Can trigeminal sensations impact saltiness perception? A mini‐review

Abstract

Many food companies have begun to reduce the salt content in their products due to health concerns; however, this reduction in salt content can affect the food's sensory appeal and flavour complexity. Flavour is defined as a combination of odour (i.e., smell), taste (i.e., gustation) and trigeminal sensations (i.e., chemesthesis). Trigeminal sensations are a protective mechanism integral to a human's warning system. Unlike odours and tastes, which interact with olfactory receptors on the epithelium and gustatory receptors on the tongue, chemical irritants act on the pain, temperature, and touch receptors in the oral region. These chemical irritants can lead to sensations such as burning, heat, cooling, and fizziness. This trigeminal stimulation can potentially increase the perception of other tastes and odours. A relationship between trigeminal stimulants (e.g., capsaicin) and the perceived salty taste of food products has been identified. However, this effect on saltiness perception can often be eclipsed by accompanying undesirable sensory characteristics, such as sourness, bitterness, metallic, and burning sensations, resulting in decreased consumer acceptability. Furthermore, the chemical irritants' volatility, reactivity, and low solubility can limit their use in the food industry. This mini‐review will characterize the cross‐modal interactions of trigeminal stimulants on saltiness perception, as well as discuss their mechanism of action and sensory studies that investigated the use of chemical irritants to enhance saltiness perception. © 2026 The Author(s). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

INTRODUCTION

Most of the global adult population consumes excessive sodium, contributing to adverse health outcomes. The mean level of sodium consumption ranges regionally from 2.18 to 5.51 g, with an overall average of 3.95 g per day. ¹ High sodium intake has been shown to increase an individual's risk of developing cardiovascular disease by 19%. ² A World Health Organization (WHO) report ³ acknowledges that the slow progress of sodium reduction interventions has made it unlikely that the 30% global sodium reduction target will be met by 2025. However, a significant reduction in sodium intake may be observed by 2030 if more aggressive interventions are implemented globally. ³

Food reformulation is one of the primary strategies for reducing sodium intake at the population level. Foods prepared outside the home tend to have higher salt content, and frequent consumption of these foods is associated with greater daily sodium intakes. ⁴ Whereas only about 180–230 mg of sodium per day is physiologically necessary, removing excess salt from food formulation is challenging as it is essential for many products' flavour, texture, and stability. ⁵ Research highlights that one effective way to reduce sodium levels in products is to reduce their salt content gradually. Studies have found that small incremental sodium reductions can be undetected by consumers; for example, Girgis et al. ⁶ achieved a 25% sodium reduction in bread without notably affecting consumers' perceptions by reducing its sodium content by 5% each week over 6 weeks. ⁷ However, this strategy is challenging to implement broadly as these changes may significantly affect the products' sensory profiles. It is a time‐consuming process, and it relies upon participation by all manufacturers. ⁸

To address some of the challenges associated with salt reduction in food reformulation, researchers have made significant efforts to explore techniques that elicit the perception of salt while reducing its overall content. Initially, the use of alternative salts, such as potassium chloride (KCl), was investigated as they were known to impart a salty taste; however, in consumer trials, their saltiness was often overpowered by metallic, bitter, and sour notes, which are disliked by consumers.^{9, 10} Current research in this field involves multisensory integration. However, the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Studies have demonstrated that certain aromas and compounds can enhance the perceived saltiness in products. ¹¹ The fifth cranial nerve (i.e., trigeminal nerve) innervates various regions of the face and mouth, including the oral cavity, and carries important sensory information related to ‘touch, temperature, and pain’.^{12, 13} Though it primarily serves as a protective mechanism to alert against the consumption of irritants and poisonous substances, it also plays an essential role in flavour perception. ¹⁴ Trigeminal compounds, such as spices, can evoke sensations that contribute to the overall flavour perception of a product, such as cooling, warmth, pungency, and tingling, in addition to taste and smell. ¹⁵ Although they interact with distinct receptors, it has been demonstrated that certain spices, such as capsaicin (found in chilli peppers) and allyl isothiocyanate (AITC; found in horseradish, mustard, and wasabi), may be able to enhance the sensory response associated with salt.^{13, 16, 17, 18, 19} This paper provides an overview of how chemical irritants can impact saltiness perception and how they are used to reduce the salt content of different food products. This paper builds on past reviews that have discussed salt‐reduction strategies in foods by specifically discussing the cross‐modal interactions of chemical irritants and saltiness perception. Furthermore, it identifies future directions and studies that should be completed to continue to investigate these cross‐modal interactions.

SODIUM IN THE HUMAN DIET

Cannon ²⁰ credits Claude Bernard for first stating that the internal organs of complex animals (e.g., humans) were suspended in a fluid matrix of mostly blood and lymph. Bernard highlighted that maintaining a stable internal environment was necessary for survival, a concept later termed homeostasis. ²⁰ The term dynamic equilibrium describes the active process in which the body adapts to maintain its internal conditions within a precise range. It has been established that disturbances brought forth by the external cellular environment that may cause even slight deviations from this equilibrium could have devastating effects on the entire system, leading to cell, tissue, and, eventually, organ death. ²¹

Offering protection from potentially lethal consequences, specific innate mechanisms function to prevent equilibrium shifts.^{21, 22} It has long been recognized that sodium chloride (NaCl), mainly due to its relationship with osmotic pressure, is essential for cellular functions. ²⁰ Nearly a century later, it is understood that sodium ions play a critical role in maintaining cellular activity and conditions. After salt consumption, sodium gets filtered into the bloodstream, and owing to osmotic effects it pulls water into the bloodstream. This process often increases blood volume, contributing to more forceful blood flow and raising blood pressure. Maintaining sufficient sodium levels in the body is an adaptive mechanism crucial for survival. ²² Sodium cations, together with their associated anions, other electrolytes, proteins, and water, constitute the primary components of extracellular fluid and play a crucial role in maintaining blood pressure, as well as fluid and electrolyte balance.^{22, 23} However, most humans, especially those in the Western world, consume excessive amounts of salt, which can have adverse health effects.

High sodium intake is closely linked to increased blood pressure, which raises the risk of heart disease and stroke – two leading causes of death worldwide. ²⁴ Excess sodium can also lead to fluid retention, causing swelling and bloating, and may exacerbate conditions such as kidney disease and heart failure. ²⁵ Over time, high sodium consumption can weaken blood vessels, strain the kidneys, and contribute to osteoporosis by promoting calcium loss in the urine. ²⁶ Additionally, diets high in sodium are associated with an increased risk of stomach cancer. ²⁷

Over 90% of sodium is estimated to be consumed in the diet as NaCl, more commonly referred to as table salt. ²⁸ Salt is a versatile food ingredient that tastes salty and enhances other flavour components. Additionally, it imparts specific properties necessary for producing and handling certain food items and acts as a preservative by reducing water activity and slowing enzymatic and microbial growth. ²⁹ It is rare to encounter a deficit in dietary sodium that is clinically concerning due to the prevalence of salt in everyday foods. ³⁰

The prevalence of natural and added salt during food processing (‘non‐discretionary’ intake) and the habitual desire of individuals to add salt to food (‘discretionary’ intake) contribute to most populations worldwide consuming excess amounts of sodium. ³⁰ Moreover, due to its widespread use in food formulation, sufficient sodium levels are typically achieved regardless of salt intake (i.e., low, average, or high). ³⁰

SALT REDUCTION INFLUENCE ON CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE AND SENSORY PROPERTIES

Salt exhibits many unique properties, making it a desirable food additive and a challenging ingredient to replace in food formulation. ³¹ Salt is an affordable item that enhances the sensory properties of many foods, including their perceived flavour and mouthfeel. ²⁹ Flavour is best defined as the combined result of gustatory stimulation (i.e., taste), retronasal olfaction (i.e., smell), and trigeminal sensations (i.e., chemesthesis, irritation, or pungency) co‐occurring. ¹⁵ Compounds containing sodium reduce the perception of bitterness, which may explain why other salts, such as KCl, are often disliked because they impart both salty and bitter sensations. ³² The amount of sodium in food must be reduced to lower the population's sodium intake effectively. However, it is essential to consider how this change will affect the items' overall flavour profiles and consumer acceptance.

Researchers highlight that a gradual decrease in salt content may be possible, avoiding noticeable abrupt changes in taste.^{33, 34} Generally, a difference of less than 10% between two concentrations of a tastant cannot be detected. ³⁵ However, it is difficult to directly apply this principle when a complex food matrix is involved owing to multisensory integration. Factors such as texture, aroma, and the presence of other taste compounds can influence the overall sensory experience, making it challenging to predict how changes in a product's sodium levels will be perceived. One study investigating the just‐noticeable difference of salty taste in various dairy products found that consumers did not detect small sodium reductions of 2% to 5% and were influenced by the food matrix complexity. ³⁶ However, this approach fails to address concerns related to other purposes of salt, such as preservation. Reducing salt in food can also have a significant effect on its sensory properties. An overview of the impact of salt reduction on sensory properties can be found in the review by Hoppu et al. ³⁷ Briefly, salt reduction can reduce overall flavour complexity, as it is a flavour enhancer, and it also impacts the volatility of aroma compounds. ³⁷ Furthermore, it can impact textural perception, as it impacts protein interactions and water retention, ³⁷ as well as impact the colour and appearance of the food, as salt affects the browning caused by the Maillard reaction. ³⁸ Salt also impacts overall consumer acceptability of foods, and many consumers find reduced‐salt food items to be less acceptable. ³⁹

Therefore, there are multiple important considerations when investigating potential salt substitutes. An area of research that has gained attention is the exploration of food reformulation strategies that can mask salt reduction in foods while increasing palatability. ⁴⁰ These strategies involve identifying the mechanisms of saltiness perception and utilizing ingredients or techniques that enhance the flavour profile to prevent consumers from noticing changes in salt content. ⁴⁰ Approaches such as using certain odours, spices, and herbs have shown varying levels of success in maintaining the desirable sensory qualities of foods while reducing their sodium content. ⁴¹ In addition to taste and aroma‐based strategies for sodium reduction, the contribution of trigeminal sensations has emerged as an important factor in maintaining the overall sensory quality of food.

TRIGEMINAL SENSATIONS

The sensory perception of food involves complex interactions between taste, olfaction, and chemesthesis, the latter of which encompasses trigeminal sensations. Trigeminal activation in the oral and nasal cavities conveys chemical irritation, temperature changes, and tactile sensations.

The sensory endings of the fifth cranial nerve (also called the trigeminal nerve) are responsible for the detection of trigeminal sensations. ⁴² Though often associated with pungency from compounds like capsaicin, trigeminal stimuli can also include cooling from menthol, the irritation produced by garlic extract, and the carbonation‐induced tingling from carbonated beverages. ⁴² The most common chemical irritant that researchers have investigated is capsaicin (chilli peppers), which causes a burning or stinging sensation by activating the transient receptor potential (TRP) vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) receptor (a heat‐sensitive ion channel). Other chemical irritants that lead to burning and stinging are AITC, which is usually found in wasabi, mustard, and horseradish (interacts with TRPV1 and TRP ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) receptors) and piperine, found in pepper (interacts with the TRPV1 receptor). ⁴³ The TRPV1 receptor can also be stimulated by high concentrations of NaCl. ⁴⁴

CROSS‐MODALITY INTERACTIONS

Mechanism of action

As stated earlier, flavour is the combination of olfaction (i.e., odour), gustation (i.e., taste), and trigeminal sensations (i.e., chemesthesis). ⁴⁵ The unique receptor cells or transduction mechanisms associated with a specific compound may change when multiple compounds are combined, like in the food matrix. ⁴⁶ The resulting interaction of the smell, taste, and irritants contributes to a product's unique flavour profile. The distinctive profile of different food items broadly defines their quality and consumer acceptance and may change throughout the mastication process. ⁴⁷ Though many of the exact mechanisms involved in taste perception for humans have not been confirmed, the ability to recognize distinct tastes can be described as the result of unique interactions between quality (i.e., sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and umami), intensity (i.e., strength of perceptions), temporal patterns (i.e., how the taste changes as it is perceived), and spatial patterns (i.e., how taste signals are processed in different regions). ⁴⁶

The perception of a particular odour occurs in olfactory receptor cells, where each cell exhibits one olfactory receptor protein encoded by a distinct gene. Although there may be about 1000 different genes that encode for these proteins, many are considered ‘pseudogenes’, meaning they are no longer functional. ⁴⁸ Still, humans are capable of discriminating between approximately 1 trillion different odours. ⁴⁹ Odours have distinct binding affinities for receptor sites; therefore, competition exists between odorants to stimulate these sites and transduce electrical activity. ⁵⁰ Meanwhile, the activation mechanism in the perception of tastants involves at least five different pathways, most of which involve either binding to specialized receptor proteins or modification of the electrical state of receptor cells through cell polarization. ⁴⁷ The initial perceptions of irritants are believed to be related to their interaction with free nerve endings found within the nasal and oral cavity epithelium. ⁴⁷ Trigeminal innervation plays a vital role in taste perception and acceptability, and it is responsible for detecting pungent, astringent, and chemical irritant sensations. ¹² Specialized receptors include nociceptors, thermoreceptors, and mechanoreceptors, which detect pain, temperature, and touch. These receptors serve as a protective mechanism, allowing us to recognize irritants or poisonous substances within the oral cavity. However, as evidenced by our desire for products such as spicy foods and carbonated beverages, a liking for these sensations exists. ¹³ These receptors, responsible for the trigeminal sensations, are mainly TRPV1. ⁵¹

Owing to the unique taste of salt, significant effort has been made towards understanding its mechanism of perception. The perception of saltiness in humans is mediated by the taste receptor cells that are part of the fungiform papillae or the foliaceous papillae. ⁵¹ When sodium and chloride are present in the oral cavity, this leads to saltiness perception via two pathways: amiloride sensitive and amiloride insensitive. ⁵¹ The amiloride‐sensitive epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) is located in the apical cellular taste receptor cells. ¹⁷ When rodents consume sodium ions, the ions enter taste cells through ENaCs, which are selective for sodium, and it has been proposed that ENaCs may be involved in saltiness perception for humans somewhere throughout the detection process. ⁵² TRPV1t (a splice variant of the TRPV1 receptor), activated by trigeminal stimulants, can mediate the amiloride‐insensitive pathway, which may explain the connection between trigeminal sensations and saltiness perception. ⁵¹

Trigeminal sensations and saltiness enhancement

Taste and trigeminal sensations are recognized as distinct systems, though trigeminal stimulants broadly impact the flavour profile of many foods ⁵³ and may result in the atypical perception of other tastants. ⁴⁷ Salts are also known to irritate when present at moderate concentrations, ⁵⁴ and therefore the addition of different chemical irritants to salt‐reduced products could help mask their reduced sensory appeal. Oral irritants tend to suppress certain gustatory sensations. ⁵⁵ Capsaicin, a commonly studied oral irritant, significantly suppresses sweetness as its intensity increases. ⁵³ Han et al. ⁴⁵ identified that capsaicin at low concentration levels could increase human gustatory sensitivity and lead to lower taste thresholds for saltiness. Furthermore, AITC has been found to increase saltiness perception in both model solutions and soups. ¹⁶ Moderate pungency has also been found to enhance the saltiness perception of a potato chip when a novel oleogel was used. ⁵⁶ As a result of this effect, it is proposed that oral irritants may enhance saltiness perception in low‐salt products.

Though studying the effects induced by capsaicin and other oral irritants is a relatively new area of research, potential cognitive and/or physiological processes have been proposed. One hypothesis is that the intense burning sensation of the irritant may reduce the perceived intensity of other sensations by diverting cognitive attention. ⁵⁵ Another proposed explanation involves localized fluid retention in cells (i.e., oedema) caused by the irritant, which may prevent pores on the tongue from perceiving taste by acting as a physical barrier. ⁵⁵ However, as Simons et al. ⁵⁵ noted, these mechanisms are seemingly contradicted by the observations of their study and that of Prescott et al., ⁵³ where only some tastes were suppressed by capsaicin (i.e., sweet, bitter, and umami). In contrast, others (i.e., salty and sour) were largely unaffected. The selective suppression of particular tastes suggests that potentially other mechanisms involving neural signalling or sensitization may be present.

Recently, there has been a growing understanding regarding the role of TRP channels in chemesthesis. Specific thermosensitive TRP channels, such as TRPV1 or TRPA1, are activated by chemicals found in spices and herbs. ¹⁸ Owing to proximity, the TRPV1 and TRPA1 channels found in chemosensory nerves can indirectly affect taste perception.^{18, 51} When stimulated, the chemesthetic and gustatory systems work together, influencing responses to taste stimuli like sour, bitter, and salty.^{18, 51} Also, behavioural studies have found that the trigeminal sensations or activation can change activity in the gustatory brain areas (i.e., anterior insula and frontal operculum) and impact how the brain perceives signals from the saltiness receptors. Low‐level trigeminal sensations have been found to amplify salt‐related neural responses. ⁵¹ Another factor that needs to be considered is that salvia flow rate, as well as protein composition, affects saltiness perception; ⁵⁷ thus, this needs to be taken into account in studies on the cross‐modal impacts of chemical irritants.

Beyond immediate effects, it has been suggested that chemical irritants and their interactions with receptors may have longer‐lasting effects on flavour perception.^{18, 53} When spices and herbs that activate TRPV1 channels are combined with NaCl, they can influence how taste cells respond to salt. ¹⁸ Because of the downstream effects of TRP channel activation, substance P (SP) and calcitonin gene‐related peptide (CGRP) may be released from trigeminal neurons. ⁵⁸ SP temporarily dilates blood vessels, leading to increased local inflammation, whereas CGRP acts as a longer‐lasting blood vessel dilator, allowing sustained blood flow in superficial skin. ⁵⁸ AITC has also been shown to stimulate TAS2R38‐PAV receptors, which are associated with bactericidal and anti‐inflammatory effects in vitro. ⁵⁹ Furthermore, piperine has been found to increase the saltiness perception in model solutions. ⁶⁰ Consequently, incorporating spicy flavours into food has been suggested. It has shown promise as an effective intervention for reducing high salt intake and lowering blood pressure through its vasodilatory effects, ¹⁸ and its potential for other health benefits.

It has been proposed that trigeminal sensations can compensate for the reduced salty taste in a food item due to a reduced amount of salt. ⁴² Trigeminal sensations can influence flavour perception through tactile, thermal, and kinaesthetic effects. ⁶¹ Starkenmann et al. found that trigeminal sensations can lead to new sensations that help maintain flavour complexity while reducing the salt content of a food. ⁶² Oral somatosensory stimulation (mechanical, thermal, pain) has been identified to frequently modify taste perception (including intensity and threshold) due to modulation of tastant detection, release, and transduction. ¹⁵ Furthermore, when the oral cavity is stimulated by chemical irritants, the body integrates multisensory inputs and may release endorphins, which can heighten sensitivity to both taste and odour, thereby amplifying the perception of saltiness. For example, capsaicin has been shown to enhance cortical and orbitofrontal cortex responses to high‐salt stimuli, highlighting the central contribution of the trigeminal system to salty taste perception.^{51, 63} Trigeminal stimulants could also mask or suppress some of the off‐flavours currently associated with salt substitutes; for instance, the metallic flavour associated with potassium chloride ⁴² or bitterness. Capsaicin has been found to decrease the intensity of bitterness from quinine. ⁶⁴

Consumer acceptance of chemical irritants as saltiness enhancers

Low concentrations of oral irritants may modulate taste perception, making reduced salt levels less noticeable. However, some studies have found that, when added in a concentration that is too high, pungent substances can induce heat and painful sensations that overshadow the saltiness and reduce the item's palatability.^{51, 65, 66} Owing to this effect, Narukawa et al. ¹⁹ found that adding capsaicin to NaCl increased both total and saltiness taste intensities, though they decreased consumer palatability. Hunter et al. ⁶⁷ identified that capsaicin was able to increase the saltiness intensity and overall flavour of tomato soup compared with soup without capsaicin. However, high concentrations of capsaicin have been found to suppress saltiness perception in tomato soup and other food items. ⁶⁸ Repeated exposure to irritation caused by NaCl contributed to the nearly constant sensation of saltiness over 15 min. In comparison, capsaicin alone irritated for at least 25 min. ⁵⁴ The sustained intensity of capsaicin could have contributed to the decreased palatability observed by Narukawa et al. ¹⁹ Sensitization to irritation is observed with some chemical irritants, possibly enhancing their ability to mask other tastes by dominating the sensory profile. Other chemical irritants tend to cause desensitization over time; therefore, this effect cannot be generalized without further investigation. ⁵⁴

Zhang et al. ⁵⁶ verified that pungent stimuli could enhance the perception of saltiness. When saltiness perception was evaluated in groups with different salt sensitivities, the maximum level of salt reduction with increased saltiness perception using Sichuan pepper was nearly 40% in both the semi‐sensitive and hypersensitive groups. Another study found that in an aqueous solution of NaCl, capsaicin, and piperine, maximum enhanced saltiness intensity reached 37.65% at a salt reduction of 26.09%. ⁶⁹ These studies, however, did not consider the effect on palatability as they did not involve a complex food matrix. Factors such as texture, aroma, and flavour interactions can significantly influence palatability in more complex food systems.

Furthermore, these effects may vary significantly among age groups. For instance, using a pungent test paper, Zhang et al. ⁷⁰ found that, though similar, younger participants reported greater increases in salt intensity than older participants did. In addition, a significantly greater maximum salt reduction percentage was observed among the younger participants. A decline in sensory acuity is generally observed among the aging population, which is attributed to a combination of factors such as changes in dentition and nutrient deficiencies. ⁷¹ Therefore, alternative strategies to enhance flavour must be employed aside from increased concentration, especially considering salt, a common flavour enhancer, is already consumed in excess. ⁷¹ As a result, new or reformulated products targeted toward general consumers must be tested by a diverse group of individuals. Another area of exploration that needs to be considered is the habitual consumption of spicy food (trigeminal stimulants) and its impact on the oral perception of trigeminal sensations and saltiness perception. Past studies have found differing results.^{72, 73} A study by Su et al. ⁷² identified that frequent spicy food consumption was related to decreased salty sensitivity. Also, the study by Trachootham et al. ⁷³ identified that a population with stronger spicy preference had poorer salt sensitivity. These differences in spice preference and their influence on basic taste need to be further explored in future studies, as they can impact how trigeminal sensations affect saltiness perception.

Chemical irritants added near or at threshold levels have been found to enhance saltiness perception and can allow for NaCl reductions in food products. ⁷⁴ However, many studies have used only model systems. This cross‐modal effect can be impacted by different properties of the food item, including the matrix (i.e., liquid, solid, or semi‐solid), and other flavours present in the food (e.g., sweetness or bitterness). Furthermore, the chemical irritants can introduce off‐flavours, unexpected spiciness, and temporal dynamics (e.g., persistent aftertaste) to the food product, which can all decrease consumer acceptance. Future studies should continue to investigate the interaction between chemical irritants and saltiness perception, including the examination of new chemical irritants and their cross‐modal interactions. Studies are needed to identify the optimal chemical irritants and concentrations for various food matrices. The interactions between different foods containing chemical irritants also need to be investigated. For instance, if capsaicin is used to reduce the sodium content of a hot dog and then the hot dog is paired with different condiments, how does this impact the cross‐modal effect of the capsaicin?

Longitudinal adaptation studies are also required, as repeated exposure to chemical irritants can increase basic taste sensitivity, including saltiness. The influence of age should also be investigated, as age itself influences basic taste sensitivity. Moreover, numerous studies have revealed that individuals who regularly consume chemical irritants perceive the associated trigeminal sensations as less intense than those who consume them infrequently.^{75, 76, 77} Rather than a significant desensitization to the burning sensation, it is believed that individuals who are regularly exposed to spice due to their previous experiences and cultural background may develop a preference for spicy foods. ⁴³ These factors may be more influential than physiological or personality characteristics ⁴³ and should be considered when conducting studies that include chemical irritants. Studies should employ dynamic sensory methodologies to fully characterize the cross‐modal effect. Also, a study found that capsaicin increases saliva's flow rate and saliva viscosity, which in turn impacts saltiness sensitivity and perception. ⁷⁸ Future studies should continue to explore the impact of chemical irritants on saliva and the resulting sensory perception. Lastly, more studies need to be conducted using neurophysical mapping to identify the relationship between trigeminal and gustatory receptor signals.

CONCLUSION

Trigeminal sensations present a novel way to decrease the salt content of foods without negatively impacting the saltiness perception. The WHO states that aggressive interventions must be implemented globally. ³ Much more research needs to be conducted on the interaction of trigeminal stimulants and saltiness perception. Trigeminal stimulants can also increase the flavour complexity, allowing salt to be reduced in food items. The cross‐modal interactions of trigeminal stimulants need to be better examined, as textural discrimination has also been impacted by trigeminal stimulants in past research. ⁷⁹ New chemical irritants need to be explored; for instance, more research should be conducted on silanol. ⁸⁰ Many more studies need to be undertaken to identify the influence of food matrix, the impact of different trigeminal stimulants and concentration of trigeminal stimulants, and the influence of age and spicy food consumption on saltiness perception.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.