Adulteration prevention-oriented systematic review of chemical constituents in the genus Rhodiola and strategic outlook for species identification based on chemical constituents

Abstract

Rhodiola species are renowned medicinal plants with centuries of traditional use and broad pharmacological effects. In recent years, market and economic factors have fueled widespread adulteration in the global Rhodiola product market. More critically, much potential adulteration may remain undetected, since authenticating the species of raw materials in processed products is particularly challenging: morphological, microscopic, and genetic methods are often invalidated by manufacturing processes. In contrast, phytochemical constituents remain traceable from raw materials to finished products, offering a promising avenue for authentication. Regrettably, the lack of reliable chemical markers for Rhodiola species identification hinders effective adulteration detection and market supervision. This paper aims to comprehensively review phytochemical constituents from the genus Rhodiola as the critical first step toward marker discovery. Multiple academic databases were searched to summarize chemical names, molecular formulas, structures, and botanical sources of documented compounds. The genus exhibits remarkable chemical diversity, with over 500 compounds classified into eight groups: phenylalkanoid derivatives, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phenolics and organic acids, cyanogenic glycosides, steroids, and others. Further analysis qualitatively delineates both interspecific chemical similarities (most compounds are shared across species) and differences (distinct combinations of shared compounds and compounds currently known from single species). These findings collectively elucidate the inherent challenges and potential feasibility of discovering chemical markers for Rhodiola species identification. Meanwhile, the consolidated phytochemical data serves as a foundational compound database, ensuring higher accuracy and reliability in subsequent UPLC-MS-based compound identification. Additionally, to reduce analytical complexity in marker exploration, this paper advocates shifting the focus from solely species-specific compounds to broader chemical characteristics (encompassing species-specific compounds, content levels, and content ratios), and proposes a hierarchical “chemical characteristics + classification tree” framework for stepwise identification. Finally, we outline a research plan to implement these strategies, comprising the completed phytochemistry review, sample collection, UPLC-MS-based qualitative profiling, UPLC-based quantitative analysis, and multivariate data analysis. In conclusion, this paper highlights the importance of developing a reliable chemical identification method for Rhodiola species, provides an essential chemical foundation and strategic guidance for future marker discovery, and ultimately aims to solve raw material authentication in Rhodiola preparations to combat adulteration and strengthen market supervision.

1. Introduction

Rhodiola species (Crassulaceae) are highly valuable medicinal plants predominantly native to Asia, Europe, and North America. For centuries, their roots and rhizomes have been integral to traditional medicine, and are now recognized for multifaceted pharmacological effects, including alleviating fatigue (Wang et al., 2024), delaying aging (Liang et al., 2023), preventing high-altitude sickness (Ma et al., 2022), improving cardiovascular function (Chen et al., 2022), treating neurodegenerative disorders (Zhang et al., 2019), combating cancer (Zhang et al., 2020), mitigating stress (Ivanova Stojcheva and Quintela, 2022), and boosting immunity (Skopńska-Rózewska et al., 2008).

The applications of Rhodiola species exhibit marked regional diversity, with R. crenulata and R. rosea being the two most extensively studied and widely utilized species. R. crenulata, primarily used in China, holds a unique status as the only species officially listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (Commission, 2020). Its therapeutic value has been validated through over a millennium of clinical practice, supported by numerous traditional prescriptions and Chinese patent medicines. In contrast, R. rosea dominates commercial trade in Europe and North America. Officially recognized in the pharmacopoeias of Russia and the United States (Booker et al., 2016a), its extracts are widely marketed as dietary supplements in many countries to meet various healthcare needs. Additionally, more than 20 other species within the genus Rhodiola have been reported to possess medicinal properties. Among these, at least 10 species—including R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. dumulosa, R. yunnanensis, and R. sachalinensis—are commercially available in herbal medicine markets as raw materials or decoction pieces (Booker et al., 2016a).

It is noteworthy that accumulating studies have highlighted the significant variations in pharmacological profiles among different Rhodiola species, such as differences in antioxidant and anti-fatigue capacities between R. crenulata and R. rosea (Dong et al., 2020; Abidov et al., 2003), as well as anti-hypoxia activity between R. tangutica and R. kirilowii (Chen et al., 2010). These results remind us that although medicinal Rhodiola species share similar therapeutic properties, the substitution or mixing of raw materials from different species may pose a potential risk to the consistency and stability of clinical efficacy. Unfortunately, this risk has been exacerbated by growing market demand and considerable economic benefits in recent years, leading to serious adulteration issues in Rhodiola products. Given the wide array of Rhodiola species available commercially, such adulteration is predominantly characterized by the substitution or mixing of raw materials in species-specific Rhodiola preparations with other congeners. Booker et al. assessed the authenticity of 39 commercial Rhodiola products sourced from various UK suppliers (Booker et al., 2016b). The absence of rosavin (a key marker compound for R. rosea) but presence of salidroside (an active constituent in nearly all Rhodiola species) in five samples claiming to contain R. rosea indicated the substitution with other Rhodiola species. Two samples showed no detectable levels of either rosavin or salidroside, suggesting possible adulteration with non-Rhodiola species. Around 80% of the remaining samples displayed lower rosavin content than registered products, implying possible adulteration with other Rhodiola species or the use of poor-quality raw materials. Similarly, Ma et al. examined 18 commercial products labeled as R. rosea root powder extract from eight suppliers (Ma et al., 2011). Their findings showed that one-third of the products contained no rosavins (a collective term for rosavin, rosarin, and rosin), and five others failed to meet label claims regarding rosavins or salidroside content. Another authenticity investigation into seven commercial R. rosea products sold online in Austria and Germany (in tablet or capsule form) revealed that one product contained neither rosavins nor salidroside, while another was missing rosin and salidroside (Langeder and Grienke, 2021). Analogous adulteration cases for R. rosea preparations have also been reported in Poland (Nikolaichuk et al., 2022), Ukraine (Khokhlova and Zdoryk, 2020), and Bulgaria (Marchev et al., 2020). These findings collectively underscore the global prevalence of adulteration issues in Rhodiola products.

Another noteworthy issue is that, although a wide range of commercial preparations derived from various Rhodiola species (e.g., R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. wallichiana, and R. kirilowii) are available on the market—many of which clearly specify the source species of their raw materials on product labels (Fan et al., 2019)—nearly all reported adulteration cases involve R. rosea preparations, as determined by the absence or substandard levels of rosavins. It does not necessarily mean that adulteration is absent in preparations from other Rhodiola species. This phenomenon can be largely attributed to the limitations of existing species identification approaches for Rhodiola, which cannot be effectively applied to authenticate raw materials in non-R. rosea preparations, rendering adulteration in these products undetectable.

The frequent occurrence of adulteration and the substantial risk of undetected adulteration in Rhodiola products necessitate the urgent strengthening of market supervision. Developing a more efficient species authentication method—especially one applicable to commercial Rhodiola preparations—would be pivotal in addressing this pressing problem. However, identifying the species of raw materials in herbal preparations is particularly challenging, as the morphological, microscopic, and genetic characteristics traditionally employed for species identification are often degraded or destroyed during manufacturing processes. In contrast, phytochemical constituents retain their traceability throughout the entire manufacturing process—from raw materials to finished products. This is why chemical markers have been consistently adopted as reliable indicators for detecting adulteration in R. rosea preparations across the aforementioned studies. Regrettably, for Rhodiola species other than R. rosea, no chemical markers capable of effectively distinguishing a target species from its congeners have yet been discovered. Therefore, future research should focus on discovering chemical markers that can reliably distinguish Rhodiola species.

In recent years, advances in analytical techniques have greatly facilitated the in-depth exploration of Rhodiola species, with chemical analysis remaining a central research focus. Multiple studies using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC), coupled with multivariate data analysis, have revealed significant variations in chemical constituents among different Rhodiola species (Booker et al., 2016a; Ma et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2013; Li et al., 2019). Liu et al. further demonstrated a high degree of consistency between chemotaxonomic classification and genetic classification of Rhodiola species (Liu et al., 2013). These species-dependent variations offer robust scientific evidence for identifying Rhodiola species based on their chemical constituents.

Considering the pressing need to address adulteration issues and the viable potential of discovering chemical markers for identifying Rhodiola species, this paper comprehensively reviews the chemical constituents isolated and identified from the genus Rhodiola over the past few decades. As the first step toward marker discovery, this review clarifies the current research status regarding the chemical constituents of various Rhodiola species and functions as an indispensable compound database for the next research phase. In doing so, this work lays a crucial chemical foundation for supporting subsequent research on marker discovery. Building on this foundation, in direct response to the significant difficulty in identifying Rhodiola species posed by chemical complexity, we further propose a series of targeted insights and strategies to guide a more effective exploration of chemical markers. Finally, we outline a future research plan that emphasizes key investigative directions and experimental priorities to advance our research endeavors.

The full scientific names and corresponding abbreviations of Rhodiola species involved in this paper are listed in Table 1.

TABLE 1.

Full scientific names and abbreviations of Rhodiola species involved in this paper.

Full scientific names	Abbreviations
Rhodiola crenulata (Hook. f. & Thoms.) H. Ohba	R. crenulata
Rhodiola rosea L.	R. rosea
Rhodiola kirilowii (Regel) Maxim.	R. kirilowii
Rhodiola fastigiata (Hook. f. & Thomson) S. H. Fu	R. fastigiata
Rhodiola wallichiana var. cholaensis (Praeger) S. H. Fu	R. wallichiana
Rhodiola tangutica (Maxim.) S. H. Fu	R. tangutica
Rhodiola sachalinensis Boriss.	R. sachalinensis
Rhodiola yunnanensis (Franch.) S. H. Fu	R. yunnanensis
Rhodiola dumulosa (Franch.) S. H. Fu	R. dumulosa
Rhodiola quadrifida (Pall.) Fisch. & C. A. Mey.	R. quadrifida
Rhodiola sacra (Prain ex Raym.-Hamet) S. H. Fu	R. sacra
Rhodiola bupleuroides (Wall. ex Hook. f. & Thomson) S. H. Fu	R. bupleuroides
Rhodiola henryi (Diels) S. H. Fu	R. henryi
Rhodiola himalensis (D. Don) S. H. Fu	R. himalensis
Rhodiola tibetica (Hook. f. & Thomson) S. H. Fu	R. tibetica
Rhodiola heterodonta (Hook. f. & Thomson) Boriss.	R. heterodonta
Rhodiola gelida Schrenk., Fischer & C. A. Meyer	R. gelida
Rhodiola coccinea (Royle) Boriss.	R. coccinea
Rhodiola atropurpurea auct. non (Turcz.) Trautv. & C. A. Mey.	R. atropurpurea
Rhodiola alsia (Fröd.) S. H. Fu	R. alsia
Rhodiola forrestii (Raym.-Hamet) S. H. Fu	R. forrestii
Rhodiola alterna S. H. Fu	R. alterna
Rhodiola atuntsuensis (Praeger) S. H. Fu	R. atuntsuensis
Rhodiola linearifolia Boriss.	R. linearifolia
Rhodiola purpureoviridis subsp. phariensis (H. Ohba) H. Ohba	R. purpureoviridis
Rhodiola pamiroalaica Boriss.	R. pamiroalaica
Rhodiola imbricata Edgew.	R. imbricata
Rhodiola litwinowii Boriss.	R. litwinowii
Rhodiola semenovii (Regel & Herder) Boriss.	R. semenovii
Rhodiola subopposita (Maxim.) Jacobsen	R. subopposita
Rhodiola primuloides (Franch.) S. H. Fu	R. primuloides
Rhodiola chrysanthemifolia (H. Lév.) S. H. Fu	R. chrysanthemifolia
Rhodiola sexifolia S. H. Fu	R. sexifolia
Rhodiola tieghemii (Raym.-Hamet) S. H. Fu	R. tieghemii
Rhodiola kashgarica Boriss.	R. kashgarica
Rhodiola junggarica C. Y. Yang & N. R. Cui	R. junggarica
Rhodiola serrata H. Ohba	R. serrata
Rhodiola recticaulis Boriss.	R. recticaulis
Rhodiola macrocarpa (Praeger) S. H. Fu	R. macrocarpa
Rhodiola sinuata (Royle ex Edgew.) S. H. Fu	R. sinuata
Rhodiola ishidae (Miyabe & Kudô) Hara	R. ishidae

2. Materials and methods

A comprehensive literature search was conducted across multiple academic databases, including PubMed, CNKI, Web of Science, Elsevier, Baidu Scholar, and Springer, to retrieve studies relevant to the isolation, identification, and qualitative/quantitative analysis of chemical constituents in Rhodiola species. The search was concluded in May 2025. Only research articles published in English or Chinese were considered for inclusion. The reference lists of all retrieved articles were also manually screened to identify additional relevant publications.

Furthermore, to ensure the reliability of the compiled phytochemical data for Rhodiola species, compounds were excluded from this review if they were only tentatively identified via mass spectrometry and lacked unambiguous confirmation by reference standards.

All chemical structures presented in this review were drawn using ChemDraw 20.0.

3. Results

To date, phytochemical investigations have successfully isolated and identified over 500 compounds from the genus Rhodiola. Based on a comprehensive synthesis of compound classifications from numerous published studies on Rhodiola phytochemistry, these compounds are classified herein into eight distinct groups: phenylalkanoid derivatives, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, terpenoids, phenolics and organic acids, cyanogenic glycosides, steroids, and other compounds (Tao et al., 2019; Li et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2014; Ali et al., 2008; Olennikov and Chirikova, 2022). The vast majority of these compounds are accumulated in the roots and rhizomes, with a minor fraction isolated from aerial parts or callus tissues. In the following sections, key information about these compounds, including their chemical names, molecular formulas, chemical structures, and botanical sources, is systematically summarized.

3.1. Phenylalkanoid derivatives

Phenylalkanoid derivatives, ubiquitously distributed in Rhodiola species, are the most emblematic class of secondary metabolites in the genus. A total of 39 compounds—primarily phenylethanol and benzyl alcohol derivatives—are summarized in this paper. Salidroside and its aglycone tyrosol are the most prominent, having been detected in over 30 chemically studied Rhodiola species. Salidroside, in particular, is recognized as a key bioactive constituent for the genus. The 2020 edition of the Chinese Pharmacopoeia specifies a minimum salidroside content of 0.5% in R. crenulata for medicinal use. The details of these compounds are presented in Table 2 and Figure 1.

TABLE 2.

Phenylalkanoid derivatives from Rhodiola species.

No.	Compounds	Molecular formula	Source of species	References
1	Tyrosol	C8H10O2	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. yunnanensis, R. quadrifida, R. sacra, R. bupleuroides, R. henryi, R. himalensis, R. tibetica, R. heterodonta, R. gelida, R. coccinea, R. alsia, R. alterna, R. atuntsuensis, R. linearifolia, R. purpureoviridis, R. pamiroalaica, R. imbricata, R. litwinowii, R. chrysanthemifolia, R. sexifolia, R. tieghemii, R. kashgarica, R. junggarica, R. serrata, R. recticaulis	Liu et al., 2013; Chen D. J. et al., 2012; Wang C. H. et al., 2020; Zuo et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2002; Ou et al., 2020; Nan et al., 2018; Choe et al., 2012; Chi et al., 2012; Altantsetseg et al., 2007; Qiu et al., 1991; Liu, 2003; Chen et al., 2013; Ma et al., 2008; Wang and Ruan, 2005; Olennikov et al., 2019; Shao et al., 2004; Chen et al., 1999; Ma et al., 1995; Choudhary et al., 2015a
2	Salidroside	C14H20O7	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. yunnanensis, R. dumulosa, R. quadrifida, R. sacra, R. bupleuroides, R. henryi, R. himalensis, R. tibetica, R. heterodonta, R. gelida, R. coccinea, R. atropurpurea, R. alsia, R. forrestii, R. alterna, R. atuntsuensis, R. linearifolia, R. purpureoviridis, R. pamiroalaica, R. imbricata, R. litwinowii, R. subopposita, R. primuloides, R. chrysanthemifolia, R. sexifolia, R. tieghemii, R. kashgarica, R. junggarica, R. serrata, R. recticaulis, R. macrocarpa, R. sinuata	Liu et al., 2013; Chen D. J. et al., 2012; Wang C. H. et al., 2020; Nan et al., 2018; Choe et al., 2012; Chi et al., 2012; Ma et al., 2008; Wang and Ruan, 2005; Olennikov et al., 2019; Shao et al., 2004; Chen et al., 1999; Ma et al., 1995; Mao et al., 2007; Grace et al., 2009; Rattan et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2024; Huang H. et al., 2008; Wiedenfeld et al., 2007a; An et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2003; Kang et al., 1998; Chen et al., 2008
3	Icariside D2	C14H20O7	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. sacra, R. recticaulis	Chen D. J. et al., 2012; Olennikov et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2016; Daikonya and Kitanaka, 2011
4	6′-O-Acetylsalidroside	C16H22O8	R. rosea	Wang C. H. et al. (2020)
5	Rhodirosin L	C16H22O8	R. rosea	Olennikov and Chirikova (2024)
6	Rhodirosin M	C18H24O9	R. rosea	Olennikov and Chirikova (2024)
7	6′-O-Galloylsalidroside	C21H24O11	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. himalensis	Wang C. H. et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2010; Fan et al., 2001; Song et al., 2018
8	2-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)ethyl-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C20H30O12	R. crenulata	Chen D. J. et al. (2012)
9	Steviophethanoside	C19H28O11	R. rosea	Olennikov and Chirikova (2024)
10	Rhodirosin K	C19H28O11	R. rosea	Olennikov and Chirikova (2024)
11	2-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)ethyl acetate	C10H12O3	R. rosea	Wang C. H. et al. (2020)
12	2-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)ethyl 3,4,5-trihydroxybenzoate	C15H14O6	R. crenulata	Zhou et al. (2015)
13	p-Hydroxyphenethyl anisate	C16H16O4	R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis	Zhao, 2016; Nakamura et al., 2007
14	Aspergillol B	C16H16O4	R. rosea, R. wallichiana	Lee et al., 2016; Zhao, 2016
15	4-Methoxyphenethyl alcohol	C9H12O2	R. kirilowii, R. heterodonta, R. imbricata	Choudhary et al., 2015a; Grace et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2011a
16	4-Hydroxyphenylethyl-(4′-methoxyphenylethyl)ether	C17H20O3	R. kirilowii	Yang et al. (2011a)
17	Viridoside	C15H22O7	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis, R. heterodonta	Grace et al., 2009; Nakamura et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2008
18	Mongrhoside	C20H30O11	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis, R. quadrifida, R. heterodonta, R. gelida, R. recticaulis	Olennikov et al., 2019; Grace et al., 2009; Wiedenfeld et al., 2007a; Ali et al., 2008; Avula et al., 2009
19	Heterodontoside	C20H30O11	R. heterodonta	Grace et al. (2009)
20	4-Ethoxyphenylethanol acetate	C12H16O3	R. kirilowii	Yang et al. (2011a)
21	Pharienside	C21H24O11	R. purpureoviridis	Ma et al. (1995)
22	Phenethyl gallate	C15H14O5	R. sacra	Daikonya and Kitanaka (2011)
23	2-Phenylethyl-1-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C14H20O6	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra	Nakamura et al., 2007; Nakamura et al., 2008; Ma, 2006; Fan et al., 1999
24	2-Phenylethyl-1-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C19H28O10	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra, R. recticaulis	Olennikov et al., 2019; Ali et al., 2008; Avula et al., 2009; Nakamura et al., 2008; Fan et al., 1999
25	2-Phenylethyl-1-O-α-L-arabinofuranosyl(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C19H28O10	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2013)
26	2-Phenylethyl-1-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C19H28O10	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2013)
27	Crenulatanoside C	C14H20O7	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012b)
28	Hydroxytyrosol	C8H10O3	R. crenulata	Ma et al. (2022)
29	Benzyl alcohol	C7H8O	R. rosea, R. wallichiana	Olennikov et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2016
30	Benzyl-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C13H18O6	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2015; Mudge et al., 2012
31	Benzyl-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C18H26O10	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2008
32	Benzyl-O-α-L-arabinofuranosyl(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C18H26O10	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2008
33	Salicin	C13H18O7	R. rosea	Liu et al. (2024b)
34	p-Hydroxybenzyl alcohol	C7H8O2	R. crenulata, R. imbricata	Choudhary et al., 2015a; Yan et al., 2021
35	4-Hydroxybenzyl β-D-glucopyranoside	C13H18O7	R. crenulata	Nakamura et al. (2008)
36	2-Hydroxymethyl-6-methoxyphenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C14H20O8	R. imbricata	Choudhary et al. (2015a)
37	2-Hydroxymethyl-4-methoxyphenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C14H20O8	R. imbricata	Choudhary et al., 2015a; Choudhary et al., 2015b
38	3,5-Dihydroxybenzyl alcohol	C7H8O3	R. imbricata	Choudhary et al. (2015a)
39	3-Hydroxy-5-methoxybenzyl alcohol	C8H10O3	R. imbricata	Choudhary et al., 2015a; Choudhary et al., 2015b

FIGURE 1.

Structures of phenylalkanoid derivatives.

3.2. Phenylpropanoids

Phenylpropanoids represent another important class of bioactive constituents in Rhodiola species, structurally subdivided into three groups: simple phenylpropanoids (1–46), coumarins (47–55), and lignans (56–102). Among the simple phenylpropanoids, cinnamyl alcohol derivatives—particularly rosavin, rosarin, and rosin (collectively termed “rosavins”)—are regarded as chemical diagnostic markers for R. rosea. Coumarins are the fewest in number, with only nine identified compounds reported in Rhodiola species to date. Major lignans have core structures based on pinoresinol, olivil, lariciresinol, dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol, isolariciresinol, and cycloolivil. Most of the 47 lignan compounds identified in the genus were isolated from R. crenulata. The details of these compounds are presented in Table 3 and Figure 2.

TABLE 3.

Phenylpropanoids from Rhodiola species.

No.	Compounds	Molecular formula	Source of species	References
1	Cinnamyl alcohol	C9H10O	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis, R. quadrifida	Altantsetseg et al., 2007; van Diermen et al., 2009; Song et al., 2003
2	Rosin	C15H20O6	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. quadrifida, R. himalensis, R. tibetica	Liu et al., 2013; Nan et al., 2018; Altantsetseg et al., 2007; Ma et al., 2008; Mudge et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2024a
3	Rosavin	C20H28O10	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. sachalinensis, R. yunnanensis, R. quadrifida, R. himalensis, R. tibetica, R. alterna, R. imbricata, R. serrata	Liu et al., 2013; Ma et al., 2008; Shao et al., 2004; Rattan et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2024; Wiedenfeld et al., 2007a; Mudge et al., 2012; Han et al., 2016
4	Rosarin	C20H28O10	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. sachalinensis, R. quadrifida, R. himalensis, R. tibetica, R. imbricata	Liu et al., 2013; Altantsetseg et al., 2007; Ma et al., 2008; Rattan et al., 2020; Mudge et al., 2012; Cui et al., 2016
5	Cinnamyl-(6′-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl)-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C20H28O10	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Tolonen et al., 2003; Ni, 2016
6	p-Coumaryl alcohol	C9H10O2	R. rosea	Kurkin et al. (1991)
7	Triandrin	C15H20O7	R. crenulata, R. rosea	Nakamura et al., 2008; Tolonen et al., 2003
8	p-Methoxycinnamyl alcohol	C10H12O2	R. rosea	Kurkin et al. (1991)
9	Vimalin	C16H22O7	R. crenulata, R. rosea	Nakamura et al., 2008; Tolonen et al., 2003
10	4-Methoxy-cinnamyl-(6′-O-α-L-arabinopyranosyl)-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H30O11	R. rosea	Tolonen et al. (2003)
11	Coniferin	C16H22O8	R. crenulata	Nakamura et al. (2008)
12	Syringin	C17H24O9	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
13	3-Phenylpropyl β-D-glucopyranoside	C15H22O6	R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al. (2007)
14	Dihydroconiferyl alcohol γ-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C16H24O8	R. fastigiata	Yang et al. (2002)
15	Dihydroconiferin	C16H24O8	R. crenulata, R. wallichiana	Nakamura et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2015
16	Miyaginin	C20H28O10	R. wallichiana	Chai et al. (2015)
17	Chavicol 4-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C20H28O10	R. wallichiana	Chai et al. (2015)
18	Citrusin C	C16H22O7	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
19	Eugenyl-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H30O11	R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis	Zhang et al., 2010; Nakamura et al., 2007; Chai et al., 2015
20	Gein	C21H30O11	R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis	Zhang et al., 2010; Nakamura et al., 2007
21	4-Allylcatechol 1,2-di-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H30O12	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
22	5-Allylpyrogallol 1,2-di-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H30O13	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
23	Cinnamic acid	C9H8O2	R. rosea, R. imbricata	Rattan et al., 2020; Olennikov et al., 2020
24	Methyl cinnamate	C10H10O2	R. wallichiana	Zhao (2016)
25	p-Coumaric acid	C9H8O3	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra, R. bupleuroides, R. imbricata	Nan et al., 2018; Rattan et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2016; Daikonya and Kitanaka, 2011; Nakamura et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2019; Chen et al., 2021; Li et al., 2021; Dong et al., 2009; Huang Y. J. et al., 2008
26	p-Coumaric acid 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C15H18O8	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. wallichiana	Ou et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2013; Ma et al., 2012
27	1-O-p-Coumaroylglucose	C15H18O8	R. rosea	Kurkin et al. (1991)
28	Caffeic acid	C9H8O4	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra, R. himalensis, R. purpureoviridis	Ou et al., 2020; Nan et al., 2018; Ma et al., 1995; Zhu et al., 2024; Lee et al., 2016; Nakamura et al., 2007; Nakamura et al., 2008; Fan et al., 1999; Li et al., 2021
29	Methyl caffeate	C10H10O4	R. crenulata	Chen et al. (2024)
30	Caffeic acid 3′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C15H18O9	R. rosea	Kurkin et al. (1991)
31	Caffeic acid phenethyl ester	C17H16O4	R. sacra	Jung et al. (2008)
32	(E)-Caffeoylmalic acid	C13H12O8	R. rosea	Iwashina et al. (2024)
33	Rosmarinic acid	C18H16O8	R. rosea	Wang F. Y. et al. (2007)
34	Chlorogenic acid	C16H18O9	R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. quadrifida	Wiedenfeld et al., 2007a; Gryszczyńska et al., 2013
35	Poliumoside	C35H46O19	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
36	Ethyl 4,5-dicaffeoylquinate	C27H28O12	R. crenulata	Qu et al. (2020)
37	Ferulic acid	C10H10O4	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. heterodonta	Nan et al., 2018; Zhao et al., 2016; Li et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2024; Krasnov et al., 1976; Polumackanycz et al., 2022
38	3-Methoxy-4-feruloyloxy cinnamic acid	C20H18O7	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
39	6-Feruloyloxyhexanoic acid	C16H20O6	R. wallichiana	Song et al. (2018)
40	Rhodiolate	C17H22O6	R. crenulata	Zhou et al. (2015)
41	Eicosyl ferulate	C30H50O4	R. rosea	Michels et al. (2020)
42	Octacosyl (E)-ferulate	C38H66O4	R. crenulata, R. yunnanensis, R. henryi	Li et al., 2012; Guo et al., 1993; Lou and Zuo, 1991
43	2(R)-26-{[(2E)-3-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1-oxo-2-propen-1-yl]oxy}-2,3-dihydroxypropyl ester	C39H66O8	R. sachalinensis	Ding et al. (2018)
44	3-O-Feruloylquinic acid	C17H20O9	R. rosea	Olennikov et al. (2020)
45	Sinapic acid	C11H12O5	R. rosea	Polumackanycz et al. (2022)
46	3,4,5-Trimethoxycinnamic acid	C12H14O5	R. crenulata, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. himalensis	Zhu et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2021
47	Umbelliferone	C9H6O3	R. quadrifida, R. sacra, R. heterodonta, R. coccinea, R. purpureoviridis	Qiu et al., 1991; Ma et al., 1995; Krasnov et al., 1976; Krasnov and Khoruzhaya, 1974
48	7-Methoxycoumarin	C10H8O3	R. rosea	Ma et al. (2012)
49	Esculetin	C9H6O4	R. linearifolia	Kurlin and Zapesochnaya (1986)
50	Scopoletin	C10H8O4	R. quadrifida, R. coccinea	Krasnov and Khoruzhaya (1974)
51	Scoparone	C11H10O4	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
52	Nodakenin	C20H24O9	R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al. (2007)
53	(R)-Mellein	C10H10O3	R. kirilowii, R. wallichiana	Zhao, 2016; Yang et al., 2011a
54	Thunberginol C	C15H12O5	R. sacra	Daikonya and Kitanaka (2011)
55	Bengenin	C14H16O9	R. wallichiana	Ou et al. (2020)
56	8-Hydroxypinoresinol	C20H22O7	R. wallichiana	Zhao (2016)
57	Prinsepiol	C20H22O8	R. crenulata	Qu et al. (2020)
58	(+)-Syzygiresinol A	C19H18O7	R. crenulata	Zhou et al. (2015)
59	Olivil 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H34O12	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
60	(−)-Berchemol	C20H24O7	R. wallichiana	Chai et al. (2015)
61	(−)-Lariciresinol	C20H24O6	R. rosea	Kurkin et al. (1991)
62	(−)-Lariciresinol 4′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H34O11	R. rosea	Kurkin et al. (1991)
63	Cedrusin	C19H22O6	R. fastigiata	Yang et al. (2002)
64	(7S,8R)-3′,4,9,9′-Tetrahydroxy-3-methoxy-4′,7-epoxy-5′,8-lignan 9-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside	C25H32O10	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
65	Clemastanin A	C25H32O11	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
66	(7R,8S)-3′,4,9,9′-Tetrahydroxy-3-methoxy-4′,7-epoxy-5′,8-lignan 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C25H32O11	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
67	(7R,8S)-3′,4,9,9′-Tetrahydroxy-3-methoxy-4′,7-epoxy-5′,8-lignan 3′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C25H32O11	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
68	(7R,8S)-3′,4,9,9′-Tetrahydroxy-3-methoxy-4′,7-epoxy-5′,8-lignan 3′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside-4-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside	C31H42O15	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
69	(7S,8R)-Dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol 9′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H32O11	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
70	(7R,8S)-Dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol 9-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H32O11	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
71	(+)-Dihydrodehydrodiconiferyl alcohol	C20H24O6	R. crenulata	Zhou et al. (2015)
72	(7S,8R)-Dihydrodehydrodiconiferyl alcohol 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H34O11	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
73	(7R,8S)-Dihydrodehydrodiconiferyl alcohol 9′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H34O11	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
74	(7R,8R)-Dihydrodehydrodiconiferyl alcohol 9′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H34O11	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
75	4′,7′,9,9′-Tetrahydroxy-3′-methoxy-3,8′-oxyneolignan 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C25H34O12	R. rosea	Ma (2006)
76	(7S,8R)-4,7,9,3′,9′-Pentahydroxy-3-methoxyl-8-4′-oxyneolignan 3′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C25H34O12	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
77	(7S,8S)-4,7,9,3′,9′-Pentahydroxy-3-methoxy-8-4′-oxyneolignan 3′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C25H34O12	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
78	(7R,8S)-4,7,9,3′,9′-Pentahydroxy-3-methoxy-8-4′-oxyneolignan 3′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C25H34O12	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
79	(7R,8R)-4,7,9,3′,9′-Pentahydroxy-3-methoxy-8-4′-oxyneolignan 3′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C25H34O12	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
80	(7S,8R)-4,7,9,3′,9′-Pentahydroxy-3-methoxy-8-4′-oxyneolignan 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C25H34O12	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
81	(7R,8R)-4,7,9,3′,9′-Pentahydroxy-3-methoxy-8-4′-oxyneolignan 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C25H34O12	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
82	(7S,8S)-4,7,9,3′,9′-Pentahydroxy-3-methoxy-8-4′-oxyneolignan 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C25H34O12	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
83	(7R,8R)-Threo-4,7,9,9′-tetrahydroxy-3,3′-dimethoxy-8-O-4′-neolignan 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H36O12	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
84	Hyuganoside IIIa	C26H34O12	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
85	3-Hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-[4-(3-hydroxy-1-(E)-propenyl)-2,6-dimethoxyphenoxy]propyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H36O13	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
86	(7R,8R)-3-Methoxy-8′-carboxy-7′-en-3′,8-epoxy-7,4′-oxyneolignan-4,9-diol	C19H18O7	R. crenulata	Zhou et al. (2015)
87	(7R,8R)-3-Methoxy-8′-carboxy-7′-en-3′,7-epoxy-8,4′-oxyneolignan-4,9-diol	C19H18O7	R. crenulata	Zhou et al. (2015)
88	(+)-Isolariciresinol	C20H24O6	R. crenulata, R. fastigiata	Yang et al., 2002; Yang et al., 2012a
89	(+)-Isolariciresinol 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H34O11	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
90	(+)-Isolariciresinol 9-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H34O11	R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata	Yang et al., 2002; Huang Y. J. et al., 2008
91	(+)-Isolariciresinol 4′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H34O11	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
92	(+)-Isolariciresinol 9′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H34O11	R. dumulosa	Liu et al. (2008)
93	Schizandriside	C25H32O10	R. crenulata, R. tangutica, R. yunnanensis, R. bupleuroides	Zhang et al., 2010; Dong et al., 2009; Guo et al., 1993; Yang et al., 2012a
94	(+)-Isolariciresinol-9,9′-acetonide	C23H28O6	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2013)
95	(−)-Isolariciresinol 9′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H34O11	R. dumulosa	Liu et al. (2008)
96	Scaphopetalone	C21H26O6	R. wallichiana	Chai et al. (2015)
97	5′-Methoxy-(+)-isolariciresinol 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H36O12	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
98	5-Methoxy-(+)-isolariciresinol 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H36O12	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
99	(−)-Cycloolivil 9′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H34O12	R. sacra	Daikonya and Kitanaka (2011)
100	(+)-Cycloolivil 9′-O-β-D-xylopyranoside	C25H32O11	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
101	(+)-Cycloolivil 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H34O12	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
102	5-Methoxy-(+)-cycloolivil 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H36O13	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)

FIGURE 2.

Structures of phenylpropanoids.

3.3. Flavonoids

Our investigations reveal that flavonoids constitute the largest and most structurally diverse class of phytochemicals in Rhodiola species, with 160 compounds isolated and identified. The details of these compounds are presented in Table 4 and Figure 3.

TABLE 4.

Flavonoids from Rhodiola species.

No.	Compounds	Molecular formula	Source of species	References
1	Herbacetin	C15H10O7	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis, R. litwinowii	Song et al., 2018; Chen et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2016; Ma et al., 2014; Krasnov, 1979
2	Herbacetin 7-methyl ether	C16H12O7	R. crenulata	Zhou et al. (2015)
3	Herbacetin 8-methyl ether	C16H12O7	R. rosea, R. dumulosa, R. bupleuroides, R. atuntsuensis	Chen et al., 1999; Kurkin et al., 1984; Luo et al., 2005; Wang H. et al., 2016
4	Herbacetin 4′-methyl ether	C16H12O7	R. fastigiata, R. bupleuroides	Yang et al., 2002; Wang H. et al., 2016
5	Rhodiolin	C25H20O10	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis, R. quadrifida, R. bupleuroides	Wiedenfeld et al., 2007a; Wang H. et al., 2016; Peng et al., 1996; Lee et al., 2000; Wang Y. S. et al., 2020; Zhang, 2021
6	Rhodionin	C21H20O11	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis, R. yunnanensis, R. dumulosa, R. sacra, R. henryi, R. alsia, R. forrestii, R. chrysanthemifolia, R. sexifolia, R. serrata, R. macrocarpa	Liu et al., 2013; Choe et al., 2012; Daikonya and Kitanaka, 2011; Song et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2015; Ma et al., 2014; Wang H. L. et al., 2006; Li and Zhang, 2008; Wang J. X. et al., 2006
7	Litvinolin	C21H20O11	R. bupleuroides, R. litwinowii, R. ishidae	Krasnov, 1979; Wang H. et al., 2016; Iwashina et al., 2023
8	Rhodiolatuntoside	C21H20O11	R. crenulata, R. atuntsuensis	Chen et al., 1999; Ma and Guo, 2007
9	Kaempferol-8-methoxy-3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside	C22H22O11	R. rosea	Wang C. H. et al. (2020)
10	Herbacetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H20O12	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Ni, 2016; Iwashina et al., 2024; Ni et al., 2016
11	Herbacetin 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside	C21H18O13	R. tangutica	Olennikov and Prokopyev (2024)
12	Herbacetin 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H20O12	R. crenulata, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis	Ni, 2016; Ni et al., 2016; Wang X. J. et al., 2016
13	Herbacin	C21H20O12	R. rosea	Ma et al. (2013)
14	Melocorin/Alginin	C21H18O13	R. rosea, R. tangutica, R. quadrifida, R. ishidae	Iwashina et al., 2024; Iwashina et al., 2023; Zapesochnaya, 1978; Olennikov and Chirikova, 2020
15	Rhodirosin F	C23H20O14	R. rosea	Olennikov and Chirikova (2022)
16	Rhodirosin E	C24H20O16	R. rosea	Olennikov and Chirikova (2022)
17	Gelidolin	C21H20O12	R. gelida	Krasnov and Alekseyuk (1979)
18	Gelolin	C20H18O11	R. gelida	Krasnov and Alekseyuk (1979)
19	Rhodalgin	C20H18O11	R. fastigiata, R. tangutica, R. quadrifida	Olennikov and Chirikova, 2020; Chen et al., 1991; Pangarova and Zapesochnaya, 1976
20	Acetylrhodalgin	C22H20O12	R. rosea, R. tangutica	Kurkin et al., 1984; Pangarova and Zapesochnaya, 1976
21	Rhodalin	C20H18O11	R. rosea, R. quadrifida, R. tangutica	Olennikov et al., 2020; Zapesochnaya, 1978; Olennikov and Chirikova, 2020
22	Acetylrhodalin	C22H20O12	R. tangutica	Zapesochnaya (1978)
23	Rhodiolgin D	C22H20O12	R. tangutica	Olennikov and Prokopyev (2024)
24	Diacetylrhodalgin	C24H22O13	R. tangutica	Pangarova and Zapesochnaya (1976)
25	Triacetylrhodalgin	C26H24O14	R. tangutica	Pangarova and Zapesochnaya (1976)
26	Herbacetin 8-O-α-D-lyxopyranoside	C20H18O11	R. fastigiata	Peng et al. (1996)
27	Rhodiosin	C27H30O16	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. yunnanensis, R. dumulosa, R. quadrifida, R. sacra, R. bupleuroides	Nan et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2024; Song et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2015; Nakamura et al., 2007; Ma et al., 2014; Wang H. et al., 2016; Wang J. X. et al., 2006; Olennikov and Chirikova, 2020
28	Rhodiquadrin C	C27H28O18	R. rosea, R. tangutica, R. quadrifida	Olennikov and Prokopyev, 2024; Olennikov and Chirikova, 2020; Olennikov, 2023
29	Herbacetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside	C27H30O16	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis, R. ishidae	Iwashina et al., 2023; Ma et al., 2013; Ni et al., 2013
30	Rhodionidin	C27H30O16	R. rosea	Olennikov (2023)
31	Rhodalide	C25H26O15	R. tangutica	Krasnov and Demidenko (1979)
32	Rhodalidin	C26H28O16	R. rosea, R. tangutica	Olennikov and Prokopyev, 2024; Zapesochnaya et al., 1985
33	Herbacetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside-8-O-(2″-O-acetyl)-β-D-xylopyranoside	C28H30O17	R. tangutica	Olennikov and Prokopyev (2024)
34	Rhodiolgin B	C28H30O17	R. tangutica	Olennikov and Prokopyev (2024)
35	Rhodiolgin C	C28H30O17	R. tangutica	Olennikov and Prokopyev (2024)
36	Herbacetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside-8-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside	C27H28O18	R. rosea, R. tangutica, R. quadrifida	Iwashina et al., 2024; Olennikov and Prokopyev, 2024; Olennikov and Chirikova, 2020
37	Herbacetin 3-O-(3″-O-acetyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside-8-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside	C29H30O19	R. rosea, R. quadrifida	Olennikov and Chirikova, 2020; Olennikov, 2023
38	Rhodirosin B	C31H32O20	R. rosea	Olennikov and Chirikova (2022)
39	Herbacetin 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside-8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H28O18	R. ishidae	Iwashina et al. (2023)
40	Herbacetin 7-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside-8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H28O18	R. ishidae	Iwashina et al. (2023)
41	Herbacetin 3-O-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranoside]-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside	C33H40O20	R. sachalinensis	Han et al. (2011)
42	Sachaloside IV	C33H40O21	R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al. (2007)
43	Rhodiolgin A	C33H38O23	R. tangutica	Olennikov and Prokopyev (2024)
44	Herbacetin 3,7-di-O-β-D-glucopyranoside-8-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside	C33H38O23	R. rosea, R. ishidae	Iwashina et al., 2024; Iwashina et al., 2023
45	Rhodirosin A	C36H40O26	R. rosea	Olennikov and Chirikova (2022)
46	3,5,7,8,4′-Pentahydroxy-3′-methoxyflavone	C16H12O8	R. bupleuroides	Wang H. et al. (2016)
47	Rhodiolgin	C21H20O12	R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. quadrifida	Huang Y. J. et al., 2008; Yoshikawa et al., 1996; Ming et al., 2005
48	Gossypin	C21H20O13	R. rosea, R. purpureoviridis	Ma et al., 1995; Olennikov et al., 2020
49	Hibifolin	C21H18O14	R. rosea, R. tangutica, R. quadrifida, R. ishidae	Iwashina et al., 2024; Iwashina et al., 2023; Olennikov and Prokopyev, 2024; Olennikov and Chirikova, 2020
50	Rhodirosin D	C23H20O15	R. rosea	Olennikov and Chirikova (2022)
51	Rhodirosin C	C24H20O17	R. rosea	Olennikov and Chirikova (2022)
52	Gossypetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H20O13	R. tangutica	Olennikov and Prokopyev (2024)
53	Gossypetin 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside	C21H18O14	R. tangutica	Olennikov and Prokopyev (2024)
54	Gossypetin 8-O-β-D-xylopyranoside	C20H18O12	R. rosea, R. quadrifida	Iwashina et al., 2024; Olennikov and Chirikova, 2020
55	Rhodiquadrin D	C20H18O12	R. quadrifida	Olennikov and Chirikova (2020)
56	Rhodioflavonoside	C27H30O17	R. rosea, R. wallichiana, R. quadrifida	Zhao et al., 2016; Yoshikawa et al., 1996; Ming et al., 2005
57	Rhodiquadrin A	C27H28O19	R. quadrifida	Olennikov and Chirikova (2020)
58	Rhodiolgidin	C27H30O17	R. rosea	Olennikov et al. (2020)
59	Gossypetin 3,7-di-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H30O18	R. ishidae	Iwashina et al. (2023)
60	Gossypetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside-8-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside	C27H28O19	R. rosea, R. tangutica, R. quadrifida	Olennikov and Prokopyev, 2024; Olennikov and Chirikova, 2020; Olennikov, 2023
61	Rhodiquadrin B	C29H30O20	R. rosea, R. quadrifida	Olennikov and Chirikova, 2020; Olennikov, 2023
62	Gossypetin 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside-8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H28O19	R. rosea, R. ishidae	Iwashina et al., 2024; Iwashina et al., 2023
63	Gossypetin 3-O-β-D-(2″-malonylxylopyranoside)-8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C29H30O20	R. ishidae	Iwashina et al. (2023)
64	Gossypetin 3,7-di-O-β-D-glucopyranoside-8-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside	C33H38O24	R. rosea, R. ishidae	Iwashina et al., 2023; Olennikov, 2023
65	Kaempferol	C15H10O6	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. yunnanensis, R. dumulosa, R. quadrifida, R. sacra, R. bupleuroides, R. himalensis, R. heterodonta, R. coccinea, R. pamiroalaica, R. litwinowii	Ou et al., 2020; Nan et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2024; Zhou et al., 2015; Nakamura et al., 2007; Dong et al., 2009; Krasnov et al., 1976; Krasnov and Khoruzhaya, 1974; Ma et al., 2014; Krasnov, 1979; Luo et al., 2005; Hu and Wang, 2022; Jiang et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2000
66	Kaempferol 7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside	C21H20O10	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. dumulosa, R. bupleuroides	Nan et al., 2018; Song et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2015; Luo et al., 2005; Ni et al., 2013; Dong et al., 2007; Tang et al., 2021
67	Afzelin	C21H20O10	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. yunnanensis, R. dumulosa, R. litwinowii	Choe et al., 2012; Zhu et al., 2024; Huang H. et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2016; Chen et al., 2024; Krasnov, 1979; Olennikov and Prokopyev, 2024
68	Kaempferol 4′-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside	C21H20O10	R. crenulata, R. sachalinensis, R. dumulosa	Huang H. et al. (2008)
69	Kaempferol 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H20O11	R. crenulata, R. sachalinensis	Liu et al., 2024a; Ni et al., 2013
70	Astragalin	C21H20O11	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis, R. ishidae	Ni, 2016; Iwashina et al., 2023; Ni et al., 2016; Wang X. J. et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2020
71	Kaempferol 4′-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H20O11	R. tangutica	Olennikov and Prokopyev (2024)
72	Trifolin	C21H20O11	R. sachalinensis	Han et al. (2011)
73	Kaempferol 3-O-β-D-sophoroside	C27H30O16	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. sachalinensis, R. dumulosa	Huang H. et al., 2008; Fan et al., 2001; Xu et al., 2013
74	Kaempferol 3-rungioside	C27H30O15	R. crenulata, R. sachalinensis, R. dumulosa	Huang H. et al. (2008)
75	Kaempferol 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1→4)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H30O15	R. crenulata, R. sachalinensis, R. dumulosa	Huang H. et al. (2008)
76	Nicotiflorin	C27H30O15	R. crenulata	Zhu et al. (2024)
77	Multiflorin B	C27H30O15	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Choe et al., 2012; Tusungul and Wan, 2018
78	Ternatumoside II	C27H30O15	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Zhou et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2016
79	Crenuloside	C27H30O15	R. crenulata, R. dumulosa	Zhou et al., 2015; Wang J. X. et al., 2006
80	Leucoside	C26H28O15	R. rosea, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al., 2007; Wang X. J. et al., 2016; Ma et al., 2013
81	Kaempferol 3-O-β-D-xylofuranosyl(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H28O15	R. sachalinensis	Fan et al. (2001)
82	Kaempferitrin	C27H30O14	R. rosea	Olennikov et al. (2020)
83	Kaempferol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside	C27H30O15	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis, R. dumulosa, R. ishidae	Liu et al., 2008; Iwashina et al., 2023; Ma et al., 2013; Ni et al., 2013
84	Kaempferol 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H30O15	R. ishidae	Iwashina et al. (2023)
85	Kaempferol 3,7-di-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H30O16	R. rosea, R. ishidae	Olennikov et al., 2020; Iwashina et al., 2023
86	Kaempferol 3,4′-di-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H30O16	R. sachalinensis	Choe et al. (2012)
87	Sachaloside III	C32H38O19	R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al. (2007)
88	Kaempferol 4′-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside-3-O-β-D-xylopyranosyl(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C32H38O19	R. rosea	Liu et al. (2020)
89	Kaempferol 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside-7-O-β-D-sophoroside	C33H40O20	R. ishidae	Iwashina et al. (2023)
90	Kaempferol 3-O-β-D-sophoroside-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C33H40O21	R. ishidae	Iwashina et al. (2023)
91	3,3′,5,7-Tetrahydroxyflavone	C15H10O6	R. crenulata	Ni et al. (2016)
92	Quercetin	C15H10O7	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. dumulosa, R. quadrifida, R. sacra, R. bupleuroides, R. himalensis, R. heterodonta, R. coccinea, R. atuntsuensis	Nan et al., 2018; Chen et al., 1999; Zhu et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2024; Krasnov et al., 1976; Polumackanycz et al., 2022; Krasnov and Khoruzhaya, 1974; Liu et al., 2008; Wang X. J. et al., 2016; Hu and Wang, 2022; Dong et al., 2007
93	Tamarixetin	C16H12O7	R. sachalinensis	Ni et al. (2013)
94	Quercetin 3′,4′,7-trimethyl ether	C18H16O7	R. crenulata	Ni et al. (2016)
95	Quercitrin	C21H20O11	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sacra, R. himalensis	Ou et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2024; Olennikov et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2024; Olennikov and Prokopyev, 2024
96	Quercetin 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H20O12	R. bupleuroides, R. ishidae	Wang H. et al., 2016; Iwashina et al., 2023
97	Isoquercitrin	C21H20O12	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra, R. heterodonta, R. coccinea, R. ishidae	Ou et al., 2020; Nan et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2024; Chen et al., 2024; Krasnov et al., 1976; Krasnov and Khoruzhaya, 1974; Iwashina et al., 2023; Olennikov, 2023; Ni et al., 2013
98	Quercetin 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside	C21H18O13	R. crenulata	Chen et al. (2024)
99	Hyperoside	C21H20O12	R. crenulata, R. coccinea	Krasnov and Khoruzhaya, 1974; Ren et al., 2021
100	Rutin	C27H30O16	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis, R. dumulosa, R. atuntsuensis	Chen et al., 1999; Song et al., 2018; Polumackanycz et al., 2022; Ding et al., 2018; Rei et al., 2021
101	Baimaside	C27H30O17	R. ishidae	Iwashina et al. (2023)
102	Quercetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside-7-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside	C27H30O16	R. rosea	Olennikov et al. (2020)
103	Quercetin 3,7-di-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H30O17	R. rosea, R. ishidae	Olennikov et al., 2020; Iwashina et al., 2023
104	Myricetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H20O13	R. ishidae	Iwashina et al. (2023)
105	Hibiscetin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside-8-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside	C27H28O20	R. rosea, R. tangutica	Iwashina et al., 2024; Olennikov and Prokopyev, 2024
106	Rhodirosin G	C30H30O23	R. rosea	Olennikov (2023)
107	Rhodirosin H	C30H30O23	R. rosea	Olennikov (2023)
108	Apigenin	C15H10O5	R. sacra	Jiang et al. (2017)
109	Apigenin 7-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl(1→2)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C26H28O14	R. tangutica	Zhang et al. (2010)
110	Vicenin-2	C27H30O15	R. ishidae	Iwashina et al. (2023)
111	Luteolin	C15H10O6	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis, R. yunnanensis, R. sacra, R. himalensis	Zuo et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2024; Zhou et al., 2015; Nakamura et al., 2007; Iwashina et al., 2024
112	Luteolin 7-ethyl ether	C17H14O6	R. fastigiata	Yang et al. (2002)
113	Cynaroside	C21H20O11	R. crenulata, R. fastigiata, R. sachalinensis	Li et al., 2021; Chen et al., 2024; Ding et al., 2018
114	Luteolin 3′,7-dimethyl ether	C17H14O6	R. crenulata	Ni et al. (2016)
115	3′-Methoxyl luteolin 7-O-β-D-glucoside	C22H22O11	R. sachalinensis	Ding et al. (2018)
116	Lucenin-2	C27H30O16	R. ishidae	Iwashina et al. (2023)
117	Tricetin	C15H10O7	R. kirilowii, R. quadrifida	Zuo et al., 2007; Yoshikawa et al., 1996
118	Tricin	C17H14O7	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra, R. henryi, R. himalensis	Daikonya and Kitanaka, 2011; Nakamura et al., 2007; Ni et al., 2016; Wang X. J. et al., 2016; Masi et al., 2023; Lou and Zuo, 1990; Qiu et al., 1989
119	Tricin 5-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C23H24O12	R. rosea	Langeder et al. (2021)
120	Tricin 7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C23H24O12	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. henryi	Ni et al., 2016; Lou and Zuo, 1990; Kurkin et al., 1982
121	Dihydrokaempferol	C15H12O6	R. rosea, R. fastigiata, R. sacra	Lee et al., 2016; Daikonya and Kitanaka, 2011; Peng et al., 1996
122	Naringenin	C15H12O5	R. sacra	Daikonya and Kitanaka (2011)
123	Naringenin 7-O-β-D-sophoroside	C27H32O15	R. ishidae	Iwashina et al. (2023)
124	Eriodictyol	C15H12O6	R. crenulata, R. fastigiata, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. yunnanensis, R. sacra, R. himalensis	Nan et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2024; Nakamura et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2024
125	5,7,3′,5′-Tetrahydroxyflavanone	C15H12O6	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. sacra	Daikonya and Kitanaka, 2011; Zhou et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2010
126	Genistein	C15H10O5	R. crenulata	Zhao (2015)
127	Phloretin	C15H14O5	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
128	Cyanidin 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H21O11 +	R. rosea, R. ishidae	Iwashina et al., 2024; Iwashina et al., 2023
129	(+)-Catechin	C15H14O6	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sacra, R. bupleuroides, R. himalensis, R. coccinea, R. alsia, R. semenovii, R. chrysanthemifolia, R. sexifolia, R. tieghemii	Ma et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2013; Ou et al., 2020; Nan et al., 2018; Chi et al., 2012; Zhu et al., 2024; Polumackanycz et al., 2022; Gryszczyńska et al., 2012; Kuliev et al., 2004
130	(−)-Catechin gallate(CG)	C22H18O10	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. sacra	Zhu et al., 2024; Olennikov et al., 2020; Chen et al., 2024
131	(−)-Epicatechin(EC)	C15H14O6	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. yunnanensis, R. sacra, R. bupleuroides, R. himalensis, R. coccinea, R. alsia, R. semenovii, R. chrysanthemifolia, R. sexifolia, R. tieghemii	Ou et al., 2020; Nan et al., 2018; Chi et al., 2012; Zhu et al., 2024; Guo et al., 1993; Gryszczyńska et al., 2012; Kuliev et al., 2004; Chu et al., 2014a
132	(−)-Epicatechin gallate(ECG)	C22H18O10	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. yunnanensis, R. sacra, R. semenovii	Ou et al., 2020; Nan et al., 2018; Zhu et al., 2024; Li et al., 2021; Gryszczyńska et al., 2012; Kuliev et al., 2004; Chu et al., 2014a
133	(+)-Gallocatechin	C15H14O7	R. semenovii	Kuliev et al. (2004)
134	(−)-Gallocatechin	C15H14O7	R. rosea	Olennikov et al. (2020)
135	(−)-Gallocatechin gallate	C22H18O11	R. rosea	Olennikov et al. (2020)
136	(−)-Epigallocatechin(EGC)	C15H14O7	R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. sachalinensis, R. semenovii, R. recticaulis	Olennikov et al., 2019; Fan et al., 2001; Gryszczyńska et al., 2012; Kuliev et al., 2004
137	(−)-Epigallocatechin gallate(EGCG)	C22H18O11	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. yunnanensis, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra, R. heterodonta, R. gelida, R. litwinowii, R. semenovii, R. recticaulis	Olennikov et al., 2019; Fan et al., 1999; Li et al., 2021; Guo et al., 1993; Yang et al., 2012a; Lee et al., 2000; Gryszczyńska et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2022; Melikuziev et al., 2013; Yousef et al., 2006
138	Procyanidin A1	C30H24O12	R. crenulata	Jia et al. (2024)
139	Procyanidin B1	C30H26O12	R. crenulata	Ma et al. (2022)
140	Procyanidin B2	C30H26O12	R. crenulata	Jia et al. (2024)
141	Procyanidin B2 3″-O-gallate	C37H30O16	R. crenulata, R. semenovii	Kuliev et al., 2004; Chu et al., 2014b
142	Procyanidin B2 3,3′-di-O-gallate	C44H34O20	R. kirilowii, R. semenovii	Zuo et al., 2007; Kuliev et al., 2004
143	Procyanidin B3	C30H26O12	R. crenulata, R. semenovii	Chen et al., 2021; Kuliev et al., 2004
144	(−)-Epicatechin-(4β→8)-(−)-epigallocatechin 3-O-gallate	C37H30O17	R. semenovii	Kuliev (2010)
145	3′-Galloylprodelphinidin B2	C37H30O18	R. heterodonta, R. recticaulis	Olennikov et al., 2019; Grace et al., 2009
146	Rhodisin	C44H34O22	R. kirilowii, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra, R. heterodonta, R. gelida, R. recticaulis	Zuo et al., 2007; Olennikov et al., 2019; Grace et al., 2009; Fan et al., 2001; Fan et al., 1999
147	3-O-Galloylepigallocatechin-(4α→8)-epigallocatechin 3-O-gallate	C44H34O22	R. rosea	van Diermen et al. (2009)
148	Procyanidin C1	C45H38O18	R. crenulata	Jia et al. (2024)
149	Rhodikhinoside	C95H80O48	R. semenovii	Khi et al. (1991)
150	Rhodikhim	C88H66O38	R. semenovii	Khi et al. (1991)
151	Proanthocyanidin CS-1	C121H118O65	R. semenovii	Matamarova et al. (1998)
152	Proanthocyanidin CS-2	C113H100O62	R. semenovii	Matamarova et al. (1998)
153	Proanthocyanidin CS-3	C127H128O69	R. semenovii	Matamarova et al. (1999)
154	Proanthocyanidin CS-4	C136H120O70	R. semenovii	Matamarova et al. (1999)
155	Rhodichimoside	C112H106O64	R. semenovii	Kuliev et al. (2000)
156	Rhodichin	C95H80O48	R. semenovii	Kuliev et al. (2000)
157	Proanthocyanidin RP-1	C125H130O69	R. pamiroalaica	Ismailov et al. (1998)
158	Proanthocyanidin RP-2	C120H114O64	R. pamiroalaica	Ismailov et al. (1998)
159	Proanthocyanidin RP-3	C136H120O70	R. pamiroalaica	Ismailov et al. (1999)
160	Proanthocyanidin RP-4	C129H106O67	R. pamiroalaica	Ismailov et al. (1999)

FIGURE 3.

Structures of flavonoids.

Flavonols (1–107) dominate the flavonoid profile, featuring aglycone cores of herbacetin, gossypetin, kaempferol, and quercetin. These compounds exist mainly as glycosides substituted at the C-3, C-7, C-8, or C-4′ positions, with sugar moieties including rhamnose, glucose, glucuronic acid, arabinose, xylose, and their acetylated derivatives. Among these, herbacetin derivatives are the most representative constituents, with rhodionin and rhodiosin being the most extensively reported. Glucuronides, with herbacetin and gossypetin as their principal aglycones, show preferential accumulation in aerial parts. A structurally unique metabolite, rhodiolin, results from the condensation of dihydroconiferyl alcohol (a phenylpropanoid) with herbacetin (a flavonol) and has been consistently detected across multiple Rhodiola species.

The second predominant class is flavan-3-ols (129–137), such as (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin, (−)-epicatechin gallate, (−)-epigallocatechin, and (−)-epigallocatechin gallate. These compounds also serve as building blocks that polymerize via C4-C8 or C4-C6 bonds to form various oligomers and polymers, collectively known as proanthocyanidins (138–160).

Additionally, Rhodiola species contain a small number of other flavonoid subclasses, including flavones (108–120; mainly luteolin and tricin derivatives), flavanones (121–125), isoflavone (126), dihydrochalcone (127), and anthocyanidin (128).

3.4. Terpenoids

Terpenoids also play a significant role in the phytochemical profile of Rhodiola species. Up to now, approximately 60 terpenoid compounds have been isolated according to our investigations, comprising hemiterpenoids (1–5), monoterpenoids (6–51), a sesquiterpenoid (52), and triterpenoids (53–60). The details of these compounds are presented in Table 5 and Figure 4.

TABLE 5.

Terpenoids from Rhodiola species.

No.	Compounds	Molecular formula	Source of species	References
1	Crenulatin	C11H20O6	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. yunnanensis, R. sacra, R. himalensis	Zhu et al., 2024; Lee et al., 2016; Nakamura et al., 2008; Zhang, 2021; Yoshikawa et al., 1997
2	Taxilluside A	C18H24O10	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
3	3-Methyl-but-2-en-1-yl-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C11H20O6	R. crenulata, R. rosea	Lee et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2024a
4	2-Methyl butyric acid-2-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C11H20O8	R. wallichiana	Chai (2015)
5	1-(2-Hydroxy-2-methylbutanoate)-β-D-glucopyranose	C11H20O8	R. kirilowii	Yang et al. (2011a)
6	(3E,2S)-2-Hydroxy-3,7-dimethyl-3,6-octadien-1-yl β-D-glucopyranoside	C16H28O7	R. rosea	Tang et al. (2023)
7	Geranyl 1-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C16H28O6	R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al., 2007; Huang Y. J. et al., 2008; Tang et al., 2021
8	Kenposide A	C21H36O10	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra	Nakamura et al., 2007; Nakamura et al., 2008; Mudge et al., 2012; Yoshikawa et al., 1997
9	Geranyl 1-O-α-L-arabinofuranosyl(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H36O10	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al., 2007; Ali et al., 2008
10	Neryl 1-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C16H28O6	R. kirilowii	Huang Y. J. et al. (2008)
11	Sacranoside B	C21H36O10	R. kirilowii, R. sacra	Huang Y. J. et al., 2008; Yoshikawa et al., 1997
12	Creoside V	C21H38O10	R. crenulata	Nakamura et al. (2008)
13	(−)-Rosiridol	C10H18O2	R. rosea, R. linearifolia	Kurlin and Zapesochnaya, 1986; Masi et al., 2023
14	(4S)-Rosiridin	C16H28O7	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis, R. tibetica, R. linearifolia, R. recticaulis	Ma et al., 2008; Olennikov et al., 2019; Han et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2019; Kurlin and Zapesochnaya, 1986; Tang et al., 2023; Yoshikawa et al., 2008
15	(4R)-Rosiridin	C16H28O7	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Fan et al., 2001; Tang et al., 2023
16	Sachalinoside A	C23H32O11	R. sachalinensis	Fan et al. (2001)
17	(2E)-4-Methoxy-3,7-dimethyl-2,6-octadien-1-yl β-D-glucopyranoside	C17H30O7	R. rosea	Tang et al. (2023)
18	Rhodiosidin	C25H34O8	R. rosea	Masi et al. (2023)
19	Rosiridoside C	C18H30O8	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Olennikov and Chirikova, 2024; Yoshikawa et al., 2008
20	Rhodirosin N	C20H32O9	R. rosea	Olennikov and Chirikova (2024)
21	Rosiridoside A	C15H26O6	R. sachalinensis	Yoshikawa et al. (2008)
22	Rhodioloside B	C22H38O12	R. rosea	Ma et al., 2006; Li W. et al., 2008
23	Rhodioloside C	C22H38O12	R. rosea	Ma et al., 2006; Li W. et al., 2008
24	Rosiridoside B	C21H36O11	R. sachalinensis	Yoshikawa et al. (2008)
25	Rhodioloside F	C21H36O11	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Ali et al., 2008; Avula et al., 2009
26	Rhodioloside A	C16H28O8	R. rosea	Ma et al., 2006; Li W. et al., 2008
27	Sachalol	C10H20O2	R. sachalinensis	Li X. Z. et al. (2008)
28	Sachaloside VI	C16H30O7	R. sachalinensis	Li X. Z. et al. (2008)
29	Sachalinol A	C10H20O3	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Fan et al., 2001; Ali et al., 2008
30	Rhodioloside D	C16H30O8	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Avula et al., 2009; Ma et al., 2006; Li W. et al., 2008
31	Sachaloside VII	C16H30O8	R. sachalinensis	Li X. Z. et al. (2008)
32	(E)-3,7-Dimethyl-2-octene-1,7-diol	C10H20O2	R. rosea	Tang et al. (2021)
33	Rhodioloside E /Sachaloside VIII	C21H38O11	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra	Daikonya and Kitanaka, 2011; Nakamura et al., 2008; Ma et al., 2006; Li X. Z. et al., 2008
34	Rhodioloside G	C21H38O11	R. sacra	Daikonya and Kitanaka (2011)
35	1,4,6,7-Tetrahydroxy-3,7-dimethyl-2-octene	C10H20O4	R. rosea	Ma (2006)
36	3-(5,5-Dimethyltetrahydrofuranyl)-2E-buten-1-yl β-D-glucopyranoside	C16H28O7	R. rosea	Tang et al. (2023)
37	Sachalinol B	C10H18O3	R. sachalinensis	Fan et al. (2001)
38	Sachalinol C	C10H18O3	R. sachalinensis	Fan et al. (2001)
39	Sachalinoside B	C16H28O7	R. sachalinensis	Fan et al. (2001)
40	trans-Linalool-3,6-oxide-β-D-glucopyranoside	C16H28O7	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
41	(6Z)-4-(3-Hydroxybutylidene)-3,5,5-trimethyl-2-cyclohexene-1-one-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C19H30O7	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
42	Blumenyl C β-D-glucopyranoside	C19H32O7	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
43	(+)-Myrtenyl β-D-glucopyranoside	C16H26O6	R. rosea	Tang et al. (2020)
44	(−)-Myrtenyl β-D-glucopyranoside	C16H26O6	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al., 2007; Tang et al., 2020
45	(+)-Myrtenyl α-L-arabinopyranosyl(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H34O10	R. rosea	Tang et al. (2020)
46	Sacranoside A	C21H34O10	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra	Nakamura et al., 2007; Yoshikawa et al., 1997; Tang et al., 2020
47	Sacranoside C	C21H34O11	R. sacra	Daikonya and Kitanaka (2011)
48	Sachaloside I	C21H36O10	R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al. (2007)
49	Sacranoside D	C21H36O11	R. sacra	Daikonya and Kitanaka (2011)
50	Sachaloside II	C21H34O10	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al., 2007; Tang et al., 2021
51	Loganin	C17H26O10	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
52	Dehydrocostus lactone	C15H18O2	R. fastigiata	Gou et al. (2024)
53	10α-Cucurbita-7,24-diene-3β-ol	C30H50O	R. fastigiata	Gou et al. (2024)
54	Isomotiol	C30H50O	R. sachalinensis	Li et al. (1998)
55	Isomotiyl acetate	C32H52O2	R. henryi	Lou and Zuo (1991)
56	Taraxeryl acetate	C32H52O2	R. sachalinensis, R. henryi	Lou and Zuo, 1991; Li et al., 1998
57	β-Amyrin acetate	C32H52O2	R. fastigiata	Gou et al. (2024)
58	Isomultiflorenyl acetate	C32H52O2	R. henryi	Lou and Zuo (1991)
59	Oleanic acid	C30H48O3	R. linearifolia	Kurlin and Zapesochnaya (1986)
60	Glutinone	C30H48O	R. pamiroalaica	Liu et al. (2000)

FIGURE 4.

Structures of terpenoids.

Hemiterpenoids are relatively rare in nature and often chemically unstable, particularly in their glycosylated forms. Only five hemiterpenoid glycosides have been discovered in the genus, among which crenulatin is the most representative and has been reported in multiple Rhodiola species.

Monoterpenoids and their glycosides dominate the terpenoid profile in Rhodiola species, with rosiridin being the most representative. However, the absolute configuration of rosiridin and structurally related C-4 hydroxylated geraniol derivatives has long been debated. Recent work by Tang et al. resolved this controversy through NMR-based Mosher ester analysis, confirming the enantiomeric nature of rosiridin’s aglycone moiety (Tang et al., 2023).

3.5. Phenolics and organic acids

Rhodiola species are rich sources of diverse phenolic and organic acid compounds. The dominant compounds in this class are phenolics and phenolic acids (1–83), with arbutin and gallic acid being the representative constituents. Additionally, a limited number of fatty acids (84–93) and several other organic acids (94–100) have now been isolated from Rhodiola species. The details of these compounds are presented in Table 6 and Figure 5.

TABLE 6.

Phenolics and organic acids from Rhodiola species.

No.	Compounds	Molecular formula	Source of species	References
1	Phenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C12H16O6	R. imbricata	Choudhary et al. (2015a)
2	Catechol	C6H6O2	Uncertain	Zhou et al. (2007)
3	Salicylic acid	C7H6O3	Uncertain	Zhou et al. (2007)
4	Methyl-2-O-β-D-glucopyranosylbenzoate	C14H18O8	R. rosea	Liu et al. (2024b)
5	Hydroquinone	C6H6O2	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. sacra, R. coccinea	Fan et al., 1999; Chen, 2009; Wang H. et al., 2007; Khoruzhaya and Krasnov, 1972
6	Arbutin	C12H16O7	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra, R. gelida, R. coccinea, R. recticaulis	Nan et al., 2018; Olennikov et al., 2019; Olennikov and Chirikova, 2024; Fan et al., 1999; Olennikov et al., 2020; Wang Y. S. et al., 2020; Hu and Wang, 2022; Khoruzhaya and Krasnov, 1972; Qi et al., 2024
7	Rhodirosin I	C17H24O11	R. rosea	Olennikov and Chirikova (2024)
8	Rhodirosin J	C17H24O11	R. rosea	Olennikov and Chirikova (2024)
9	6′-O-Galloyl arbutin	C19H20O11	R. coccinea	Krasnov et al. (1975)
10	p-Cresol	C7H8O	R. crenulata	Qu et al. (2020)
11	4-Hydroxybenzaldehyde	C7H6O2	R. kirilowii, R. imbricata	Choudhary et al., 2015a; Yang et al., 2011a
12	Helicid	C13H16O7	R. rosea	Liu et al. (2024b)
13	4-Hydroxybenzoic acid	C7H6O3	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra, R. gelida	Ou et al., 2020; Olennikov et al., 2019; Daikonya and Kitanaka, 2011; Yang et al., 2011a; Liu et al., 2024b; Yang et al., 2012a; Ni et al., 2013
14	Methyl 4-hydroxybenzoate	C8H8O3	R. rosea	Lee et al. (2016)
15	Ethylparaben	C9H10O3	R. kirilowii	Yang et al. (2011a)
16	4-Hydroxybenzoic acid 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C13H16O8	R. crenulata, R. gelida	Olennikov et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2012a
17	1-O-(4-Hydroxybenzoyl)-β-D-glucopyranose	C13H16O8	R. sacra	Daikonya and Kitanaka (2011)
18	Creoside III	C18H24O9	R. crenulata, R. rosea	Lee et al., 2016; Nakamura et al., 2008
19	p-Hydroxyacetophenone	C8H8O2	R. crenulata, R. kirilowii, R. gelida, R. pamiroalaica, R. imbricata, R. litwinowii	Choudhary et al., 2015a; Yang et al., 2011a; Krasnov and Alekseyuk, 1979; Liu et al., 2000; Chu et al., 2014b; Krasnov et al., 1973
20	Picein	C14H18O7	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. wallichiana, R. gelida, R. pamiroalaica, R. litwinowii, R. recticaulis	Chen D. J. et al., 2012; Olennikov et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2015; Tolonen et al., 2003; Liu et al., 2000; Krasnov et al., 1973
21	4-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid	C8H8O3	R. rosea, R. wallichiana	Wang C. H. et al., 2020; Ou et al., 2020
22	p-Hydroxyphenacyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C14H18O8	R. crenulata	Chen D. J. et al. (2012)
23	Raspberry ketone glucoside	C16H22O7	R. rosea	Ma et al. (2012)
24	Pyrogallol	C6H6O3	R. crenulata, R. wallichiana, R. linearifolia	Song et al., 2018; Kurlin and Zapesochnaya, 1986; Wang and Wang, 1992
25	3-Hydroxy-2-(3-methyl-2-buten-1-yl)-benzoic acid	C12H14O3	R. imbricata	Choudhary et al. (2015a)
26	2-Methoxyhydroquinone	C7H8O3	R. sachalinensis	Ding (2019)
27	Tachioside	C13H18O8	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2013)
28	2-Hydroxy-4-methylphenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C13H18O7	R. imbricata	Choudhary et al. (2015a)
29	Protocatechuic aldehyde	C7H6O3	R. crenulata	Chen et al. (2024)
30	Vanillin	C8H8O3	R. crenulata, R. wallichiana	Zhao, 2016; Sun et al., 2020
31	Paeonol	C9H10O3	R. rosea, R. wallichiana	Zhao, 2016; Liu et al., 2024b
32	Protocatechuic acid	C7H6O4	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra	Song et al., 2018; Fan et al., 1999; Li et al., 2021; Yang et al., 2012a; Ding, 2019; Wglarz et al., 2008
33	Isovanillic acid	C8H8O4	R. wallichiana	Zhao et al. (2016)
34	Vanillic acid	C8H8O4	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica	Nan et al., 2018; Song et al., 2018; Polumackanycz et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2012a
35	Vanillic acid 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C14H15O9	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
36	Orcinol	C7H8O2	R. imbricata	Choudhary et al. (2015a)
37	3-Methyl-5-methoxyphenol	C8H10O2	R. imbricata	Choudhary et al. (2015a)
38	3-Methyl-5-hydroxyphenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C13H18O7	R. imbricata	Choudhary et al. (2015a)
39	3-Methyl-5-methoxyphenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C14H20O7	R. imbricata	Choudhary et al. (2015a)
40	3,5-Dimethoxyphenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C14H20O8	R. imbricata	Choudhary et al. (2015a)
41	2-Hydroxymethyl-3-acetyl-4-methoxyphenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C16H22O9	R. imbricata	Choudhary et al., 2015a; Choudhary et al., 2015b
42	3,4,5-Trimethoxyphenyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C15H22O9	R. imbricata	Choudhary et al. (2015a)
43	Gallic acid	C7H6O5	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. yunnanensis, R. dumulosa, R. quadrifida, R. sacra, R. bupleuroides, R. henryi, R. himalensis, R. heterodonta, R. gelida, R. coccinea, R. alsia, R. atuntsuensis, R. linearifolia, R. purpureoviridis, R. pamiroalaica, R. imbricata, R. litwinowii, R. semenovii, R. subopposita, R. chrysanthemifolia, R. sexifolia, R. tieghemii, R. serrata, R. recticaulis	Liu et al., 2013; Wang C. H. et al., 2020; Zuo et al., 2007; Ou et al., 2020; Chi et al., 2012; Olennikov et al., 2019; Chen et al., 1999; Ma et al., 1995; Rattan et al., 2020; Zhu et al., 2024; Daikonya and Kitanaka, 2011; Fan et al., 2001; Krasnov et al., 1976; Kurlin and Zapesochnaya, 1986; Yang et al., 2012a; Wang H. L. et al., 2006; Olennikov and Prokopyev, 2024; Liu et al., 2000; Rei et al., 2021; Lou and Zuo, 1990; Kuliev et al., 2004; Melikuziev et al., 2013; Chen H. J. et al., 2012; Suo et al., 2004
44	Methyl gallate	C8H8O5	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis	Wang C. H. et al., 2020; Zhou et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2011a; Zhao et al., 2016; Ding et al., 2018
45	Ethyl gallate	C9H10O5	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. quadrifida, R. sacra, R. himalensis, R. sexifolia	Ou et al., 2020; Nan et al., 2018; Qiu et al., 1991; Liu et al., 2024b; Han et al., 2016; Wang H. L. et al., 2006; Chen et al., 1991; Qiu et al., 1989; Suo et al., 2004; Li, 2015
46	Ellagic acid	C14H6O8	R. crenulata	Du and Xie (1994)
47	Gallic acid 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C13H16O10	R. sacra, R. recticaulis	Olennikov et al., 2019; Fan et al., 1999
48	1-O-Galloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C13H16O10	R. rosea	Iwashina et al. (2024)
49	6-O-Galloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C13H16O10	R. rosea	Iwashina et al. (2024)
50	1,6-Di-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C20H20O14	R. rosea	Olennikov et al. (2020)
51	2,6-Di-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C20H20O14	R. rosea	Iwashina et al. (2024)
52	1,2,3-Tri-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H24O18	R. rosea	Iwashina et al. (2024)
53	1,2,6-Tri-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H24O18	R. rosea	Lee et al. (2016)
54	1,3,6-Tri-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C27H24O18	R. crenulata, R. rosea	Olennikov et al., 2020; Luo et al., 2024
55	1,2,3,4-Tetra-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C34H28O22	R. rosea	Iwashina et al. (2024)
56	1,2,3,6-Tetra-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C34H28O22	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. sachalinensis, R. yunnanensis	Lee et al., 2016; Fan et al., 2001; Luo et al., 2024; He and Jitian, 1995
57	2,3,4,6-Tetra-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C34H28O22	R. rosea	Iwashina et al. (2024)
58	1,3-Di-p-digalloyl-2,4-digalloyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C48H36O30	R. rosea	Iwashina et al. (2024)
59	1,2,3,6-Tetra-O-galloyl-4-O-(p-hydroxybenzoyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C41H32O24	R. rosea	Lee et al. (2016)
60	1,2,3,4,6-Penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranose	C41H32O26	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. sachalinensis, R. yunnanensis, R. henryi	Wang C. H. et al., 2020; Fan et al., 2001; Chen et al., 2024; Lou and Zuo, 1990; He and Jitian, 1995
61	3-O-Methylgallic acid	C8H8O5	R. crenulata, R. wallichiana, R. bupleuroides	Zhao et al., 2016; Dong et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2012a
62	Syringic acid	C9H10O5	R. rosea, R. wallichiana, R. bupleuroides	Song et al., 2018; Dong et al., 2007; Wglarz et al., 2008
63	Glucosyringic acid	C15H20O10	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
64	Erigeside C	C15H20O10	R. bupleuroides	Dong et al. (2007)
65	7-O-Syringic-β-D-sedoheptulose	C16H22O11	R. wallichiana	Chai (2015)
66	Creoside V	C18H24O11	R. rosea	Liu et al. (2024b)
67	4,6-Dihydroxy-2-O-(β-D-glucopyranosyl)acetophenone	C14H18O9	R. sachalinensis	Ding et al. (2018)
68	Domesticoside	C15H20O9	R. tangutica	Zhang et al. (2010)
69	2,4-Dihydroxy-6-methoxyphenylethanone	C9H10O4	R. sachalinensis	Ding et al. (2018)
70	Rodiolinozide	C15H20O9	R. kirilowii	Zuo et al. (2007)
71	2,6-Dimethoxy-4-hydroxyacetophenone	C10H12O4	R. sachalinensis	Ding et al. (2018)
72	2,6-Dimethoxyacetophenone 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C16H22O9	R. crenulata, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis, R. coccinea, R. recticaulis	Olennikov et al., 2019; Chai et al., 2015; Qu et al., 2020; Ding et al., 2018; Zong et al., 1991
73	Mallonanoside A	C14H18O10	R. rosea	Liu et al. (2024b)
74	Polydatin	C20H22O8	R. rosea	Liu et al. (2024b)
75	(E)-2,3,5,4′-Tetra-hydroxy-stilbene-2-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C20H22O9	R. rosea	Liu et al. (2024b)
76	Oxyresveratrol	C14H12O4	R. rosea	Liu et al. (2024b)
77	2-(3,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)-1,3-benzodioxole-5-carboxaldehyde	C14H10O5	R. rosea	Liu et al. (2024b)
78	α-Tocopherol	C29H50O2	R. rosea, R. imbricata	Zhang et al., 2022; Tayade et al., 2013
79	α-Tocotrienol	C29H44O2	R. rosea	Zhang et al. (2022)
80	β-Tocotrienol	C28H42O2	R. rosea	Zhang et al. (2022)
81	γ-Tocopherol	C28H48O2	R. rosea	Zhang et al. (2022)
82	γ-Tocotrienol	C28H42O2	R. rosea	Zhang et al. (2022)
83	δ-Tocotrienol	C27H40O2	R. rosea	Zhang et al. (2022)
84	Stearic acid	C18H36O2	R. crenulata	Li et al. (2012)
85	Linoleic acid	C18H32O2	R. rosea	Michels et al. (2020)
86	Mollisinol C	C18H34O4	R. rosea	Liu et al. (2024b)
87	Cerotic acid	C26H52O2	R. crenulata, R. yunnanensis, R. purpureoviridis, R. pamiroalaica	Ma et al., 1995; Li et al., 2012; Guo et al., 1993; Liu et al., 2000
88	Hexacosanyl cerotate	C52H104O2	R. yunnanensis	Guo et al. (1993)
89	Octacosyl cerotate	C54H108O2	R. henryi	Lou and Zuo (1991)
90	Glycerin-1-cerotyl-2-linoleate	C47H88O5	R. henryi	Lou and Zuo (1991)
91	Octacosanoic acid	C28H56O2	R. crenulata	Zhao (2015)
92	Dotriacontanoic acid	C32H64O2	R. rosea	Liu et al. (2024b)
93	Hexatriacontanoic acid	C36H72O2	R. henryi	Lou and Zuo (1991)
94	2-Furoic acid	C5H4O3	R. wallichiana	Zhao (2016)
95	Ethyl benzoate	C9H10O2	R. crenulata	Zhao (2015)
96	Dibutyl phthalate	C16H22O4	R. rosea, R. sachalinensis	Ma, 2006; Ding et al., 2018
97	Fastigitin A	C13H24O8	R. fastigiata	Yang et al. (2002)
98	Succinic acid	C4H6O4	R. henryi	Lou and Zuo (1990)
99	Suberic acid	C8H14O4	R. sacra	Fan et al. (1999)
100	Citric acid	C6H8O7	R. crenulata, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. yunnanensis, R. sacra, R. himalensis, R. tieghemii	Ma et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2024

FIGURE 5.

Structures of phenolics and organic acids.

3.6. Cyanogenic glycosides

Cyanogenic glycosides, defined by their -CN functional group that enables toxic HCN release upon enzymatic or acid hydrolysis, represent a chemically distinct class of secondary metabolites in Rhodiola species. This review systematically documents 15 such compounds from phytochemical investigations of the genus. Lotaustralin exemplifies the prototypical member of this class. The details of these compounds are presented in Table 7 and Figure 6.

TABLE 7.

Cyanogenic glycosides from Rhodiola species.

No.	Compounds	Molecular formula	Source of species	References
1	(R)-Lotaustralin	C11H19NO6	R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. wallichiana, R. tangutica, R. sachalinensis, R. quadrifida, R. sacra, R. heterodonta, R. gelida, R. coccinea, R. linearifolia, R. pamiroalaica, R. litwinowii, R. semenovii, R. subopposita, R. junggarica, R. recticaulis	Wang and Ruan, 2005; Olennikov et al., 2019; Kang et al., 1998; Zhang et al., 2010; Nakamura et al., 2007; Zhao et al., 2016; Masi et al., 2023; Yousef et al., 2006; Yoshikawa et al., 1997; Wiedenfeld et al., 2007b
2	Epilotaustralin	C11H19NO6	R. sachalinensis	Hou et al. (2009)
3	Heterodendrin	C11H19NO6	R. sachalinensis, R. sacra, R. henryi	Nakamura et al., 2007; Lou and Zuo, 1990; Yoshikawa et al., 1997
4	Sachaloside V	C11H19NO7	R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al. (2007)
5	Rhodiocyanoside A	C11H17NO6	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis, R. quadrifida, R. sacra, R. heterodonta, R. gelida, R. semenovii, R. recticaulis	Olennikov et al., 2019; Nakamura et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2012a; Yoshikawa et al., 1996; Masi et al., 2023; Yousef et al., 2006; Yoshikawa et al., 1997; Wiedenfeld et al., 2007b
6	Rhodiocyanoside F	C16H25NO10	R. sacra	Daikonya and Kitanaka (2011)
7	Rhodiocyanoside D	C11H17NO6	R. crenulata, R. sacra	Yang et al., 2013; Yoshikawa et al., 1997
8	Sarmentosin	C11H17NO7	R. crenulata, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra, R. gelida, R. recticaulis	Olennikov et al., 2019; Fan et al., 1999; Yang et al., 2012a; Hou et al., 2009
9	4-(β-D-glucopyranosyloxy)-3-hydroxy-2-(hydroxymethyl)-butanenitrile	C11H19NO8	R. kirilowii	Yang et al. (2011b)
10	Rhobupcyanoside A	C20H25NO11	R. wallichiana, R. bupleuroides	Chai et al., 2015; Dong et al., 2009
11	Rhodiocyanoside B	C18H21NO11	R. quadrifida, R. sacra	Daikonya and Kitanaka, 2011; Yoshikawa et al., 1996
12	trans-Rhobupcyanoside A	C20H25NO11	R. wallichiana	Chai (2015)
13	Rhobupcyanoside B	C11H15NO6	R. bupleuroides	Wang H. et al. (2016)
14	Crenulatanoside A	C15H19NO7	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012a)
15	Methyl (E)-2-cyano-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)prop-2-enoate	C13H13NO4	R. crenulata	Cao and Zhang (2022)

FIGURE 6.

Structures of cyanogenic glycosides.

3.7. Steroids

Steroid diversity in the genus Rhodiola is limited, with only 14 compounds isolated so far. β-Sitosterol and daucosterol are the most representative, having been identified in over 10 Rhodiola species. The details of these compounds are presented in Table 8 and Figure 7.

TABLE 8.

Steroids from Rhodiola species.

No.	Compounds	Molecular formula	Source of species	References
1	β-Sitosterol	C29H50O	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis, R. yunnanensis, R. dumulosa, R. sacra, R. bupleuroides, R. henryi, R. himalensis, R. atuntsuensis, R. linearifolia, R. purpureoviridis, R. pamiroalaica	Yang et al., 2002; Qiu et al., 1991; Chen et al., 1999; Ma et al., 1995; Lee et al., 2016; Huang Y. J. et al., 2008; Li et al., 2012; Guo et al., 1993; Lou and Zuo, 1991; Kurlin and Zapesochnaya, 1986; Luo et al., 2005; Zhang, 2021; Liu et al., 2000; Dong et al., 2007; Qiu et al., 1989; Li et al., 1993
2	Daucosterol	C35H60O6	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana, R. sachalinensis, R. yunnanensis, R. dumulosa, R. sacra, R. henryi, R. himalensis, R. linearifolia, R. purpureoviridis	Yang et al., 2002; Qiu et al., 1991; Ma et al., 1995; Song et al., 2003; Qu et al., 2020; Michels et al., 2020; Guo et al., 1993; Kurlin and Zapesochnaya, 1986; Zhang, 2021; Wang J. X. et al., 2006; Lou and Zuo, 1990; Qiu et al., 1989; Peng et al., 1994
3	β-Sitosterol 3-O-β-D-galactopyranoside	C35H60O6	R. fastigiata	Chen et al. (1991)
4	Schleicheol 1	C30H52O2	R. fastigiata	Gou et al. (2024)
5	Stigmasterol	C29H48O	R. kirilowii	Yang et al. (2011a)
6	Stigmast-4,6,8(14),22-tetraen-3-one	C29H42O	R. fastigiata	Gou et al. (2024)
7	β-Sitostenone	C29H48O	R. rosea, R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana	Zhao, 2016; Michels et al., 2020; Gou et al., 2024
8	6α-Hydroxystigmast-4-en-3-one	C29H48O2	R. fastigiata	Gou et al. (2024)
9	6β-Hydroxystigmast-4-en-3-one	C29H48O2	R. fastigiata	Gou et al. (2024)
10	3β-Hydroxyporiferast-5-en-7-one	C29H48O2	R. fastigiata	Gou et al. (2024)
11	Stigmastan-3-one	C29H50O	R. fastigiata	Gou et al. (2024)
12	Stigmastane-3,6-diol	C29H52O2	R. fastigiata	Gou et al. (2024)
13	Stigmastane-3,6-dione	C29H48O2	R. wallichiana	Zhao (2016)
14	Ergosterol endoperoxide	C28H44O3	R. fastigiata	Gou et al. (2024)

FIGURE 7.

Structures of steroids.

3.8. Other compounds

Beyond the aforementioned major phytochemical classes, Rhodiola species also produce alkanols, olefinic alcohols, alkanes, anthraquinones, and several other unclassified metabolites, further contributing to their chemical diversity. The details of these compounds are presented in Table 9 and Figure 8.

TABLE 9.

Other compounds from Rhodiola species.

No.	Compounds	Molecular formula	Source of species	References
1	Glycerin	C3H8O3	R. wallichiana	Chai (2015)
2	sec-Butyl-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C10H20O6	R. wallichiana	Zhao et al. (2016)
3	3-Methyl-1-butanol β-D-glucopyranoside	C11H22O6	R. rosea	Ma (2006)
4	(R,Z)-2-Methyl-2-hepten-1,6-diol	C8H16O2	R. rosea	Lee et al. (2016)
5	Creoside II	C14H26O7	R. crenulata	Nakamura et al. (2008)
6	(Z)-2-Methyl-6-oxo-2-hepten-1-ol	C8H14O2	R. rosea	Lee et al. (2016)
7	(Z)-Creoside I	C14H24O7	R. crenulata, R. rosea	Lee et al., 2016; Nakamura et al., 2008
8	(E)-2-Methyl-6-oxo-2-hepten-1-ol	C8H14O2	R. rosea	Kim et al. (2017)
9	(E)-Creoside I	C14H24O7	R. rosea	Lee et al. (2016)
10	(E)-2-Methyl-6,6-dimethoxy-2-hepten-1-ol	C10H20O3	R. rosea	Kim et al. (2017)
11	1-Octen-3-ol 3-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C14H26O6	R. fastigiata	Yang et al. (2002)
12	Hexyl β-D-glucopyranoside	C12H24O6	R. crenulata, R. rosea, R. kirilowii, R. quadrifida	Nakamura et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2024b; Huang Y. J. et al., 2008; Yoshikawa et al., 1996
13	Creoside IV	C17H32O10	R. crenulata, R. rosea	Nakamura et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2024b
14	Octyl β-D-glucopyranoside	C14H28O6	R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al. (2007)
15	8-Hydroxyoctyl-β-D-glucopyranoside	C14H28O7	R. rosea	Liu et al. (2024b)
16	1-Octyl-α-D-arabinofuranosyl(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C19H36O10	R. sachalinensis	Nakamura et al. (2007)
17	Rhodiooctanoside	C19H36O10	R. crenulata, R. kirilowii, R. quadrifida, R. sacra	Nakamura et al., 2008; Huang Y. J. et al., 2008; Yoshikawa et al., 1996; Yoshikawa et al., 1997
18	n-Undecane	C11H24	R. sachalinensis	Ding et al. (2018)
19	n-Nonadecane	C19H40	R. crenulata	Li et al. (2012)
20	1-Nonadecanol	C19H40O	R. purpureoviridis	Ma et al. (1995)
21	n-Docosane	C22H46	R. pamiroalaica	Liu et al. (2000)
22	1-Docosanol	C22H46O	R. fastigiata, R. purpureoviridis	Ma et al., 1995; Gou et al., 2024
23	1-Tetracosanol	C24H50O	R. fastigiata, R. wallichiana	Zhang, 2021; Gou et al., 2024
24	1-Hexacosanol	C26H54O	R. crenulata, R. yunnanensis	Li et al., 2012; Guo et al., 1993
25	1-Heptacosanol	C27H56O	R. wallichiana, R. purpureoviridis	Ma et al., 1995; Zhang, 2021
26	Octacosyl acetate	C30H60O2	R. yunnanensis	Guo et al. (1993)
27	n-Pentatriacontane	C35H72	R. sachalinensis	Ding et al. (2018)
28	n-Heptatriacontane	C37H76	R. henryi	Lou and Zuo (1991)
29	Algidin	C13H22O8	R. tangutica	Pangarova et al. (1975)
30	5-Hydroxymethylfurfural	C6H6O3	R. wallichiana	Ou et al. (2020)
31	Cuminyl β-D-glucopyranoside	C16H24O6	R. rosea	Tang et al. (2020)
32	Cuminyl α-L-arabinopyranosyl(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H32O10	R. rosea	Tang et al. (2020)
33	Cuminyl α-L-arabinofuranosyl(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H32O10	R. rosea	Tang et al. (2020)
34	Crenulatanoside B	C24H38O12	R. crenulata	Yang et al. (2012b)
35	β-Carotene	C40H56	R. rosea	Zhang et al. (2022)
36	Lutein	C40H56O2	R. rosea	Zhang et al. (2022)
37	5,7-Dihydroxychromone	C9H6O4	R. wallichiana	Zhao (2016)
38	Emodin	C15H10O5	R. sachalinensis	Ding et al. (2018)
39	Chrysophanol	C15H10O4	R. yunnanensis	Guo et al. (1993)
40	Chrysophanol 8-O-β-D-glucopyranoside	C21H20O9	R. crenulata, R. dumulosa	Wang J. X. et al., 2006; Sun et al., 2020
41	D-Pantothenic acid	C9H17NO5	R. imbricata	Tayade et al. (2013)
42	2(3H)-Benzothiazolethione	C7H5NS2	R. sachalinensis	Han et al. (2011)
43	Nicotinic acid	C6H5NO2	R. imbricata	Tayade et al. (2013)
44	Nicotinamide	C6H6N2O	R. imbricata	Tayade et al. (2013)
45	Pyridoxine	C8H11NO3	R. imbricata	Tayade et al. (2013)
46	Uridine	C9H12O6N2	R. crenulata	Qu et al. (2020)
47	Xylogranatinin	C9H8N2O3	R. crenulata	Liu et al. (2024a)
48	Sudan III	C22H16N4O	R. sachalinensis	Ding et al. (2018)
49	Thiamine	C12H17N4OS+	R. imbricata	Tayade et al. (2013)
50	Adenosine	C10H13N5O4	R. crenulata	Ren et al. (2021)
51	Riboflavin	C17H20N4O6	R. imbricata	Tayade et al. (2013)

FIGURE 8.

Structures of other compounds.

In summary, as the first step toward discovering chemical markers for Rhodiola species identification, this comprehensive phytochemical review clarifies the current research progress on the chemical constituents in the genus Rhodiola. It reveals an exceptionally rich and diverse chemical profile, with over 500 compounds isolated and identified from the genus into eight structural classes. The remarkable chemical diversity poses one of the notable challenges for marker discovery, as the complex matrix—especially a large number of compounds with similar structures or polarities—increases the technical difficulty of achieving effective chromatographic separation of potential marker compounds.

Critically, the compiled data provides a clear baseline for the preliminary qualitative understanding of the phytochemical composition across different Rhodiola species. On the one hand, the compiled data, as summarized in Tables 2–9, underscore the fundamental fact that the vast majority of identified constituents are not exclusive to a single species but shared across multiple ones, reflecting the chemical similarities among closely related species. This constitutes another notable challenge for marker discovery, substantially reducing the likelihood of identifying strictly species-specific compounds. On the other hand, the compiled data reveal clear interspecific chemical differences at the qualitative level, laying an initial foundation for Rhodiola species identification based on chemical constituents. Specifically, while most constituents are shared across multiple species, their distribution ranges within the genus Rhodiola vary greatly. The interspecific differences therefore lie primarily in the distinct combinations of shared compounds among different species. It should be noted that although a small subset of compounds have so far been isolated or detected only in individual species, they may not necessarily serve as valid species-specific markers for Rhodiola species identification, given that their strict interspecific exclusivity remains unverified and their practical applicability in routine detection requires further confirmation.

Meanwhile, the comprehensive compound inventory presented in this review—encompassing chemical names, molecular formulas, chemical structures, and botanical sources of all documented compounds—constitutes an essential chemical constituent database for Rhodiola species. As a valuable supplementary outcome of this review, the database serves as a key reference for qualitative chemical analysis of various Rhodiola species. It will provide standardized information to support compound identification and facilitate the systematic screening of chemical markers for distinguishing different Rhodiola species in future research.

4. Discussion

Chemical constituent-based species identification is a crucial yet technically challenging aspect of Chinese herbal medicine identification, especially when authenticating the botanical sources of raw materials used in herbal preparations. The species identification issues associated with Rhodiola stand as a prototypical example in this field. Despite inherent difficulties, seeking potential chemical markers for Rhodiola species remains imperative to address the practical need for authenticating raw materials in Rhodiola preparations, thereby strengthening market supervision and mitigating adulteration risks. Building upon the above review of chemical constituents in the genus Rhodiola, the following discussion further puts forward new insights and strategies that offer concrete research direction to tackle current challenges.

4.1. Limitations of species-specific compounds for Rhodiola species identification

The conventional approach to chemical constituent-based species identification prioritizes seeking species-specific compounds as ideal markers. However, while interspecific differences in chemical profiles do exist (Ma et al., 2021), two fundamental obstacles inherently hinder the discovery of such compounds as reliable chemical markers: (1) pronounced interspecific phytochemical similarities (Li et al., 2019) stemming from close phylogenetic relationships, which make truly species-specific compounds exceedingly rare and greatly reduce the likelihood of finding them; and (2) considerable intraspecific phytochemical variability (Liu et al., 2013) induced by extrinsic factors (e.g., geographic origin, plant age, harvest time, and storage conditions), which means that even a putatively specific compound may be present at low abundance or be absent in some individuals of the species, thus failing to serve as a stable identification marker.

Our review in this paper fully reflects the interspecific similarities mentioned above, demonstrating that most identified compounds are shared across multiple Rhodiola species. While interspecific differences are also clearly illustrated in the review—particularly evidenced by certain compounds reported so far in only a single species—none of these have been formally designated as identification markers for their respective species in published literature. This situation is likely attributed to two primary reasons: first, the species specificity and intraspecific stability of these compounds remain unvalidated; second, they may fail to meet key requirements for routine analysis, including (1) effective chromatographic resolution from compounds with similar polarity or structure, (2) commercial availability of reference standards, and (3) sufficient natural abundance to ensure reliable detection—even after extraction or processing. Consequently, it should be recognised that relying solely on the presence/absence of species-specific compounds for Rhodiola species identification poses considerable practical challenges.

4.2. Content levels/ratios as potential markers for Rhodiola species identification

Traditionally, chemical constituents shared among multiple Rhodiola species (e.g., salidroside, tyrosol, rhodionin, and gallic acid) have been excluded as diagnostic markers for species identification. Although these constituents are universally recognized as bioactive compounds (Ji et al., 2025; Wang et al., 2026; Choe et al., 2012), their ubiquitous distribution across nearly all chemically investigated Rhodiola species (Zhu et al., 2024; Li and Zhang, 2008) limits their utility for species identification in most studies. Instead, their contents are routinely recommended for quality control purposes.

However, a critical oversight persists that the reported significant chemical differences between closely related species in most studies are primarily derived from quantitative comparison of shared phytochemicals rather than qualitative presence/absence (Ma et al., 2021; Liu et al., 2013). In other words, these shared compounds exist across multiple species but exhibit highly variable content levels among different ones. This suggests that we should move beyond the prevailing paradigm of solely pursuing species-specific compounds and strategically incorporate quantitative data into species identification frameworks.

In fact, quantitative approaches have already demonstrated promise in Rhodiola species identification. Cinnamic alcohol derivatives (rosavin, rosarin, and rosin, collectively termed “rosavins”) were originally claimed to be unique to R. rosea in a few earlier papers. However, with continuous advances in analytical techniques and expanded sampling/species coverage, evidence from subsequent studies has revealed their presence in some congeneric species (e.g., R. crenulata, R. kirilowii, and R. sachalinensis, as reviewed above), albeit at markedly lower concentrations (Shao et al., 2004; Ma et al., 2008). Thus, the diagnostic value of rosavins for R. rosea lies not in exclusivity but in their substantially higher content relative to other Rhodiola species—a more accurate way to distinguish R. rosea than relying on claimed absolute specificity. As noted in the Introduction, this quantitative principle (i.e., quantifying rosavins content) is already utilized to detect adulteration in R. rosea preparations (Booker et al., 2016b; Ma et al., 2011). Although current applications of the content are limited to distinguishing R. rosea from other related species, this case clearly illustrates the potential of content levels in Rhodiola species identification.

Furthermore, content ratios serve as a crucial complementary dimension to absolute content data, meriting focused attention in Rhodiola species identification. For a given species, phytochemical contents frequently vary significantly due to factors such as geographic origin, plant age, and harvest time, sometimes resulting in intraspecific variation surpassing interspecific differences. In contrast, the content ratios between certain compounds may remain relatively stable to a large extent, thereby offering enhanced diagnostic reliability for particular species. As early as 2013, Wieland Peschel put forward the preliminary idea of utilizing content ratios for R. rosea authentication (Peschel et al., 2013). Although this promising idea remains unexplored and unvalidated in any Rhodiola species to date, to the best of our knowledge, filling this gap through systematic investigation and application of these relatively stable ratios may provide a potential solution to the current limitations of chemical constituent-based Rhodiola species identification.

4.3. Enhancing the feasibility of Rhodiola species identification with a hierarchical “chemical characteristics + classification tree” framework

In the previous section, we proposed an upgraded strategy for identifying Rhodiola species based on chemical constituents. This approach shifts the research focus of chemical markers from only species-specific compounds to broader chemical characteristics. In this context, this term differs from “features” commonly used in chemometrics, where the latter generally refers to raw or processed analytical data (e.g., peak areas, mass spectrometry fragments). For this work, chemical characteristics are herein defined as encompassing species-specific compounds, content levels, and content ratios. By broadening the research scope of chemical markers, this strategy no longer relies solely on the presence or absence of species-specific compounds for species identification, thereby substantially increasing the probability of discovering valid chemical markers.

Nevertheless, deciphering a single, definitive chemical characteristic unique to each Rhodiola species may still be challenging, since, as concluded from our review, the interspecific chemical differences in this genus are mainly manifested as distinct combinations of shared compounds. Given this distribution pattern of chemical constituents among Rhodiola species, we propose adopting a hierarchical framework that integrates chemical characteristics within a classification tree for stepwise identification. It first uses highly discriminative chemical characteristics for broad categorization, then applies secondary characteristics to further subdivide each category, and continues until the target species are unambiguously identified.

Building upon the expanded scope of chemical markers outlined above, our proposed framework further overcomes the inherent limitation of the conventional identification paradigm—seeking single species-specific markers for direct one-step species identification. By contrast, this framework employs a multi-step discrimination mode to progressively narrow down the identification scope. Such a design is better aligned with the actual interspecific chemical distribution patterns observed in the genus Rhodiola. As a result, the hierarchical “chemical characteristics + classification tree” framework reduces the analytical complexity of deciphering intricate chemical profiles, which in turn enhances the feasibility of chemical constituent-based Rhodiola species identification.

4.4. An integrated future research plan for Rhodiola species identification

To tackle the challenge of identifying Rhodiola species via their chemical constituents, the previous section analyzed the limitations of relying solely on species-specific compounds, argued for the potential of using content levels/ratios as complementary markers, and innovatively proposed a hierarchical “chemical characteristics + classification tree” framework to enhance the feasibility of species identification. Despite their great potential, these insights and strategies remain largely theoretical at present and necessitate validation through extensive, systematic data.

There is rich literature on the isolation, identification, and quantification of chemical constituents in Rhodiola species, yet the available studies are highly fragmented: different research groups concentrate on distinct Rhodiola species, target varying sets of chemical constituents, and employ inconsistent technical parameters (Polumackanycz et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2024). Consequently, the existing data are scattered and incomplete, failing to support cross-species verifications of species-specific compounds or meaningful comparisons of content levels/ratios. This makes it difficult to integrate them into a coherent dataset suitable for in-depth analysis of the chemical characteristics of various Rhodiola species. In other words, achieving the goal of Rhodiola species identification based on chemical constituents necessitates systematic and comprehensive research efforts. Herein, we briefly outline our corresponding research plan for Rhodiola species identification.

• Step 1: review of chemical constituents

This paper has already completed the first and fundamental step in our research plan. It systematically compiles the currently reported chemical constituents from various members of this genus to provide a macroscopic overview of current research progress on Rhodiola phytochemistry. The results preliminarily reveal a remarkable chemical diversity in Rhodiola species, along with both interspecific chemical similarities and differences from a qualitative perspective. Furthermore, the consolidated phytochemical data herein can serve as a foundational database, which will offer a “targeted screening list” for subsequent qualitative identification of chemical constituents in different Rhodiola species via UPLC-MS. This will help circumvent the inaccuracy associated with “blind detection” in compound identification. Thus, this review creates a necessary prerequisite for the subsequent experimental phases of our research project on chemical constituent-based Rhodiola species identification.

• Step 2: targeted sample collection

A systematic investigation of Rhodiola species currently used clinically and available commercially should be conducted to determine the target species for the present study. For each selected species, a sufficient number of samples must be collected, with full consideration given to key influencing factors such as origin, plant age, and harvest time to ensure both representativeness and comprehensiveness of the samples. This step is directly relevant to the credibility and persuasiveness of the final analytical results and conclusions.

• Step 3: UPLC-MS-based qualitative profiling

Systematic qualitative analysis of chemical constituents in the target Rhodiola species will be performed using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS). This analysis will utilize the chemical database established in this paper as a reference framework, and further match compounds with reference standards based on characteristic fragment ions and retention times for precise identification. Given that this step aims to comprehensively identify chemical constituents to the greatest extent (to ensure broader coverage of compounds for quantitative analysis in the next step), two critical aspects must be emphasized during the experiment: (1) screening suitable extraction conditions to simultaneously extract multi-class compounds, including phenylalkanoid derivatives, phenylpropanoids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and other classes; (2) optimizing chromatographic conditions (e.g., mobile phase composition, column temperature, gradient elution program) to maximize chromatographic resolution, enabling efficient separation and detection of a larger number of compounds.

• Step 4: UPLC-based quantitative analysis

For all compounds from different Rhodiola species that have been unambiguously identified through reference standard matching and exhibit satisfactory chromatographic separation, precise quantification will be performed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC). This step is designed to maximize the acquisition of accurate quantitative data, providing a robust analytical foundation for subsequent in-depth exploration of Rhodiola’s chemical characteristics.

• Step 5: multivariate data analysis for marker discovery

Based on the qualitative and quantitative analysis in the previous steps, the data representing three types of chemical information can be obtained: (1) the presence and absence of compounds across samples (reflected by non-zero/zero content values), (2) the content values of individual compounds, and (3) pairwise ratios between the quantified compound contents. Although these three types of data correspond to distinct chemical dimensions, they are all expressed as numerical variables and can therefore be integrated into a single unified dataset to serve as the foundation for subsequent multivariate analysis.

In terms of the analytical strategy for chemical marker discovery, we plan to adopt a stepwise screening workflow. This process begins with the screening of variables with high discriminatory power for species classification (e.g., principal component analysis to achieve data dimensionality reduction or to reveal the basis for natural clustering of different species) (Anowar et al., 2021). From these pre-screened variables, those that function as branching nodes of the classification tree are subsequently identified (e.g., decision tree algorithm to pinpoint the key nodes) (Tang et al., 2025). Finally, based on the actual measured values of these variables, the specific threshold values or value ranges for each branching node to distinguish different species can be further defined. Following this multivariate analytical pipeline, systematic mining and screening of chemical characteristics will be accomplished to establish a hierarchical “chemical characteristics + classification tree” framework. Within this framework, the stepwise differentiation of Rhodiola species is guided by three types of chemical characteristics: (1) species-specific compounds, (2) content levels, and (3) content ratios.

By implementing this systematic research plan, we aim to ultimately develop a reliable, practical chemical identification method for Rhodiola species. This method will provide the critical technical support needed to fundamentally solve the problem of raw material authentication in Rhodiola preparations, helping to combat adulteration, strengthen market supervision and ensure quality for Rhodiola products.

5. Conclusion

Given the frequent and potential adulteration in commercial Rhodiola preparations, developing an effective method to authenticate the species of raw materials is imperative for strengthening market supervision and ensuring product quality. As key identifying characteristics (morphological, microscopic, and genetic) are often degraded or destroyed during processing, a chemical constituent-based approach emerges as the most promising and valuable research avenue, with the core challenge and breakthrough point lying in the discovery of reliable chemical markers for Rhodiola species identification. This paper serves as the critical first step in addressing this challenge by comprehensively reviewing the current knowledge about chemical constituents of the genus Rhodiola. From a qualitative perspective, the review clarifies both the inherent difficulties and the potential feasibility of discovering such chemical markers: while the remarkable chemical diversity (as evidenced by over 500 compounds classified into eight major groups) and the pronounced interspecific similarities (most compounds are shared across multiple species) collectively complicate marker discovery, the observed interspecific differences (manifested as distinct combinatorial patterns of shared constituents and compounds currently known from single species) provide a promising foundation for developing a chemical constituent-based Rhodiola species identification method. Meanwhile, this comprehensive review also results in a chemical database, offering a “targeted screening list” for compound identification across various Rhodiola species during our subsequent research phases of marker discovery. In addition, we propose innovative strategies to enhance the feasibility of chemical constituent-based Rhodiola species identification: (1) shifting the research focus of chemical markers from solely pursuing species-specific compounds to exploring broader chemical characteristics (encompassing species-specific compounds, content levels, and content ratios); and (2) adopting a hierarchical “chemical characteristics + classification tree” framework for stepwise identification. Finally, we outline a systematic research plan to translate these theoretical strategies into practice, including the completed foundational review of chemical constituents, systematic sampling, UPLC-MS/UPLC-based chemical profiling, and advanced data analysis.

In summary, this paper provides both a comprehensive review of chemical constituents for Rhodiola species and a resulting compound database, which together lay a solid chemical foundation for the marker discovery research outlined in this work. The proposed insights, strategies and corresponding research plan collectively reflect a paradigm shift from seeking “single-point breakthroughs” toward implementing an “integrated, hierarchical framework,” offering a novel pathway to address the long-standing challenge of distinguishing closely related species based on chemical constituents. As a vital supplement to existing methodologies for Rhodiola species identification, such a method is particularly poised to resolve the difficulty of authenticating raw materials in processed preparations. It is anticipated that the subsequent research built upon this paper will play a pivotal role in combating market adulteration, strengthening market supervision, and ultimately safeguarding the quality of Rhodiola products.

Funding Statement

The author(s) declared that financial support was received for this work and/or its publication. This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 82274058) and Scientific and Technological Innovation Project of China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences (Nos. CI2023C005YG, CI2024E003).

Author contributions

JL: Data curation, Investigation, Writing – review and editing, Visualization, Formal Analysis, Writing – original draft. XS: Project administration, Supervision, Writing – review and editing. GL: Conceptualization, Writing – review and editing, Methodology, Funding acquisition.

Conflict of interest

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Generative AI statement

The author(s) declared that generative AI was not used in the creation of this manuscript.

Any alternative text (alt text) provided alongside figures in this article has been generated by Frontiers with the support of artificial intelligence and reasonable efforts have been made to ensure accuracy, including review by the authors wherever possible. If you identify any issues, please contact us.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.