidelity Level (FL) values indicate strong agreement among informants regarding the use of specific plant species for treating particular ailments, reflecting their perceived therapeutic effectiveness and cultural reliability [82]. Species such as Piper nigrum, Allium sativum, and Zingiber officinale exhibited high FL values, underscoring their prominent role in local healthcare practices and corroborating their well-established importance in traditional medicinal systems. Comparable findings have been reported in previous ethnobotanical investigations, where species with high FL values are generally regarded as culturally important and are frequently associated with specific medicinal applications [160, 186]. Owing to their consistent traditional use and high informant consensus, these species represent promising candidates for future phytochemical, pharmacological, and clinical investigations to validate their therapeutic potential.

Comparative ethnobotanical analysis using Jaccard Index

Jaccard Index measures similarity between two communities based on shared species, indicating floristic overlap and biodiversity relationships . The comparative analysis based on the Jaccard Index (JI) revealed considerable spatial heterogeneity in ethnomedicinal knowledge, shaped by ecological and socio-cultural factors. The generally low to moderate similarity values indicate that medicinal plant use is largely localized and community-specific, consistent with findings from previous comparative ethnobotanical studies [181, 184]. Higher similarity was observed with studies conducted in Central India, particularly in Amarkantak [170], Pushprajgarh Block [171], Northeastern Madhya Pradesh [169], and the Chitrakoot region [41, 89]. This overlap is likely attributable to geographical proximity, comparable vegetation, and shared ethnocultural traditions, which facilitate knowledge exchange and similar patterns of medicinal plant use. In contrast, similarity decreased with increasing geographical distance. Moderate overlap with Chandauli district [93], the Palamalai region of the Eastern Ghats [95], and Sarguja district [121] suggests partial convergence resulting from shared medicinal traditions and the occurrence of widely distributed plant species. Comparable regional patterns have also been documented elsewhere in India [182, 183]. Conversely, the much lower similarity observed with studies from the Garhwal Himalaya [168], Madurai district [127], and Northern Bengal [162] highlights the influence of climatic conditions, floristic composition, and cultural specialization in shaping distinct ethnomedicinal traditions.

The very low similarity recorded with studies conducted outside India, including Central Macedonia, Greece [126], Parbat District, Nepal [123], and Woyde District, Ethiopia [122], together with other reports from Ethiopia and Nepal [79, 97, 125], further emphasizes the highly localized nature of traditional medicinal knowledge. Such interregional variation has been widely attributed to ecological differences and the independent evolution of traditional healthcare systems [185]. Notably, the occurrence of common plant species does not necessarily correspond to similar therapeutic applications. The same species may be used to treat different ailments across communities, reflecting culturally adapted healing practices and locally accumulated empirical knowledge. Similar observations have been reported in previous comparative ethnomedicinal studies [186]. These findings underscore the importance of region-specific documentation for preserving indigenous knowledge and identifying novel medicinal resources.

Preference ranking identified Justicia adhatoda and Allium sativum as the most preferred species for the treatment of asthma, indicating strong community consensus regarding their perceived efficacy [55]. Their high ranking reflects both repeated practical use and confidence in their therapeutic effectiveness. This finding is supported by previous studies documenting the widespread use of Allium sativum for asthma, bronchitis, and cough because of its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties [172–174]. Likewise, Justicia adhatoda has been extensively reported for its bronchodilatory and anti-asthmatic activities, primarily attributed to alkaloids such as vasicine and vasicinone [175, 176]. The agreement between traditional knowledge and pharmacological evidence strengthens the credibility of these species as potential therapeutic resources.

Direct matrix ranking assesses the multipurpose value and exploitation pressure of plant species, supporting conservation and sustainable resource management [55]. Direct matrix ranking demonstrated the multipurpose importance of species such as Mangifera indica, Dalbergia sissoo, and Madhuca longifolia, which are widely utilized for food, fuelwood, construction, and other livelihood needs. The greater preference for fuelwood and fencing over medicinal use reflects the dependence of rural communities on plant resources for subsistence and household requirements. Similar patterns of multipurpose utilization have been documented in ethnobiological studies from India and other parts of the world [177–180]. Such intensive exploitation may increase harvesting pressure, particularly on woody species with slow regeneration rates [184].

The heavy reliance on wild-harvested medicinal plants (approximately 80%) raises important concerns regarding sustainability and the long-term availability of plant resources. Comparable dependence on wild medicinal flora has been reported in several ethnobotanical studies and is frequently associated with limited domestication efforts and easy access to forest resources [94, 182]. The relatively low level of cultivation observed in the present study further indicates inadequate domestication, thereby increasing pressure on natural populations. Although most documented species are currently classified as Least Concern, the presence of Vulnerable and Near Threatened taxa warrants immediate conservation attention. Furthermore, the large proportion of species that have not yet been evaluated highlights substantial gaps in conservation assessment. Similar conservation concerns have been emphasized in previous ethnobotanical investigations [183, 184]. Collectively, these findings underscore the urgent need to promote sustainable harvesting practices, encourage the cultivation of medicinal plants, and implement targeted conservation strategies to safeguard both plant diversity and the associated traditional knowledge systems.

Comparative analysis of the current findings with existing local and regional research

This study highlights the rich ethnobotanical knowledge preserved by the saint and tribal communities of the Chitrakoot region and makes a valuable contribution to ethnomedicinal research. The systematic documentation of 119 medicinal plant species, together with their therapeutic applications and preparation methods, enriches the existing ethnobotanical database of India and provides an important foundation for future pharmacological, phytochemical, and conservation research.

Comparative analysis showed that 163 medicinal plant species belonging to 69 families have been reported in previous ethnobotanical studies conducted in the Chitrakoot region [36, 37, 41, 63, 89, 130]. Of the ethnomedicinal uses documented in the present investigation, 47% were consistent with earlier reports, supporting the reliability and continuity of traditional knowledge systems. In contrast, the remaining 53% represented different or previously unreported therapeutic applications, highlighting the dynamic, adaptive, and localized nature of ethnomedicinal knowledge. These variations may reflect differences in healer expertise, disease perception, plant availability, and socio-cultural practices.

Furthermore, 78 of the documented species were also reported from adjoining districts of Chitrakoot, demonstrating strong regional continuity in medicinal plant use and knowledge transmission. At the same time, the identification of novel therapeutic applications enhances the scientific value of the present study and provides a basis for future phytochemical, pharmacological, and clinical investigations aimed at validating their medicinal potential.

Cultural value of recorded plant

Many medicinal plant species documented in the present study possess considerable cultural and religious significance among the indigenous communities of the Chitrakoot region [28]. The wood of Butea monosperma is traditionally used in wedding ceremonies [26]. According to Indian mythology, Phyllanthus emblica is regarded as the abode of Lord Vishnu, and local tribal communities perform religious rituals beneath this sacred tree [68]. Likewise, Ocimum sanctum is revered as the dwelling place of Goddess Lakshmi and is cultivated in the households of many traditional healers for both religious worship and medicinal use [69]. Rosa species are widely cultivated for their ornamental and aromatic value [131]. The leaves and fruits of Aegle marmelos (bael) are traditionally offered to Lord Shiva during religious ceremonies [23]. Garlands made from the leaves of Mangifera indica are commonly hung at the entrances of houses during auspicious occasions as symbols of prosperity and good fortune [38]. Similarly, Ficus religiosa, Ficus benghalensis, and Ficus virens occupy an important place in the spiritual and religious traditions of local communities [132]. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis is traditionally believed to be a celestial tree brought to Earth by Lord Krishna for his wife, Satyabhama [133]. The flowers and fruits of Madhuca longifolia are used in various folk ceremonies and cultural celebrations [133]. In addition, the rhizome powder of Curcuma longa is mixed with water to prepare a ceremonial paste that is applied to the bride and groom before marriage as part of a traditional ritual believed to enhance skin complexion and symbolize purity and prosperity [134, 135].

Identification of novel medicinal plants and uses

A review of twelve previous ethnobotanical studies conducted in Chitrakoot and its surrounding regions indicates that the present investigation provides the first ethnobotanical documentation of 39 plant species from this region. In addition, this study employs quantitative ethnobotanical indices, including Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC), Informant Consensus Factor (ICF), and Use Value (UV), providing a more rigorous analytical framework for evaluating the cultural and medicinal significance of plant species than has previously been reported in the Chitrakoot region.

The study also documented 81 previously unreported medicinal uses, highlighting the dynamic nature of indigenous healthcare knowledge. Novel therapeutic applications were recorded for several species, including Achyranthes aspera for asthma and scorpion bites, Agave americana for constipation, Argemone mexicana for leucoderma and respiratory disorders, Aristolochia indica for snakebite, Asparagus racemosus for urinogenital infections, Azadirachta indica for burning sensations and indigestion, Bauhinia variegata for goiter and stomach ulcers, Boerhavia diffusa for jaundice and asthma, Butea monosperma for erectile dysfunction and ulcers, and additional novel uses of Calotropis procera, Triticum aestivum, Aegle marmelos, Dalbergia sissoo, Rosa indica, Cordia macleodii, Croton tiglium, and Cinnamomum verum. These findings substantially expand the regional ethnobotanical database and identify promising candidates for future phytochemical and pharmacological investigations.

Traditional healthcare practices in Chitrakoot rely extensively on polyherbal formulations, consistent with Ayurvedic principles in which multiple plant ingredients are combined to enhance therapeutic efficacy through synergistic interactions while reducing adverse effects [136, 137]. Traditional healers also recommend dietary restrictions, particularly avoiding oily, spicy, and processed foods during treatment. Such practices correspond with Ayurvedic dietary principles aimed at maintaining dosha balance and improving digestive efficiency, thereby enhancing therapeutic outcomes [138–150]. A particularly noteworthy observation was the frequent inclusion of Piper nigrum in herbal formulations. This reflects its recognized role as a bioenhancer through piperine-mediated enhancement of the bioavailability of co-administered herbal compounds [140, 141]. The strong confidence expressed by Vaidyas in traditional medicine further highlights its socio-economic importance, as these remedies are considered effective, affordable, accessible, and associated with comparatively fewer side effects [142, 144].

The quantitative analyses further emphasized the ethnomedicinal importance of several medicinal species. Piper nigrum and Allium sativum exhibited the highest Relative Frequency of Citation (RFC) values, indicating widespread community acceptance and frequent therapeutic use. These species are also extensively described in classical Ayurvedic texts such as the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita for their antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and digestive properties [144, 145]. Likewise, the highest Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) recorded for snakebite and digestive disorders indicates strong agreement among traditional healers regarding effective treatment practices. These disease categories are similarly emphasized in Ayurveda, where plant-based formulations are widely used for detoxification and digestive regulation [146, 147]. The high consensus observed in the present study further supports the ethnopharmacological relevance of these remedies and identifies them as promising candidates for future pharmacological validation.

The present investigation also provides valuable insights into the current status of medicinal plant diversity and the growing threats to phytodiversity in the Chitrakoot region. Anthropogenic activities, including overgrazing, road construction, infrastructure expansion, habitat degradation, and unsustainable harvesting, are contributing significantly to the decline of medicinal plant populations, consistent with observations reported from other regions of India and worldwide [34, 42]. Species-specific observations further illustrate these conservation challenges. For example, Bacopa monnieri has experienced habitat degradation due to embankment construction along the Mandakini River, a phenomenon similarly reported for riparian medicinal flora elsewhere [151]. Likewise, Alectra parasitica subsp. chitrakutensis is increasingly threatened by deforestation, fire, and human encroachment [152]. The decline of Physalis minima under pressures of overgrazing and climate variability is consistent with previous reports demonstrating the vulnerability of herbaceous medicinal plants to ecological disturbances [153]. Furthermore, excessive harvesting of high-demand species such as Pueraria tuberosa, Dioscorea bulbifera, Withania somnifera, Asparagus racemosus, and Hemidesmus indicus reflects a broader pattern of unsustainable exploitation documented across traditional medicinal systems [154, 155]. The decline of culturally important species such as Aegle marmelos further illustrates how biodiversity loss can directly affect indigenous healthcare systems and traditional cultural practices [156].

To address these challenges, conservation initiatives including ex situ cultivation of medicinal plant propagules in the Kalinga University botanical garden have been undertaken as an important step toward safeguarding threatened species. Similar integrated approaches combining ex situ and in situ conservation have been widely recognized as effective strategies for sustainable medicinal plant management [157]. Furthermore, stricter regulation of anthropogenic activities in ecologically sensitive areas such as Anasuya Forest and Kamadgiri is essential, as protected areas and sacred groves have consistently demonstrated their effectiveness in conserving medicinal plant diversity [158]. Community-based conservation, sustainable harvesting, domestication of economically important medicinal species, and the integration of indigenous knowledge with scientific research are therefore essential for preserving medicinal plant diversity while supporting local livelihoods and strengthening future pharmacological research [11, 59, 159].

Conclusion

The present study provides a comprehensive ethnobotanical assessment of medicinal plant utilization by saint and tribal communities in Chitrakoot, Madhya Pradesh, India, and offers several novel contributions to the field of ethnomedicine. Unlike earlier studies that primarily focused on species documentation, this research integrates quantitative ethnobotanical indices to identify culturally and therapeutically significant plant species, thereby prioritizing taxa with high use value and consensus for further pharmacological investigation.A key finding of this study is the identification of highly preferred medicinal plants with restricted distribution, indicating their vulnerability to overexploitation and habitat disturbance. The study also reveals a critical gap between traditional knowledge of plant use and the lack of cultivation practices, which poses a significant risk to the long-term sustainability of these resources.Furthermore, the research highlights the increasing impact of anthropogenic pressures, including habitat disturbance and unsustainable harvesting, on both plant diversity and the transmission of indigenous knowledge. These findings underscore the urgent need for integrated conservation strategies, such as the establishment of community-based medicinal plant gardens, promotion of sustainable harvesting practices, and documentation of traditional knowledge systems.Importantly, the study contributes to local healthcare systems by validating the continued reliance of indigenous communities on plant-based remedies, particularly in regions with limited access to modern medical facilities. The identification of key medicinal species and their therapeutic applications provides a valuable baseline for future pharmacological and phytochemical research, thereby supporting potential drug discovery initiatives.Overall, this work establishes a framework that links ethnobotanical knowledge, biodiversity conservation, and healthcare applications, offering a model for similar studies in other biodiverse and culturally rich regions. By emphasizing both scientific validation and conservation priorities, the study contributes significantly to the preservation of ethnobotanical heritage and sustainable utilization of medicinal plant resources.

Author contributions

AKP designed the research, conducted fieldwork, collected data, and carried out the semi-structured interviews. FB and HY prepared the voucher specimens. AKP and FB analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript, while KS and AR contributed to data curation. AKP performed critical review and revision of the manuscript.

Funding

This study received no financial support from any funding agency or organization.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Ethics approval, consent to participate, and consent for publication

The objectives of the present study were clearly explained to all participants before data collection. Prior informed consent was obtained from the village head and individual informants before commencing the study. Participants were informed about the purpose, procedures, and any potential risks associated with their involvement, and were allowed to ask questions and express any concerns before giving their consent. All participants voluntarily agreed to participate in the study. Consent to publish anonymized data was also obtained from all participants.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.