The effect of the philosophy for children (P4C) education program in out-of-school learning settings on preschool children’s executive functioning skills

Abstract

Background

This study aims to investigate the impact of the Philosophy for Children (P4C) education program on preschool children’s executive functioning skills in an out-of-school learning environment.

Method

The study used a mixed-methods approach, combining a pre-test-post-test control group experimental design with in-depth interviews. Quantitative data were collected using the Executive Functioning Skills Scale (EFSS), developed by the researchers, while qualitative data were gathered through a Semi-Structured Interview Form. The research involved 37 children (17 in the experimental group and 20 in the control group) and 17 parents, who participated in a 16-session Out-of-School Learning Environment Philosophy for Children (OSLE-P4C) program held in various settings, including libraries, museums, and forests.

Results

Quantitative analyses conducted after the eight-week OSLE-P4C education program showed a significant improvement in the executive functioning skills of children in the experimental group (p < 0.05). The mean total executive functioning score of the experimental group (x̄ = 52.59) was notably higher than that of the control group (x̄ = 32.85). This large effect size (η² = 0.94) supports the program’s effectiveness. The retention test (x̄ = 56.71) indicated that the gains remained evident one month after the initial assessment. Qualitative results showed that the program led to tangible, positive changes in children, particularly in socialization, creativity, attention, and planning.

Conclusion

The quantitative and qualitative findings demonstrate that the OSLE-P4C training program contributes to the development of executive function skills in preschool children. Hands-on learning and exposure to diverse environments enhanced the program’s effectiveness.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12887-026-07155-0.

Introduction

The understanding of education has shifted from passively transmitting knowledge to a process where individuals actively construct their own experience. This change has helped recognize and promote learning as an active and open-ended practice that takes place in both formal and informal environments [23, 41]. Out-of-school learning spaces that encourage children’s natural curiosity and desire to explore support hands-on experiences, connecting knowledge to real-life situations. These environments, which are increasingly accessible today, contribute to the multidimensional nature of education and teaching, enabling children to learn by doing and experiencing, relate their knowledge to real-world contexts, and create lasting learning memories [20, 60]. However, growing urbanization and screen time during the 21st century are distancing children from nature and active exploration, which can harm their healthy development [47]. Therefore, giving children quality learning opportunities early in life is crucial for their future growth.

Early childhood is considered a crucial stage during which individuals experience the most rapid growth in cognitive, social, emotional, and physical domains [57]. The environmental richness and supportive interactions with adults during this period lay the foundation for children’s future development [4, 7]. International organizations, especially UNICEF, emphasize that rich and stimulating learning environments are crucial for child development and identify them as a key aspect of educational quality [65]. In this context, out-of-school learning environments provide unique opportunities to support children’s multidimensional growth.

Out-of-school learning is defined in the literature as inclusive and complementary learning [56] or education planned outside the classroom [30]. This concept includes a broad range that combines formal and informal learning processes. Out-of-school learning provides lasting benefits by enhancing children’s personal and social skills, environmental awareness, and interest in science [31, 43]. In this context, museums, libraries, botanical gardens, science centers, and natural areas such as forests are the most critical environments for this type of learning. Historically, out-of-school learning is rooted in a philosophy focused on nature and discussion, exemplified by schools like Aristotle’s Peripatetic School and Epicurus’ Garden School in Ancient Greece [3, 13]. This approach, which developed during the Enlightenment with the principles of rational thought and utilitarianism, was reinforced and incorporated into preschool education through Friedrich Fröbel’s Kindergarten movement [21], building on Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi’s idea that nature is the best teacher [38, 66]. John Dewey’s experimental philosophy of education further strengthened the idea in the 20th century that learning must be connected with real-life experiences [5, 19]. This rich historical heritage forms the foundation of today’s out-of-school learning approaches.

Out-of-school learning environments play a vital role in children’s cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development [30, 51]. These settings enhance higher-order cognitive skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, and creativity [32, 67], social abilities like cooperation, empathy, and social responsibility [2], and emotional skills including emotional regulation and self-confidence [30]. Natural environments support children’s physical and mental health through their stress-relieving effects [47].

Philosophy-based approaches are increasingly essential for developing 21st-century skills (critical thinking, creativity, collaboration), which are core objectives of education [40]. In this context, the Philosophy for Children (P4C) approach, developed by Matthew Lipman and Ann Margaret Sharp in the 1970s [57], aims to cultivate children’s higher-order thinking skills such as questioning, reasoning, critical analysis, and argument development [42, 46]. This approach draws on the Socratic method, social constructivism, and pragmatic philosophy [49], emphasizing a system of critical, creative, collaborative, and caring thinking [29, 39, 46].

It is emphasized that philosophy for children relates to executive functioning skills and metacognitive processes, both of which involve the regulation and monitoring of mental activities. Executive functioning skills generally include inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, whereas metacognition refers more specifically to an individual’s awareness and regulation of their own thinking processes. Although these constructs are conceptually related, they are not considered synonymous in contemporary theoretical frameworks [24, 55]. During a philosophical dialogue, children actively use executive functioning skills by inhibiting distractions (inhibitory control), reasoning and organizing their thoughts (working memory), and shifting between different perspectives (cognitive flexibility). Research conducted both domestically and internationally on this topic shows that nature-based activities [17, 51] and P4C-based applications [1, 53] are practical in developing children’s executive functioning skills.

However, the independent application of these approaches may involve certain pedagogical limitations. While P4C sessions conducted in classroom settings primarily rely on verbal discussion and abstract reasoning, out-of-school learning activities often emphasize exploration and experiential engagement. From this perspective, integrating Out-of-School Learning Environments (OSLE) and P4C may provide a complementary learning framework that combines experiential learning with structured philosophical inquiry.

In such an integrated model, the sensory-rich and authentic experiences offered by out-of-school settings can serve as meaningful stimuli for inquiry, reflection, and dialogue. Simultaneously, the P4C framework can support children in organizing, evaluating, and discussing these experiences through collaborative inquiry and philosophical dialogue. Consequently, integrating these approaches may foster the development of executive functioning skills, including working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility, as children connect concrete experiences with abstract reasoning, regulate their attention and behavior during dialogue, and consider multiple perspectives. Despite the theoretical complementarity of these approaches, there remains a lack of research examining how an integrated Out-of-School Learning Environment Philosophy for Children (OSLE-P4C) intervention influences the executive functioning skills of preschool children. To address this gap in the literature, the present study aims to determine the effect of the OSLE-P4C educational program on preschool children’s executive functioning skills.

Method

This part of the study, which investigates the impact of OSLE-P4C education program on preschool children’s executive functioning skills in out-of-school learning settings, provides information about the research model, study group, data collection tools, data collection method, and data analysis. This study was conducted and reported in accordance with the CONSORT guidelines [33] for randomized experimental studies.

Research model

In the study, a mixed-methods approach was employed, combining a pre-test-post-test control group experimental design with in-depth interviews to investigate the impact of the OSLE-P4C education program on preschool children’s executive functioning skills. Mixed methods are a common research approach in social, health, and behavioral sciences [14]. This approach seeks to find more comprehensive and detailed answers to research questions by combining quantitative and qualitative data collection methods [45]. Quantitative data emphasizes numerical and statistical analysis, while qualitative data focuses on an in-depth understanding of meanings and experiences. In the mixed-methods approach, both data types are analyzed separately and then integrated into a comprehensive knowledge through comparison and correlation of the findings. This enables researchers to obtain generalizable results and deepen their knowledge of the phenomena [15]. The method involves integrating a qualitative phase into a primarily quantitative experimental design [12]. In this context, the mixed-methods approach was employed in the study to demonstrate the program’s impact on children using numerical data and to gain insights into parents’ individual experiences and perspectives regarding the process. The symbolic structure of the embedded mixed-methods research design is presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Symbolic representation of the embedded mixed-methods research design

Group	Pre-test	Intervention	Post-test	Retention test	Qualitative phase
Experimental group	O₁	X (OSLE-P4C)	O₂	O₅	Q₁ (Parent interviews)
Control group	O₃	—	O₄	—	—

O₁, O₃ = Pre-test measurements (Executive Functioning Skills Scale), X = OSLE-P4C intervention (8 weeks), O₂, O₄ = Post-test measurements, O₅ = Retention test (4 weeks after intervention), Q₁ = Qualitative data (Semi-structured interviews with parents), — = No intervention/no qualitative phase applied

Study group

The study was conducted in the Eastern Anatolia region of Türkiye, involving children aged 60–72 months who attend independent preschools at various socioeconomic levels, as determined by opinions from teachers and administrators. Eastern Anatolia was selected because no prior studies had been conducted in the region and because the region reflects the demographic characteristics of Türkiye. Criterion sampling, a type of purposive sampling, was used to select participating children. Purposeful sampling enables in-depth research aligned with the study’s objectives [45]. This method is applicable when examining situations that meet certain conditions. Criterion sampling involves selecting individuals, events, objects, or situations that meet specific criteria relevant to the research [12]. In this context, children in both the experimental and control groups were selected according to specific inclusion and exclusion criteria.

Inclusion criteria

• Being between 60 and 72 months of age,

• Demonstrating typical developmental characteristics,

• Attending an independent preschool,

• Having written parental consent (from mother or father) to participate,

• Voluntarily agreeing to participate in the study.

Exclusion criteria

• Being outside the 60–72 month age range,

• Demonstrating atypical developmental characteristics,

• Declining participation despite parental consent,

• Showing irregular attendance or inability to maintain continuity during the intervention process.

Participants were selected using inclusion and exclusion criteria. The study was conducted in two independent kindergartens, each including 20 children, with group allocation performed at the preschool level using a cluster-allocated design. During implementation, three children initially assigned to the experimental group were excluded due to issues such as inconsistent attendance, family-related problems, or an inability to maintain continuity. As a result, the study included 17 children in the experimental group and 20 in the control group, and analyses were conducted on data from these children. Additionally, qualitative data were collected from the parents of the 17 children in the experimental group.

In terms of demographics, 58.8% of the children in the experimental group were girls, and 41.2% were boys. In the control group, 55% of the participants were girls and 45% were boys. None of the children in either group attended extracurricular courses outside of school. Regarding siblings, 76.5% of the experimental group’s children and 60% of the control group’s children had one or two siblings. In terms of parental education, 47% of fathers in the experimental group were university graduates, compared to 58% in the control group. Additionally, 58.8% of fathers in the experimental group and 75% in the control group worked in public institutions. For mothers, 47.1% of those with children in the experimental group and 55% in the control group were university graduates. Furthermore, 11.8% of mothers in the experimental group and 60% in the control group were employed.

Data collection tools

The “General Information Form,” the “Executive Functioning Skills Scale,” and the “Semi-Structured Interview Form” for parents were used as data collection tools in the study.

General information form

This form was designed to collect sociodemographic information about the children and parents participating in the study. It includes information such as the child’s gender, preschool education history, participation in extracurricular activities, and the number of siblings. The form also collects demographic data, including the mother’s and father’s educational background and occupation.

Executive Functioning Skills Scale (EFSS)

EFSS, developed by the researchers as part of this study, is designed to assess the executive functioning skills of children aged 60 to 72 months [16]. The development and validation process of the scale were conducted in accordance with the stages outlined in the literature [12].

The theoretical framework of the EFSS is based on Piaget’s [54] Cognitive Development Theory, Gardner [25] Multiple Intelligences Theory, and focuses on three core domains: Working Memory, Inhibitory Control, and Cognitive Flexibility [24, 55]. To ensure content validity, an initial item pool of 34 items was created based on a comprehensive literature review and semi-structured interviews with 11 preschool education experts. The Content Validity Index (CVI) and Content Validity Ratio (CVR) were calculated as 1.00, confirming the expert consensus on the items.

The study group for the scale development process consisted of a total of 516 children attending independent preschools. To ensure the scientific rigor of the scale’s construct validity, this sample was divided into two distinct, independent groups in accordance with the sampling criteria of at least five to ten times the number of items [45]. The factor structure was first explored through Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) with a group of 172 children, and subsequently verified through Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) with a separate group of 344 children. Crucially, the 37 children who participated in the experimental and control groups of the broader study were kept entirely independent from the scale development process. This separation was maintained to eliminate potential bias and to ensure that the psychometric properties of the EFSS were established on a separate population before being applied in the experimental phase of the research.

Following the factor analyses, the final scale was refined to 23 items across three subscales. The EFSS is a four-point Likert-type scale (scored 0–3), specifically designed with original visuals to engage children in this age group.

• Working Memory (12 items): Evaluates short-term memory, verbal processing, and visual memory. Scores range from 0–36 (0–12: low; 13–24: medium; 25–36: high). Cronbach’s Alpha: 0.820.

• Cognitive Flexibility (6 items): Measures the ability to shift focus and initiate tasks. Scores range from 0–18 (0–6: low; 7–12: medium; 13–18: high). Cronbach’s Alpha: 0.711.

• Inhibitory Control (5 items): Assesses impulse control and planned response. Scores range from 0–15 (0–5: low; 6–10: medium; 11–15: high). Cronbach’s Alpha: 0.715.

The CFA confirmed the three-factor model with excellent fit indices: CMIN/DF = 1.480 (below the threshold of 2), GFI = 0.926, and AGFI = 0.906 (both above 0.90). The RMSEA was calculated as 0.037, indicating a very low error margin and a good fit [10, 34, 37]. These results demonstrate that the EFSS is a valid and reliable instrument for measuring executive functions in the 60–72 month age group.

Semi-structured interview form

This is a five-item form created with input from field experts, including faculty members, to assess the effectiveness of the implemented program [16]. The form was administered face-to-face through individual post-program interviews to collect the opinions of parents with children in the experimental group.

OSLE-P4C education program development process

The program aims to foster children’s curiosity, questioning, and critical thinking skills by drawing on the progressive and existentialist movements within philosophy, reflected in John Dewey’s educational approach. The theoretical framework is rooted in the developmental characteristics of children aged 60–72 months and considers the needs of parents, teachers, and society. The program also seeks to offer an integrated learning experience, incorporating the principles of Piaget [54], Bronfenbrenner [9], and Bruner [11]. Additionally, the program was developed using the Taba [58]—Tyler [62] program development model, following the systematic stages of program creation. Before implementation, needs analysis forms were distributed to gather input from teachers and parents regarding the activities and environments to be included. Based on this needs assessment and the theoretical foundation, the primary goal of the program is to enhance children’s executive functioning skills through the OSLE-P4C education program, implemented in out-of-school learning settings such as libraries, museums, and forests for children aged 60–72 months.

Materials from P4C books

In selecting the P4C books that make up the core of the program, a checklist was created based on expert opinions, including factors such as creativity, cause-and-effect relationships, values education, and inquiry. Twenty illustrated children’s books were selected by researchers based on recommendations from P4C experts. These books were carefully and systematically evaluated by five separate children’s book specialists using the checklist, and a separate report was prepared for each evaluation. From this process, 16 main books and four backup books were selected, totaling 20 books for the sessions. This method ensured that the books chosen aligned with the program’s goals, supported philosophical inquiry, and were methodologically sound. Because it is easier for the 60–72-month age group to learn and remember with tangible objects, materials were prepared for each book, and images of these materials are shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1.

Materials for P4C books

Implementation process

The planned training sessions were held over eight weeks in a study to assess the impact of the OSLE-P4C education program on preschool children’s executive functioning skills. Before implementation, observations were made regarding the physical features of the participating schools, and the researchers met with the teachers and children at the institutions. The first author carried out various activities with the children who would participate in the survey over the course of a week. As part of the program, visits were made to the library, museum, and forest, in that order, with prior permission from the institutions. At the library, a warm-up activity was conducted with the children, followed by a P4C activity, and then two additional activities tailored to both the library and the book’s content. This way, the OSLE-P4C education program was completed at the library through five sessions. The exact process was then repeated in five sessions at the museum. After the museum sessions, a total of 15 sessions were conducted, including five sessions in the forest. The final session of the OSLE-P4C training program took place in the forest, during which an evaluation was performed. The detailed weekly implementation schedule of the program across the different learning environments is presented in Table 2.

Table 2.

Weekly implementation schedule of the OSLE-P4C program across learning environments

Week	Day	Session	Setting	Book used
Week 1	Tuesday	Session 1	Library	Big Boys Cry – Jonty Howley
	Friday	Session 2	Library	Surprise Guest – Jessica Courtney Tickle
Week 2	Tuesday	Session 3	Library	The Boy Who Doesn’t Like Blue/The Girl Who Doesn’t Like Pink – Patricia Fitti
	Friday	Session 4	Library	Two for Me, One for You – Jörg Mühle
Week 3	Tuesday	Session 5	Library	The Littlest Yak: Home is Where the Herd Is – Lu Fraser
	Friday	Session 6	Museum	Suki’s Kimono – Chieri Uegaki
Week 4	Tuesday	Session 7	Museum	Pezzetino – Leo Lionni
	Friday	Session 8	Museum	No Matter What – Debi Gliori
Week 5	Tuesday	Session 9	Museum	Hazelnut Cake – Benas Berantas
	Friday	Session 10	Museum	Happy Hippopotamus – Carol Liddiment
Week 6	Tuesday	Session 11	Forest	Frederick – Leo Lionni
	Friday	Session 12	Forest	Stellaluna – Janell Cannon
Week 7	Tuesday	Session 13	Forest	Roo – The Roaring Dinosaur – David Bedford
	Friday	Session 14	Forest	The Giving Tree – Shel Silverstein
Week 8	Tuesday	Session 15	Forest	That’s Me – Michel Piquemal & Thomas Baas
	Friday	Session 16	Forest (Evaluation Session)	The Bear Who Would Not Share – Oakley Graham

After each session, written notes were shared with parents to inform them about the content of the activities, the themes discussed, and their children’s participation during the implementation process. This communication aimed to ensure transparency, strengthen school–family collaboration, and support continuity between the learning environments and home. Images related to the implementation process are presented in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.

Visuals related to library, museum, and forest activities

Data collection

The research was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Education Sciences at Erzincan Binali Yıldırım University on March 31, 2023 (Protocol No: 03/15). All procedures were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations, as well as the Declaration of Helsinki. Permission for the study was also obtained from the Ministry of National Education and the respective school administrations. The scope and purpose of the study were explained to the parents through face-to-face interviews. To protect participants’ rights and ensure voluntary participation, parents were provided with a comprehensive informed consent form detailing the study’s objectives, duration, data confidentiality protocols, and the right to withdraw at any stage. Consequently, on January 24, 2025, written informed consent was obtained from both the mothers and fathers of all participating children.

Before beginning the intervention, the “Executive Functioning Skills Scale” was administered to children in both the experimental and control groups. After 16 sessions, the same scale was administered again as a final assessment to children in both groups. To evaluate the intervention’s effectiveness, qualitative data were collected using a “Semi-Structured Interview Form” designed for parents. To assess the long-term effects, the Executive Functioning Skills Scale was re-administered to children in the experimental group approximately one month after the final test. This comprehensive process provided both quantitative and qualitative data on the program’s overall effectiveness.

Data analysis

The data were analyzed by entering the responses from the experimental and control groups into the Executive Functioning Skills Scale in the SPSS software. Since both groups had sample sizes of less than 30, the normality assumption was tested using the Shapiro–Wilk test, along with the calculation of skewness and kurtosis values. Although some sub-dimensions showed significance in Shapiro–Wilk (p < 0.05), all skewness and kurtosis values remained within the acceptable range of −3 and + 3 [28], justifying the use of parametric tests. Additionally, to ensure statistical robustness despite the small sample size, effect sizes were calculated for all comparisons, and post-hoc power analysis confirmed that the study maintained sufficient statistical power (1-β > 0.80) due to the high magnitude of the intervention’s impact. Thus, t-tests and ANOVA were applied for the pretest, posttest, and retention tests. Effect sizes were reported using eta squared statistics. In addition to p values and effect sizes, 95% confidence intervals were considered in the interpretation of the primary outcomes. For independent-samples t-tests, eta squared (η²) values were calculated using the formula η² = t²/(t² + df). For repeated-measures and mixed-design ANOVA analyses, η² values reported in the tables correspond to partial eta squared statistics obtained from SPSS outputs. In addition, mixed-design ANOVA analyses were conducted to directly examine the Group × Measurement interaction effects and to determine whether changes over time differed significantly between the experimental and control groups. To enhance methodological rigor, the statistical procedures and interpretation of the findings were reviewed by three experts in measurement and evaluation, and their feedback was incorporated into the final analysis process.

In the qualitative part of the study, interviews were conducted with parents to gain a detailed understanding of the program’s effects. Data from 17 parents (either mother or father) in the experimental group were analyzed through content analysis. The process categorized the parents’ experiences, perceptions, and observations about the program into thematic groups. To minimize bias and improve the reliability of the coding, two researchers independently coded the data. The inter-coder agreement percentage was calculated using the formula Reliability = Agreement/(Agreement + Disagreement) × 100 [50]. The coefficients ranged from 0.89 to 0.99, showing that the qualitative data analysis had a high level of consistency. To further enhance the validity of the qualitative data, the parents’ responses to the interview questions were supported by direct quotes in the findings section. These quotes were coded as P1, P2, P3 … P17 to maintain anonymity. As a result of the content analysis, four main themes emerged: the contribution of the applications, thoughts about the program, changes in children, and the influence of the method and materials. Sub-themes were organized under these core themes.

Findings

The quantitative and qualitative findings of the study are presented below under separate headings.

Quantitative findings

This section presents the findings derived from the study’s quantitative data. To evaluate the effect of the OSLE-P4C education program on the executive functioning skills of children aged 60–72 months, the pretest, posttest, and persistence score averages of the children in the experimental and control groups were examined. The pretest and posttest score averages, along with the independent sample t-test results, are presented in Table 3.

Table 3.

Pre-test and post-test mean scores of the EFSS and its subscales and independent samples t-test results for children in the experimental and control groups

			Pre-test				Post-test
Scales	Measure	n	x̄	SD	t	p	x̄	SD	t	p	η2
Cognitive flexibility	Experimental	17	9.59	1.07			15.00	0.87	7.57	.00	.79
	Control	20	9.05	0.55	0.46	.64	10.20	2.48
Short-term memory	Experimental	17	3.59	0.70			8.59	1.32	5.90	.00	.71
	Control	20	4.70	0.46	-1.43	.16	5.45	1.82
Processing verbal	Experimental	17	5.76	0.47			8.59	1.69	5.32	.00	.70
	Control	20	5.30	0.80	0.48	.64	5.00	2.29
Visual memory	Experimental	17	5.47	0.73			8.94	1.30	6.66	.00	.75
	Control	20	4.60	0.46	1.04	.31	5.35	1.87
Working memory total	Experimental	17	14.76	1.36			26.12	2.82	11.16	.00	.88
	Control	20	14.60	0.76	0.11	.91	15.80	2.78
Inhibitory control	Experimental	17	7.12	0.55			11.47	1.46	7.60	.00	.79
	Control	20	6.75	0.46	0.52	.61	6.85	2.11
Executive functioning skills total	Experimental	17	31.47	2.35			52.59	3.06	16.42	.00	.94
	Control	20	30.40	1.10	0.43	.67	32.85	4.06

df: 35; p < .05

As shown in Table 3, independent samples t tests conducted at the pretest stage indicated no statistically significant differences between the experimental and control groups across any EFSS subscale or the total score (p > 0.05). These findings demonstrate that the two groups were equivalent in terms of executive functioning skills prior to the implementation of the OSLE-P4C program.

In contrast, posttest comparisons revealed statistically significant differences between the experimental and control groups across all EFSS subscales and the total score. Significant differences were found for Cognitive Flexibility, t(35) = 7.57, p < 0.01, η² = 0.79; Short-Term Memory, t(35) = 5.90, p < 0.01, η² = 0.71; Verbal Processing, t(35) = 5.32, p < 0.01, η² = 0.70; Visual Memory, t(35) = 6.66, p < 0.01, η² = 0.75; Working Memory Total, t(35) = 11.16, p < 0.01, η² = 0.88; Inhibitory Control, t(35) = 7.60, p < 0.01, η² = 0.79; and Executive Functioning Skills Total, t(35) = 16.42, p < 0.01, η² = 0.94.

The experimental group obtained higher mean scores than the control group across all dimensions (e.g., Cognitive Flexibility: x̄ = 15.00 vs. 10.20; Working Memory Total: x̄ = 26.12 vs. 15.80; Inhibitory Control: x̄ = 11.47 vs. 6.85). Similarly, the total Executive Functioning Skills score was higher in the experimental group (x̄ = 52.59) compared to the control group (x̄ = 32.85).

As shown in Table 4, the mixed-design ANOVA revealed significant Group × Measurement interaction effects across all EFSS subscales and the total score (p < 0.05). These findings indicate that the change over time differed significantly between the experimental and control groups. The interaction effects explained 26% of the variance in Cognitive Flexibility, 52% in Short-Term Memory, 15% in Verbal Processing, 24% in Visual Memory, 64% in Working Memory Total, 43% in Inhibitory Control, and 63% in Executive Functioning Skills Total.

Table 4.

Pretest and posttest EFSS and subscale scores of the experimental and control groups and results of the mixed-design ANOVA analyses

Subscale	Source of Variation	SS	df	MS	F	p	η2p
Cognitive Flexibility	Intergroup
	Experimental/Control	8829.85	1	8829.85	959.96	.00	.96
	Error	321.93	35	9.20
	Intra-group
	Measurement (Pre-test/Post-test)	197.83	1	197.83	29.80	.00	.46
	Group × Measurement	83.45	1	83.45	12.57	.00	.26
	Error	232.33	35	6.64
Short-Term Memory	Intergroup
	Experimental/Control	2278.22	1	2278.22	349.49	.00	.91
	Error	228.16	35	6.52
	Intra-group
	Measurement (Pre-test/Post-test)	155.03	1	155.03	68.39	.00	.66
	Group × Measurement	85.30	1	85.30	37.63	.00	.52
	Error	79.35	35	2.27
Verbal Processing	Intergroup
	Experimental/Control	2792.44	1	2792.44	336.97	.00	.91
	Error	290.04	35	8.29
	Intra-group
	Measurement (Pre-test/Post-test)	29.26	1	29.26	6.35	.02	.15
	Group × Measurement	44.83	1	44.83	9.72	.00	.15
	Error	161.33	35	4.61
Visual Memory	Intergroup
	Experimental/Control	2726.87	1	2726.87	446.96	.00	.93
	Error	213.53	35	6.10
	Intra-group
	Measurement (Pre-test/Post-test)	81.84	1	81.84	26.77	.00	.43
	Group × Measurement	34.01	1	34.01	11.12	.00	.24
	Error	106.99	35	3.06
Working Memory Total	Intergroup
	Experimental/Control	23,345.93	1	23,345.93	1152.00	.00	.97
	Error	709.28	35	20.26
	Intra-group
	Measurement (Pre-test/Post-test)	723.99	1	723.99	94.01	.00	.73
	Group × Measurement	473.62	1	473.62	61.50	.00	.64
	Error	269.54	35	7.70
Inhibitory Control	Intergroup
	Experimental/Control	4760.38	1	4760.38	966.10	.00	.96
	Error	172.46	35	4.93
	Intra-group
	Measurement (Pre-test/Post-test)	91.10	1	91.10	29.03	.00	.45
	Group × Measurement	83.10	1	83.10	26.48	.00	.43
	Error	109.84	35	3.14
Executive Functioning Skills Total	Intergroup
	Experimental/Control	99,702.19	1	99,702.19	2358.86	.00	.98
	Error	1479.35	35	42.27
	Intra-group
	Measurement (Pre-test/Post-test)	2551.99	1	2551.99	93.79	.00	.73
	Group × Measurement	1601.13	1	1601.13	58.84	.00	.63
	Error	952.36	35	27.21

Effect size values correspond to partial eta squared statistics obtained from the mixed-design ANOVA. Error terms are reported separately for intergroup and intra-group effects. Statistical significance was evaluated at p <.05

df degrees of freedom, η²p partial eta squared

As shown in Table 5, repeated-measures ANOVA results for the experimental group indicated statistically significant differences among pretest, posttest, and retention test scores across all EFSS subscales and the total score (p < 0.05). The effect sizes (η²) ranged from 0.96 to 0.99, indicating very large effects.

Table 5.

Results of repeated ANOVA tests for the mean scores of children in the experimental group on the EFSS and its subscales across pretest, posttest, and retention test (n = 17); results of dependent sample t-tests for the pretest and posttest mean scores of children in the control group on the EFSS and its subscales (n = 20)

		Experimental group						Control group
Subscale	Measure	x̄	SD	MS	F	p	η2	x̄	SD	t	p
Cognitive flexibility	Pre-test Post-test Retention	9.59 15.00 15.41	4.40 0.87 2.03	9066.7	1016.8	.00	.98	9.05 10.20	2.46 2.48	−1.47	.15
Short-term memory	Pre-test Post-test Retention	3.59 8.59 9.29	2.89 1.32 3.42	2598.0	438.9	.00	.96	4.70 5.45	2.08 1.82	−1.21	.23
Processing verbal	Pre-test Post-test Retention	5.76 8.59 9.53	1.92 1.70 0.62	3232.1	1295.4	.00	.99	5.30 5.00	3.60 2.29	0.31	.75
Visual memory	Pre-test Post-test Retention	5.47 8.94 9.76	3.02 1.30 1.25	3312.2	727.7	.00	.98	4.60 5.35	2.06 1.87	−1.20	.24
Working memory total	Pre-test Post-test Retention	14.76 26.12 28.59	5.60 2.82 4.69	27,348.3	1339.2	.00	.99	14.60 15.80	3.27 2.78	−1.25	.22
Inhibitory control	Pre-test Post-test Retention	7.12 11.47 12.70	2.26 1.46 2.36	5549.5	1483.8	.00	.99	6.75 6.85	2.07 2.11	−0.15	.88
Executive functioning skills total	Pre-test Post-test Retention	31.47 52.59 56.71	9.71 3.06 8.62	112,283.3	2099.5	.00	.99	30.40 32.85	4.91 4.07	−1.72	.09

p <.05; η² values correspond to partial eta squared effect sizes

Bonferroni-adjusted pairwise comparisons revealed that posttest and retention scores were significantly higher than pretest scores across all subscales. Moreover, retention scores were maintained at or slightly above posttest levels.

For example, in the Cognitive Flexibility subscale, mean scores increased from pretest (x̄ = 9.59) to posttest (x̄ = 15.00) and remained stable at retention (x̄ = 15.41). A similar pattern was observed in Short-Term Memory (x̄ = 3.59, 8.59, 9.29), Verbal Processing (x̄ = 5.76, 8.59, 9.53), Visual Memory (x̄ = 5.47, 8.94, 9.76), Working Memory Total (x̄ = 14.76, 26.12, 28.59), Inhibitory Control (x̄ = 7.12, 11.47, 12.70), and Executive Functioning Skills Total (x̄ = 31.47, 52.59, 56.71).

These findings indicate that the OSLE-P4C program was associated with sustained improvements in executive functioning skills over time. In contrast, dependent-samples t tests conducted for the control group revealed no statistically significant differences between pretest and posttest scores across any EFSS subscale or the total score (p > 0.05). Although slight increases in mean scores were observed, these changes were not statistically significant. Furthermore, the mixed-design ANOVA revealed significant Group × Measurement interaction effects, indicating that the improvement observed in the experimental group exceeded the changes associated with normal developmental progression in the control group. However, given the relatively small sample size and the intensive nature of the intervention, these findings should be interpreted cautiously.

Qualitative findings

This section presents the qualitative findings from interviews conducted with the parents (both mothers and fathers) of children in the experimental group who participated in the study. The sample consisted of 17 parents, including 12 mothers and 5 fathers. Participants are identified using codes (P1, P2, P3 … P17). The views of the parents are presented under each theme heading, along with frequency counts (f) and selected direct quotations. The themes, sub-themes, participant codes, and frequency distributions obtained through content analysis are summarized in Table 6.

Table 6.

Thematic analysis of parents’ views on the OSLE-P4C program

Themes	Sub-themes	Participants	f
Program contributions	Socialization	P2, P4, P8, P9, P12, P14, P16	7
	Awareness of learning environments	P9, P11	2
	Increased interest in nature and environment	P3, P12	2
Perceptions of the program	Social-emotional development	P1, P2, P4, P6, P7, P9, P11, P12, P16	9
	Critical thinking and inquiry	P1, P2, P3, P4, P7, P10, P11, P15	8
	Educational value	P7, P8, P13	3
	Motor skill development	P6, P9	2
	Contribution to life experience	P17	1
Observed changes in children	Creative thinking	P2, P3, P7, P12, P13, P14, P15, P17	8
	Attention and perception	P3, P7, P8, P9, P12, P16	6
	Planning and self-Regulation	P1, P2, P5, P7	4
	Social competence	P2, P6, P9	3
	Daily living skills	P13, P15	2
	Imagination	P2	1
	Love of nature and books	P1	1
Impact of methods and materials	Experiential learning	P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, P8, P10, P14, P15	11
	Inquiry-based engagement	P2, P3, P4, P5, P8, P13	6
	Retention and permanence of learning	P5, P8, P9, P11, P12	5
	Enhancement of higher-order thinking	P16	1
	Environmental awareness	P9	1

As presented in Table 6, the findings were organized under four main themes: program contributions, perceptions of the program, observed changes in children, and impact of methods and materials. Each theme consists of several sub-themes reflecting parents’ evaluations of the OSLE-P4C program. The themes are elaborated below with representative quotations.

Regarding the impact of the applications, the general benefits and contributions of the OSLE-P4C education program to children’s development were examined. The contributions highlighted in parents’ views were coded as socialization (f7), awareness of learning environments (f2), and increased interest in nature and environment (f2). When these codes are reviewed, it is noteworthy that parents generally agree that the program’s most significant contribution to children is socialization. It is understood that the program plays a crucial role in children’s interactions with peers and adults, participation in group activities, and the development of communication skills. Additionally, it is observed that experiencing different learning environments (library, museum, forest) broadens children’s perceptions of learning and boosts their curiosity and interest in the environment and nature. Examples of parents’ perspectives on this theme are provided below.

• “I think it contributes. She is more interested in the environment and nature.” (P2)

• “My son is more level-headed; he looks at things differently. For example, he used to cry immediately when he wanted something; now he asks, ‘Dad, why should we do this?’ He looks for the logic behind it. His interest in books has also increased. After visiting the museum, he came home and asked, ‘Who made this statue?’” (P9)

• “Yes, the program developed critical thinking and problem-solving skills; my son now approaches things more analytically.” (P12)

• “Yes, I definitely think so. The biggest contribution was his socialization. Just the fact that he comes home and excitedly tells us what they did that day and what they talked about is a gain in itself.” (P16)

The theme of thoughts about the program reflects parents’ perceptions of the general content and philosophy of the P4C education program. The coding within this theme includes social-emotional skill development (f9), critical thinking and inquiry (f8), educational value (f3), motor skill development (f2), and contribution to life experience (f1). When the parents’ views are examined, it is evident that the most emphasized aspects of the program are the development of social-emotional skills, critical thinking, and questioning skills. Parents stated that the program not only transfers knowledge to children but also develops their social and emotional competencies, such as expressing themselves, respecting others’ ideas, and empathizing. Furthermore, it was frequently mentioned that the program encourages children to move away from rote learning and instead generate their own ideas and question them. Examples of parents’ views on this theme are provided below:

• “It was a beneficial program. They learned how the places they visited contributed to their lives.” (P4)

• “The P4C program is wonderful. It encourages children to think and question instead of memorizing. My child’s self-confidence has increased, he expresses his ideas more comfortably, and he has learned to respect different opinions.” (P9)

• “I think P4C education is excellent. It doesn’t just teach children to memorize; it teaches them how to think. My son’s self-confidence has increased; he is no longer afraid to speak up. He also respects the opinions of others. This program allows children to look at life differently.” (P13)

• “Thanks to the P4C program, my child’s manual skills have improved. In addition, his sense of helping others and taking responsibility has also strengthened. For example, he became more eager to help his friends during activities.” (P17)

The theme of changes in children addresses the concrete changes parents observed in their children after participating in the P4C education program. The coding done includes: creative thinking (f8), attention and perception (f6), planning and self-regulation (f4), social competence (f3), daily living skills (f2), imagination (f1), and love of nature and books (f1). According to parents’ views, the most significant changes observed in children occurred in creativity and thinking skills, attention and perception, planning skills, and social skills. The developments observed, particularly in problem-solving ability and executive functioning skills, underscore the program’s effectiveness in the cognitive domain. Examples of parents’ views on this theme are provided below:

• “Yes. There has been improvement in the child’s attention span, creativity, and imagination skills.” (P1)

• “Yes, definitely. Their attention span has increased, their planning skills have improved, and, most importantly, their problem-solving skills have also improved. They no longer give up immediately when faced with problems; they try different approaches.” (P9)

• “Yes, skills such as planning, attention, and flexible thinking have clearly improved.” (P12)

• “Yes, there has been. At the end of the program, my child’s social skills have strengthened, and there has been a noticeable improvement in their overall skills. They have become more outgoing and active.” (P17)

The theme of the impact of methods and materials includes parents’ assessments of how the techniques and materials used in the P4C education program influence children’s learning processes. The coding based on the views expressed by parents is as follows: experiential learning (f11), inquiry-based engagement (f6), retention and permanence of learning (f5), enhancement of higher-order thinking (f1), and environmental awareness (f1). According to these findings, parents emphasized that the most significant effects of the methods and materials used in the program were enabling children to learn through hands-on activities, encouraging them to question and think critically, and improving retention of learned information. In particular, the use of various out-of-school learning environments, such as museums, libraries, and forests, was found to effectively attract children’s interest and make topics more tangible. Examples of parents’ views on this theme are presented below.

• “I think it is appropriate for this age group. It’s great because they see and apply it themselves.” (P3)

• “I think it was very effective. Doing it in different places, such as museums, libraries, and forests, attracted the children’s interest more. They would just get bored at school. Different environments made the topics more concrete and aroused the children’s curiosity.” (P10)

• “I think it was very effective. It was especially beneficial that it was conducted in various locations, including museums, libraries, and forests. Children would get bored at school. Different places aroused their curiosity and attracted their attention more. They also understood everything better; they didn’t just listen.” (P14)

• “Yes, it was very suitable and effective for children of this age group. Seeing it in person, applying it, and being involved in the process made learning much more lasting.” (P16)

Discussion

In this section, the findings obtained within the scope of the research are explained and interpreted in relation to various research results in the field literature on executive functioning theory and Philosophy for Children (P4C) applications. With this approach, the aim is to comprehensively reveal the contributions that the current study will make to both the theoretical framework and early childhood education practices.

As required by the experimental design of the research, no significant difference was found between the experimental and control groups in terms of executive functioning skills (cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibitory control) at the pretest stage. This finding indicates that the groups were demographically and cognitively equivalent. Researchers such as Lam [44], Gasparatou and Kampeza [26], and Turhan [61] similarly emphasize that the equivalence of the groups before the interventions is a critical prerequisite for objectively demonstrating the effectiveness of the intervention.

Comparisons of pretest and posttest scores in the study revealed a significant increase in cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibitory control scores in both the experimental and control groups, compared to their pretest scores. Specifically, the arithmetic mean (x̄ = 52.59) was calculated for children in the experimental group regarding total executive functioning skills. This finding supports the idea that the effects of the P4C program start to appear after a specific period of implementation and that mental development is a gradual process. Cognitive development happens gradually and progresses over time through repeated experiences, rather than occurring suddenly [57, 59, 64, 67]. In this context, it is clear that the activities and applications from the program’s initial sessions activate children’s executive functioning skills, and that children begin to use these skills effectively over time due to these ongoing activities.

In comparisons based on final and retention test scores, significant improvements were observed in cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibitory control for both the experimental and control groups compared to pretest results. When examining changes in total Executive Functioning Skills scores over time, children in the experimental group showed a significant increase from the baseline assessment to the immediate post-intervention measurement, and this improvement was further sustained at the one-month follow-up. The mean score increased from 31.47 at baseline to 52.59 after the intervention and reached 56.71 at follow-up. Qualitative data support these findings. Under the theme of “Changes in Children,” parents noted notable improvements in key areas of executive functioning, such as Creativity and Thinking Skills (f8), Attention and Perception (f6), and Planning (f4)— demonstrating the impact of the OSLE-P4C educational program on cognitive development. Consistent with these results, a study by Işıklar and Öztürk [35] examined the effect of philosophical activities on children ages 60–72 months and found that children in the experimental group scored significantly higher in critical thinking than their peers who continued with standard education. In a study by Fair et al. [22], the P4C program applied to the experimental group was shown to enhance children ‘s cognitive skills, resulting in a significant difference from the pretest. Gasparatou and Kampeza [26] reported that P4C activities with children aged five to six led to notable improvements in the experimental group compared to the control group. Similarly, Othman and Hashim [52] demonstrated that P4C education improved reasoning skills in children within the experimental group, with significant gains in final test scores. Jenkins and Lyle [36] also found that P4C education had a positive influence on higher-order thinking and communication skills in children, with notable score differences. Turhan [61] investigated the effects of philosophy activities on children’s emotional and cognitive development. The results revealed significant improvements in the final test scores, with the experimental group outperforming others. Likewise, a survey by Ünal and Güneş [63] explored the impact of the P4C program on children’s cognitive abilities and their adherence to moral and social rules, showing a significant difference in the final test scores of children in the experimental group.

The study found that the OSLE-P4C education program, designed for children aged 60–72 months, significantly helped their socialization, cultural growth, and cognitive thinking skills. The outcomes of activities—such as five libraries, five museums, five forests, and a final evaluation and closing session in a forest—were identified, and it was shown that these activities supported children across various developmental areas, including language skills, physical development and health, social-emotional growth, and values. This finding aligns with extensive research indicating that P4C applications can improve not only cognitive abilities but also the overall, multidimensional development of children [1, 4, 8, 18, 42, 51, 64]. Qualitative results also confirm this broad impact.

In the theme of “Contribution of the Applications,” which includes parents’ opinions, socialization (f7) was the most frequently emphasized contribution. Parent (P16) said, “Yes, I definitely think so. The biggest contribution was his socialization. Just the fact that he excitedly tells us what he did and what he talked about when he comes home is a gain in itself,” indicating that the OSLE-P4C education program plays a vital role in children’s interaction with peers and adults, participating in groups, and developing communication skills. Furthermore, in the theme “Thoughts About the Program,” Social-Emotional Skill Development (f9) and Thinking and Questioning Skills (f8) were the most prominent codes. Parent (P9) stated, “The P4C program is wonderful. It encourages children to think and question instead of memorizing. My child’s self-confidence has increased; they express their ideas more comfortably and have learned to respect different opinions.” This statement highlights that P4C supports cognitive and social-emotional development simultaneously.

Under the theme of “Changes in Children,” the observed developments in skills directly linked to executive functioning, such as Creativity and Thinking Skills (f8), Attention and Perception (f6), and Planning (f4), reinforce the program’s effectiveness in the cognitive domain. The parent’s statement, coded as (P12), “Yes, skills such as planning, attention, and flexible thinking have developed significantly,” was found to align with the quantitative findings. In this context, a similar study by Işıklar and Öztürk [35] found that P4C applications designed for children aged 60–72 months (20 sessions covering concepts such as feeling safe, the right to life, friendship, sharing, tolerance, patience, and equality/justice) led to significant development in children’s cognitive and social characteristics and proved to be effective. Lam [44] concluded that the P4C method successfully activates children’s critical thinking skills, based on various cognitive and behavioral traits, and that this method effectively develops individuals’ critical thinking abilities. In a study by Gasparatou and Kampeza [26], experimental and control groups of children aged five to six were involved. It was observed that 20 sessions, using eight picture books that encouraged children to ask questions and make comments, and included themes such as friendship and respect for differences, contributed to the children’s cognitive development. A study by Balci and Adigüzel [6] investigated the influence of children’s philosophy on creative thinking, creative writing skills, and the perspectives of primary school children on creative writing. It was found that P4C activities, conducted for three hours a week over eight weeks, had a positive influence on creativity skills, with the change being statistically significant. Research by Othman and Hashim [52] also demonstrated that P4C education enhances children’s reasoning skills. Maire and Auriac-Slusarczyk [48] investigated the impact of P4C education on children aged three to six. Although some educators argued that philosophy cannot be taught to children under six due to their underdeveloped abstract thinking, the study indicated that using visual and concrete materials can aid in developing children’s cognitive skills. Research by Gasparatou and colleagues [27] also found that philosophy programs for children effectively contribute to the development of cognitive and social skills in children. Overall, these findings strongly support the current study, demonstrating that the P4C program has a multifaceted nature that promotes not only cognitive skills but also socio-emotional development and thinking skills in early childhood.

The impact of the methods and materials used in the P4C program is also clear in the qualitative findings. The codes “Enabling Learning by Doing and Experiencing (f11),” “Questioning/Thinking (f6),” and “Ensuring Permanence (f5)” demonstrate the effectiveness of the program’s teaching approach. Parent (P10) said, “It was very effective. It was very effective. Doing it in different places, such as museums, libraries, and forests, attracted the children’s interest more. They would just get bored at school. Different environments made the topics more concrete and aroused the children’s curiosity.” This statement supports the idea that including out-of-school learning environments helps make learning more natural and hands-on, increasing children’s active participation and motivation. Parent (P16) also highlighted this effect, stating, “Seeing it in person, applying it, and being involved in the process made learning much more lasting.” This review of existing research and parental opinions reinforces the findings of the current study, highlighting how the P4C program significantly supports the development of executive functioning skills in early childhood.

The qualitative findings also helped contextualize the quantitative improvements observed in the EFSS subscales. Parent-report measures of attention, perception, and self-regulation were consistent with the observed gains in working memory and inhibitory control. Similarly, themes associated with questioning, creative thinking, and flexible thinking supported the quantitative improvements found in cognitive flexibility. Parents also emphasized experiential learning, inquiry-based engagement, and social interaction during activities conducted in libraries, museums, and natural environments. These observations suggest that the OSLE-P4C program may have supported executive functioning skills not only through structured cognitive activities but also through socially and experientially enriched learning contexts. No clear pattern of contradiction emerged between the qualitative and quantitative findings. However, because qualitative data were not analyzed at the individual child level, it was not possible to determine whether children showing relatively smaller quantitative gains were also described differently by parents. Therefore, the integration of findings may be more appropriately interpreted at the group level rather than at the individual child level.

Despite the positive findings, the magnitude of the observed effects should be carefully considered. Numerous developmental and environmental factors influence executive function skills, including maturation, classroom climate, peer interactions, and family support. Therefore, variables beyond the intervention itself may have contributed to the observed improvements. Furthermore, the relatively small sample size and the initial investigator’s active involvement during the intervention may have amplified the observed effect sizes. An additional limitation concerns the study design, which included only two schools: one assigned to the experimental group and the other to the control group. While pre-test analyses showed that the groups were comparable in terms of executive function skills before the intervention, school-specific characteristics may have influenced the results. Factors such as institutional culture, educational philosophy, teacher–child interaction patterns, classroom management practices, peer dynamics, and the overall learning environment can contribute to children’s cognitive and behavioral development. Because the intervention was implemented at the school level, rather than through the random assignment of children individually across multiple schools, the effects of the OSLE-P4C program cannot be entirely separated from contextual school-level effects.

In conclusion, some of the observed gains may partially reflect the characteristics of the participating schools. This is particularly important when interpreting the large effect sizes reported in the current study. While these findings suggest that the OSLE-P4C program may have a significant impact on executive function skills, the magnitude of this effect should be interpreted with caution until it is replicated in a larger number of schools and educational settings. Further research involving more diverse samples, multiple schools, and randomized assignment procedures could be conducted to determine the robustness, reproducibility, and generalizability of the current findings.

From a theoretical perspective, the findings suggest that the combined structure of P4C and OSLE may support executive functioning through complementary mechanisms. Philosophical dialogue encourages children to inhibit impulsive responses, organize and justify their thoughts, and shift between different perspectives, thereby activating inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Simultaneously, out-of-school learning environments provide multisensory, experiential, and context-based learning opportunities that sustain attention, increase engagement, and promote active cognitive processing. The integration of these two components may therefore create a cognitively enriched learning context that supports the development of executive functioning skills in early childhood.

Conclusion

In conclusion, since cognitive development is a process, it appears that the program activates children’s executive function skills from the very first sessions. Over time, children effectively develop these skills through ongoing activities. Furthermore, parent feedback indicates that children transfer what they learn in the program to their daily lives. Therefore, it is recommended that educators and families be informed about this and that awareness of out-of-school learning environments and P4C be increased.

Limitations

This study, which examines the impact of the OSLE-P4C Education Program on preschool children’s executive functioning, has several limitations. Specifically, the research is confined to children attending independent kindergartens affiliated with the Ministry of National Education in a province located in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Türkiye. Additionally, the experimental and control groups consisted only of children aged 60–72 months who demonstrated typical development. Moreover, the study findings are limited to data collected from children (n = 37) and parents (n = 17) who voluntarily participated with their families’ consent. Another important limitation concerns the structure of the intervention process. Although executive functioning skills were assessed at the individual level, the intervention was implemented at the preschool level, with one preschool assigned to the experimental group and the other to the control group. Therefore, contextual differences related to school environment, classroom climate, teacher practices, or parent characteristics may have influenced the findings. In addition, because the study involved only two preschool settings and a relatively small sample, the results should be interpreted cautiously regarding generalizability. Furthermore, the active involvement of the first researcher during the implementation process may have increased the possibility of implementation bias. Although standardized procedures were followed throughout the intervention, it is possible that factors beyond the intervention itself contributed to the observed gains. Finally, the qualitative findings were integrated at the group level rather than at the individual child level, making it difficult to compare individual quantitative gains with parent-specific qualitative observations directly. These limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings and evaluating the study’s broader applicability.

Practical implications

The findings of this study offer clear and practical implications for early childhood education and parenting. Beyond schools, settings such as libraries, museums, and forests can support learning through hands-on experiences. These settings help children grasp abstract philosophical ideas through tangible materials and activities, while also helping them retain new information over time. In-service training programs can be offered to help educators deepen their understanding of the P4C approach and its implementation. Research also shows that parents notice positive changes in their children. In this context, P4C workshops or informational sessions can be organized to teach parents how to support their children’s curiosity and inquiry skills. Age-appropriate P4C materials can be used to enhance children’s thinking abilities. Overall, this study demonstrates that introducing children to philosophy in diverse learning environments at an early age can have a significant and lasting impact on their cognitive and social development. Based on these findings, if educators and caregivers begin implementing such practices, it can lay the foundation for raising more curious, critical, and creative future generations.

Authors’ contributions

Conceptualization, BD, NA; Methodology, BD, NA; Formal Analysis, BD, NA; Data Collection, BD, NA; Writing (Original Draft Preparation), BD, NA; Writing (Review & Editing), BD, NA; Supervision, BD, NA.

Funding

Not applicable.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The research was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Education Sciences at Erzincan Binali Yıldırım University on March 31, 2023 (Protocol No: 03/15). All procedures were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations, as well as the Declaration of Helsinki. Permission for the study was also obtained from the Ministry of National Education and the respective school administrations. The scope and purpose of the study were explained to the parents through face-to-face interviews. To protect participants’ rights and ensure voluntary participation, parents were provided with a comprehensive informed consent form detailing the study’s objectives, duration, data confidentiality protocols, and the right to withdraw at any stage. Consequently, on January 24, 2025, written informed consent was obtained from both the mothers and fathers of all participating children.

Consent for publication

Written informed consent was obtained from the parents or legal guardians of all participating children for the publication of any photographs and study-related images included in this manuscript. All necessary measures have been taken to ensure the anonymity of the participants.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.