The relationship of physical exercise and social adaptability of adolescents

Abstract

This cross-sectional study evaluates the association between physical exercise and social adaptability in adolescents, focusing on the mediating roles of self-efficacy and psychological resilience in this relationship. A comprehensive methodology was employed, including a literature review, questionnaire surveys, and statistical analyses. A total of 1280 adolescents were recruited via convenience sampling and filled out the study’s questionnaires. The gathered data were analyzed using SPSS, AMOS, and Excel. Descriptive statistics were first conducted to determine the sample’s representativeness, particularly concerning categorical variables such as grade level, gender, and age. Subsequently, correlation analyses, path analyses, and mediation effect tests were performed to explore the relationships and pathways among physical exercise, social adaptability, self-efficacy, and psychological resilience. Physical exercise showed a significant direct positive association with social adaptability (β = 0.173, p < .001). Mediation analyses revealed three significant indirect paths: (1) through self-efficacy alone (indirect effect = 0.153, 95% CI [0.053, 0.248]); (2) through psychological resilience alone (indirect effect = 0.538, 95% CI [0.397, 0.734]); and (3) a chain mediation path where physical exercise was associated with higher self-efficacy, which in turn was associated with greater psychological resilience, ultimately leading to better social adaptability (indirect effect = 0.230, 95% CI [0.161, 0.320]). Physical exercise is directly associated with adolescents’ social adaptability, and this association is also indirectly explained by the separate mediating effects of self-efficacy and psychological resilience. Moreover, physical exercise was associated with social adaptability via a chain of mediation involving both self-efficacy and psychological resilience.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-56937-0.

Introduction

The WHO defines adolescence as the age range from 10 to 19 years, a period marked by rapid physiological and psychological growth¹ . he physical and mental well-being of adolescents has long been a central focus in the field of sports science. Over time, physical exercise has been widely recognized as a powerful means of fostering positive psychological traits in adolescents and harmonious physical and mental development. Empirical studies have demonstrated that physical exercise is associated with enhanced adolescents’ interpersonal skills, an increased sense of belonging, and stronger peer relationships², with physical exercise widely recognized as a means to foster positive psychological traits and harmonious development. Empirical studies indicate that physical exercise can enhance adolescents’ interpersonal skills, sense of belonging, and peer relationships^3–5.

However, the specific mechanisms underlying these associations and potential variances across different contexts remain insufficiently explored. Social adaptability also plays a vital role in adolescents’ future social integration, personality development, and academic achievement. High social adaptability fosters emotional resilience, self-confidence, and interpersonal competence, whereas deficiencies in this area may lead to maladaptive behaviors such as social withdrawal, conflict, and emotional dysregulation⁶. Thus, understanding and potentially enhancing social adaptability is essential for supporting positive developmental trajectories and preventing psychosocial difficulties.

Despite increasing evidence linking physical exercise to improved interpersonal and emotional outcomes, the precise psychological pathways mediating this relationship have yet to be fully elucidated. In particular, the roles of key internal factors (i.e., self-efficacy⁷ and psychological resilience^8,9) have received limited attention. Self-efficacy, defined as the belief in one’s ability to successfully navigate challenges, and psychological resilience, the capacity to adapt positively in the face of adversity, are both critical qualities that support adolescents’ social functioning. Understanding their mediating roles is crucial for clarifying how physical exercise may relate to enhanced social adaptability. Physical exercise in this study refers to planned, structured, and repetitive bodily movement undertaken to maintain or improve physical fitness, as assessed by the physical exercise rating scale (PERS) which measures its intensity, frequency, and duration.

Unlike prior studies that primarily focused on school adaptation or single mediators, the present research uniquely investigates a chain mediation pathway involving self-efficacy and psychological resilience. This approach, integrating social cognitive theory^10,11 and conservation of resources theory¹², aims to elucidate a more nuanced mechanism—where exercise may first bolster beliefs about personal capabilities (self-efficacy), which in turn builds a broader capacity to withstand adversity (psychological resilience), ultimately contributing to better social adaptation. Figure 1 presents the proposed conceptual model.

Fig. 1.

Conceptual model.

The relationship between physical exercise and social adaptability in adolescents

Adolescence is a critical juncture characterized by a profound resurgence of self-awareness, during which individuals undergo significant cognitive, emotional, and social transformations. It is a pivotal period for the acquisition, refinement, and integration of a wide range of knowledge and skills essential for adult life. Unlike adults, adolescents face unique adaptive challenges and developmental tasks, with their social adaptability profoundly influenced by the evolving dynamics of peer relationships, academic pressures, and emerging societal expectations. These distinctive developmental conditions highlight the necessity for targeted interventions aimed at cultivating the adaptive competencies vital for a successful transition into adulthood¹³.

The primary goal of adolescents’ social adaptability is the achievement of individual socialization. Adolescents who fulfill the developmental tasks associated with each developmental stage are regarded as well-adjusted, while those who do not may experience negative emotions and encounter difficulties in the socialization process. Given the rapid physical and psychological changes during adolescence, both biological maturation and regular physical exercise play critical roles in facilitating the successful completion of these developmental tasks¹⁴.

Participation in physical exercise aids individuals in achieving developmental tasks, positively influencing their growth and improving their capacity to adjust to changing environments¹⁵. Consistent physical activity fortifies physical health and fosters character development as well as cultivates teamwork skills, sharpens interpersonal communication abilities, and strengthens problem-solving capacities. These benefits collectively are associated with enhanced adolescents’ social adaptability, particularly in areas such as social interaction, task management, and relationship building, while also mitigating externalizing behavioral problems¹⁶.Building on this literature, the Hypothesis H1 is proposed:

H1: Physical exercise is positively associated with adolescents’ social adaptability.

The mediating roles of self-efficacy and psychological resilience

Self-efficacy, initially introduced by Bandura, pertains to an individual’s belief in their ability to apply acquired skills to successfully execute specific tasks or behaviors¹⁷. Individuals with higher self-efficacy tend to have greater motivation, which is crucial for achieving their goals¹⁸. Within sports psychology research, a strong positive relationship has been consistently observed between self-efficacy and physical exercise^19,20. Engagement in physical activities generates a range of positive emotions—such as enjoyment, satisfaction, a sense of achievement, and happiness—which foster favorable psychological outcomes and reinforce individuals’ confidence in their abilities^21,22. Moreover, persons with elevated self-efficacy are generally more adept at integrating into social groups and cultivating harmonious interpersonal relationships^23,24. Recent research further substantiates a strong link between social adaptability and self-efficacy, indicating that people with a stronger sense of self-efficacy are more predisposed to seek novel experiences, engage proactively in social contexts, and demonstrate superior interpersonal skills and adaptability²⁵. Therefore, self-efficacy may serve as a mediator linking physical exercise to social adaptability.

Psychological resilience refers to the capacity to adapt positively in the face of adversity^26,27. Several studies have identified the degree of physical exercise as a crucial element influencing psychological resilience²⁸. Physical exercise facilitates the positive development of resilience, with greater engagement leading to significantly enhanced resilience²⁹. Among adolescents, psychological resilience has been recognized as a pivotal mediating construct linking physical exercise to psychological health outcomes^30,31. Furthermore, the Conservation of Resources theory posits that individuals possessing a greater abundance of resources are better equipped to invest these assets to secure additional resources, thereby progressively augmenting their overall resource pool³². Physical exercise can be viewed as an activity that builds personal resources. Individuals with high psychological resilience adeptly manage stress and adapt effectively to changing environments. Resilience is intricately intertwined with adaptive capacity: the greater an individual’s resilience, the more skillfully they mobilize diverse resources to confront challenges, leading to enhanced control over external circumstances and greater social adaptability^33,34. Thus, psychological resilience is another theoretically justified mediator.

Self-efficacy is broadly acknowledged as a fundamental predictor of psychological resilience, with higher levels of self-efficacy significantly enhancing a person’s ability to manage stress and adapt constructively to adversity^35,36. Individuals exhibiting elevated self-efficacy typically possess greater intrinsic motivation and self-assurance, empowering them to employ proactive coping strategies, overcome challenges, and demonstrate pronounced psychological resilience³⁷. This suggests a potential sequential process where exercise enhances self-efficacy, which in turn fosters psychological resilience³⁸.

Based on the above theoretical integration, the following hypotheses are proposed:

H2: Self-efficacy mediates the association between physical exercise and adolescents’ social adaptability.

H3: Psychological resilience mediates the association between physical exercise and adolescents’ social adaptability.

H4: Self-efficacy and psychological resilience sequentially mediate (chain mediate) the association between physical exercise and adolescents’ social adaptability.

Most existing studies have primarily investigated the associations of physical exercise with adolescents’ school adaptation³⁹. However, successful adolescent development requires not only adaptation to academic environments but also the cultivation of broader social adaptability skills essential for integration into society. Physical exercise is posited to play a pivotal role in facilitating this broader social adaptation. Consequently, investigating how physical exercise relates to adolescents’ social adaptability has become an important research topic. The present study aims to elucidate this relationship while further exploring the chained mediating roles of self-efficacy and psychological resilience. Through this inquiry, the study seeks to provide a robust theoretical foundation to guide strategies aimed at promoting the comprehensive physical and psychological development of adolescents.

Methods

Research design

A cross-sectional design was utilized to examine the links proposed in the hypotheses. Between February 2025 and March 2025, participants were selected through convenience sampling. While convenient, this method may limit the generalizability of findings, a point addressed in the limitations section. The survey was conducted following a systematic protocol and obtained explicit permission from school principals, classroom teachers, participating students, and their parents. Surveys were administered by class during break times, with participants independently completing a comprehensive questionnaire within the designated period. To respect student autonomy, participants were permitted to discontinue participation in the survey at any time during the 25-min session. To ensure confidentiality and maintain data integrity, questionnaires were collected immediately upon completion.

Participants

Participants were drawn from China. A total of 1392 adolescent students were administered questionnaires. After removing duplicate or inconsistent responses, 1280 completed questionnaires were deemed valid and retained, yielding a valid response rate of 91.95%.

Following the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki⁴⁰, this study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Qufu Normal University (Approval No. QF2025001) and was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants and their legal guardians prior to participation. All participants were informed of the study purpose, the voluntary nature of participation, their right to withdraw at any time, and the confidentiality of their responses.

Among the participants, 49.8% (637) were male and 50.2% (643) were female, with ages spanning from 12 to 18 years and spanning grades 7 to 12. Both age and grade were collected as they provide related but distinct information: age reflects biological maturity, while grade reflects academic and social context.

This study also employed an R-based Monte Carlo simulation program developed by Schoemann et al. Under conditions of power = 0.8, with 20,000 Monte Carlo replications and a 95% confidence interval (CI), the results indicated a minimum required sample size of 231 participants (Fig. 2). The final sample of 1,280 far exceeded this minimum, ensuring adequate statisticalpower.

Fig. 2.

Sample size was estimated for the chi-square distribution.

Outcome measures

Physical exercise rating scale (PERS)

The PERS, initially constructed by Japanese psychologist Hashimoto Norio and later improved by Liang Deqing, assesses participants’ overall levels of physical activity based on intensity, frequency, and duration, without differentiating specific types of exercise (e.g., team vs. individual)⁴¹. This PERS consists of 3 main components: intensity, frequency, and duration of exercise. The exercise level is determined by the formula: Physical Exercise Level = Intensity × Frequency × Duration. Frequency and intensity are scored from 1 point (1) to 5 points (5), while duration is rated from 0 points (1) to 4 points (5). The total score ranges from 0 to 100. Based on the scoring system, physical exercise levels are classified as high (≥ 43 points), moderate (20 to 42 points), and low (≤ 19 points). The scale has shown strong reliability, with an overall coefficient of 0.82⁴¹. The "test–retest reliability" in this study was observed to be 0.820.

Social adaptability scale for secondary school students (SAS-SSS)

The SAS-SSS, created by Zheng Richang, was employed to assess high school students’ social adaptability⁴². This scale includes 20 items, classified into five dimensions: learning skills, self-management skills, peer-relationship skills, compliance skills, and communication willingness. Each item offers three response options: "Yes," "Uncertain," and "No," which are scored as -2, 0, and 2, respectively. Items with even numbers are reverse-scored. The total score reflects the level of social adaptability across high school students According to prior research⁴³, a score between 35 and 40 indicates exceptionally strong social adaptability, 29–34 signifies good adaptation, 17–28 reflects an average level, 6–16 suggests poor adaptation, and a score below 5 denotes very poor social adaptability. In recent years, the scale has been extensively used in high school populations and has indicated robust validity and reliability^44,45. In this study, the scale’s Cronbach’s α was 0.934. The questionnaire’s structural validity was confirmed as reflected in the following model fit indices: χ²/df = 1.635, SRMR = 0.0171, GFI = 0.980, IFI = 0.993, AGFI = 0.973, CFI = 0.993, TLI = 0.992, and RMSEA = 0.022. According to Wu’s evaluation criteria, all model fit indices met high standards, indicating that the questionnaire exhibits strong structural validity⁴⁶.

General self-efficacy scale (GSES)

The GSES was originally established by Schwarzer et al. and later adapted into Chinese by Wang Caikang and colleagues⁴⁷. Consisting of 10 items, it is one of the most widely used instruments in self-efficacy research. The scale utilizes a 4-point Likert scoring format and serves as a unidimensional measure, with only the total score computed; higher scores reflect higher levels of self-efficacy. The internal consistency reliability (i.e., Cronbach’s α) of the original scale was reported as 0.87, with a test–retest reliability of 0.83 over 10 days and a split-half reliability coefficient of 0.82. And, the Cronbach’s α of the scale in this research was determined as 0.938. The structural validity of the questionnaire was confirmed based on the following model fit indices: χ²/df = 1.535, SRMR = 0.011, GFI = 0.992, AGFI = 0.987, IFI = 0.998, CFI = 0.998, TLI = 0.997, and RMSEA = 0.021.

Adolescent psychological resilience scale

The connor-davidson resilience scale (CD-RISC), revised in 2007 by Yu Xiao Nan and Zhang Jianxin⁴⁸ based on the original version constructed by Connor and Davidson⁴⁹, was used to assess psychological resilience in this research. The scale comprises 25 items, classified into 3 main dimensions: strength, optimism, and tenacity. A 5-point Likert scale is used to assess responses: 0 = "not true at all," 1 = "rarely true," 2 = "sometimes true," 3 = "often true," and 4 = "almost always true." Higher scoring reflects higher levels of psychological resilience. In this study, the scale showed a Cronbach’s α of 0.947. The structural validity of the questionnaire was confirmed based on the following model fit indices: χ²/df = 3.634, SRMR = 0.0676, GFI = 0.939, AGFI = 0.927, IFI = 0.963, CFI = 0.963, TLI = 0.959, and RMSEA = 0.046.

Data analysis

Multivariate normality was measured using the Mardia test from the R package MVN that calculated the kurtosis and skewness for each observed variable. The findings showed that all items had absolute skewness values below 2 (ranging from − 0.241 to 0.093) and absolute kurtosis values below 3 (ranging from − 1.504 to − 0.902), suggesting that the data had a multivariate normal distribution^50,51. Pearson’s correlation analysis was carried out to explore the links between social adaptability, self-efficacy, physical activity, and psychological resilience, while Harman’s single-factor (HSF) test was utilized to detect potential common method bias among the variables. The critical threshold of 40% for the variance explained by the first factor was used, based on common methodological recommendations. Then, the maximum likelihood method was applied to estimate the model’s path coefficients, and the bias-corrected bootstrap method with 5,000 replications was employed to estimate the mediation effect, with a 95% CI.

Results

Common method bias

Given that this study leaned exclusively on self-report measures for data collection, the results may be susceptible to "common method bias." To mitigate its potential effects, standardized procedures were implemented, including designing the questionnaire with an appropriate length, ensuring respondent anonymity, and incorporating reverse-scored items into several scales. Harman’s single-factor test was carried out to assess whether common method bias was present. An exploratory factor analysis was performed in SPSS on all items from the PERS, the APRS, the SAS, and the GSES. The unrotated factor analysis yielded 10 factors with eigenvalues exceeding 1. The most prominent factor accounted for 32.637% of the variance, which is lower than the critical threshold of 40%. This suggests that significant common method bias is not present in this study.

Descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics of the sociodemographic characteristics, such as grade, gender, and age of the valid questionnaire samples are presented in Table 1. The gender distribution was approximately equal, with males and females each comprising about 50%. Participants’ ages ranged from 12 to 18 years, with the highest proportion being 15 years old (21.1%). The grades ranged from 7 to 12th, with 9th grade comprising the largest proportion (20.2%). Overall, the demographic characteristics of the valid samples demonstrate strong representativeness. The age distribution approximating a normal curve is plausible given the school-based sampling across consecutive grades.

Table 1.

Demographic characteristics of participants.

Basic information	Category	N	%
Sexes	Male	637	49.8
	Female	643	50.2
Age	12	84	6.6
	13	174	13.6
	14	252	19.7
	15	270	21.1
	16	242	18.9
	17	169	13.2
	18	89	7
Grade level	7	215	16.8
	8	242	18.9
	9	259	20.2
	10	253	19.8
	11	173	13.5
	12	138	10.8

Correlation analysis

According to Iversen et al., a correlation coefficient between 0.75 and 1.00 signifies a strong positive relationship, with a coefficient between 0.30 and 0.70 reflecting a moderate positive correlation, and a coefficient between -0.25 and 0.25 suggests a weak correlation⁵². As shown in Table 2, the Pearson correlation coefficients among the dimensions ranged from 0.499 to 0.712, indicating moderate positive associations between self-efficacy, physical exercise, psychological resilience, and social adaptation. Following the recommendations of Fornell et al., discriminant validity is deemed valid when the square root of a construct’s "average variance extracted" (AVE) outstrips its correlations with all other constructs⁵³. This approach helps ensure that each construct in the model is distinct and not overly related to others. In this study, the square roots of the AVEs for all constructs exceeded their corresponding inter-construct correlation coefficients, which suggests that each construct is sufficiently distinct from the others, thereby confirming strong discriminant validity.

Table 2.

Results of correlation analysis.

Variable	PE	SE	PR	SA
PE	0.776
SE	0.499	0.777
PR	0.650	0.617	0.752
SA	0.576	0.539	0.712	0.789

Bold diagonal values are the square roots of AVEs. Values in the lower triangle are Pearson’s correlation coefficients. PE physical exercise; SE self-efficacy; SA social adaptability; PR psychological resilience.

Structural modeling

Model fit test

Model fit indices reflect the level of alignment between the sample data and the hypothesized model. Different indices provide complementary information about model fit⁵⁴. The present study utilized AMOS 27 software for data fitting and assessed the structural equation model’s fit using the "Maximum Likelihood (ML) estimation method." The model showed good fit: χ²/df = 1.119, SRMR = 0.015, GFI = 0.984, AGFI = 0.980, IFI = 0.998, CFI = 0.998, and TLI = 0.998, all surpassing recommended thresholds⁵⁵.

Model path relationship test

As presented in Table 3, physical exercise was significantly positively associated with social adaptability (β = 0.173, p < 0.001). In addition, physical exercise was significantly associated with self-efficacy (β = 0.499, p < 0.001) and psychological resilience (β = 0.455, p < 0.001). Self-efficacy was also significantly associated with both psychological resilience (β = 0.390, p < 0.001) and social adaptability (β = 0.134, p < 0.001). Lastly, psychological resilience was significantly positively associated with social adaptability (β = 0.517, p < 0.001).

Table 3.

Path relationship test results.

Path	Ustd	S.E	Z	P	β
PE → SE	0.482	0.032	15.035	***	0.499
PE → PR	1.256	0.111	11.329	***	0.455
SE → PR	1.115	0.105	10.581	***	0.390
PR → SA	0.428	0.047	9.046	***	0.517
PE → SA	0.397	0.097	4.089	***	0.173
SE → SA	0.318	0.087	3.653	***	0.134

std. = unstandardized coefficient; β = standardized coefficient; S.E. standard error; PE physical exercise; SE self-efficacy; SA social adaptability; PR psychological resilience; ***: P < 0.001.

Hypothesis testing

To test the mediation hypotheses (H2–H4), bias-corrected and percentile bootstrap methods with 5,000 resamples were used to estimate 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the indirect effects^56–59 .

Direct and total effects (H1)

The bootstrap results (Table 4) showed a significant direct effect of physical exercise on social adaptability (unstandardized effect = 0.397, 95% CI [0.173, 0.611]). The total effect was also significant (1.318, 95% CI [1.177, 1.453]). Therefore, physical exercise is positively associated with adolescents’ social adaptability, supporting Hypothesis H1.

Table 4.

Bootstrap mediating effect test.

Path relationship	Point estimate	Product of coefficient		Bootstrapping 5000 time 95% CI
				Bias-corrected		Percentile
		SE	Z	Lower	Upper	Lower	Upper
PE → SA	0.397	0.112	3.545	0.173	0.611	0.170	0.607
PE → SE → SA	0.153	0.049	3.122	0.053	0.248	0.053	0.248
PE → PR → SA	0.538	0.085	6.329	0.397	0.734	0.392	0.726
PE → SE → PR → SA	0.230	0.040	5.750	0.161	0.320	0.159	0.317
PE → SA	1.318	0.070	18.829	1.177	1.453	1.181	1.456

PE physical exercise; SE self-efficacy; SA social adaptability; PR psychological resilience.

Mediating role of self-efficacy (H2)

As presented in Table 4 and Fig. 3,The indirect effect through self-efficacy (PE → SE → SA) was 0.153 (95% CI [0.053, 0.248]), which is statistically significant as the CI does not include zero. This suggests that self-efficacy partially mediates the association between physical exercise and social adaptability, supporting Hypothesis H2.

Fig. 3.

Model path diagram with standardized estimates.

Mediating role of psychological resilience (H3)

As presented in Table 4 and Fig. 3,The indirect effect through psychological resilience (PE → PR → SA) was 0.538 (95% CI [0.397, 0.734]), which is statistically significant. This suggests that psychological resilience partially mediates the association between physical exercise and social adaptability, supporting Hypothesis H3.

Chain mediation of self-efficacy and psychological resilience (H4)

As illustrated in Table 4 and Fig. 3, The chain indirect effect through self-efficacy and then psychological resilience (PE → SE → PR → SA) was 0.230 (95% CI [0.161, 0.320]), which is statistically significant. This suggests that self-efficacy and psychological resilience sequentially mediate the association between physical exercise and social adaptability, supporting Hypothesis H4.

Discussion

Overview of findings

This cross-sectional study examined the association between adolescents’ physical exercise and social adaptability, highlighting the roles of self-efficacy and psychological resilience as mediators. The findings indicated that greater participation in physical exercise was positively associated with higher social adaptability in adolescents, both directly and indirectly through the two mediating variables. In particular, the association appeared to operate in part via higher self-efficacy and greater psychological resilience, both independently and sequentially. It is important to note that, given the cross-sectional design, these results reflect correlations rather than definitive causation. Nonetheless, the pattern of associations provides insight into how physical activity might relate to social adaptability development.

The association between physical exercise and social adaptability

Consistent with prior research, we found a significant positive correlation between adolescents’ participation in physical exercise and their level of social adaptability^60,61.^62,63This trend aligns with the notion that many forms of exercise provide natural opportunities for social interaction, teamwork, and the building of social networks. Such activities can help adolescents practice cooperation, share positive experiences, and develop a sense of belonging with peers. However, alternative interpretations of this association must be considered. It is possible that adolescents who are inherently more socially adept may be more inclined to participate in group sports and exercise in the first place, meaning the direction could be bidirectional or even reversed⁶⁴. Additionally, unmeasured contextual factors (e.g., supportive family environments, encouraging school climate) could contribute to both higher physical activity and better social adaptability⁶⁵. Given these considerations, the link observed between exercise and social adaptability in our study should be interpreted as part of a broader social-ecological system.

The mediating role of self-efficacy

Our results support the mediating role of self-efficacy in the exercise-social adaptability relationship. This finding aligns with social cognitive theory¹⁰, which posits that personal efficacy beliefs influence behavior and adaptation. One plausible explanation is that regular exercise provides mastery experiences and feedback that build an adolescent’s confidence in their abilities^66,67. This heightened self-efficacy may carry over into social situations, helping adolescents feel more confident in navigating peer interactions and challenges.^68,69. While it is probable that exercise helps boost self-efficacy, it is also conceivable that adolescents who already possess higher self-efficacy are more likely to take up sports⁷⁰. We interpret the mediation by self-efficacy as a theoretical pathway consistent with our data and past literature, but longitudinal research is needed to verify the directionality.

The mediating role of psychological resilience

Psychological resilience also emerged as an important mediating factor in the link between physical exercise and social adaptability. Adolescents reporting more frequent exercise tended to have higher resilience, which was associated with better social adaptability. This pattern aligns with other studies indicating that physical exercise can promote psychological resilience^71–73 and that resilience, in turn, helps adolescents adjust to new or stressful social environments⁷⁴. Resilience refers to the capacity to recover from setbacks and persist in the face of challenges. Physical activities, especially those that involve training and competition, naturally expose participants to manageable difficulties and failures, which can serve as opportunities to develop coping skills. For example, learning to handle a loss in sports or pushing through physical discomfort during exercise can teach adolescents how to manage frustration.

The research underscores the significant impact of physical exercise on the development of psychological resilience among students^75,76. Experiencing manageable levels of frustration in various physical exercise contexts, such as physical education classes and recreational sports, has been associated with improved well-being and greater enjoyment⁷⁷, which in turn strengthens students’ tolerance for frustration. Success in physical exercise further enhances adolescents’ resilience in facing challenges and setbacks. A robust body of empirical evidence consistently shows that individuals possessing higher psychological resilience are more capable of reducing the negative effects of challenging situations and adapting more effectively in social contexts⁷⁸. Therefore, physical exercise emerges as an essential strategy for fostering adolescents’ social adaptability, primarily through its influence on enhancing psychological resilience.

Resilience fosters adaptive problem-solving and optimism, traits that help adolescents form positive relationships and adjust to different social settings^79–81. Thus, it makes theoretical sense that resilience would link physical exercise to social adaptability: exercise may cultivate a more resilient mindset, and that resilience, in turn, enables more effective social adjustment. Still, as with self-efficacy, we recognize that causality cannot be definitively established here. It is possible that adolescents who start off with higher resilience (due to innate factors or supportive upbringing) are more willing to participate and persist in physical exercise. Additionally, external supports—such as mentors, coaches, or a strong peer group—could contribute to both greater resilience and greater social success. Our interpretation is that exercise provides a useful context for developing resilience, which is consistent with the associations observed, but we cannot rule out other explanations or reverse influences.

The chain mediation of self-efficacy and psychological resilience

This study found a significant positive correlation between self-efficacy and psychological resilience Furthermore, it substantiated the chain-mediating role of self-efficacy and psychological resilience in the relation between adolescents’ social adaptability and physical exercise. The higher levels of self-efficacy among adolescents are closely related to increased psychological resilience, positioning self-efficacy as a crucial factor influencing the development of psychological resilience. A study highlights the foundational role of self-efficacy in strengthening individuals’ capacity to withstand and adapt to adversity⁸².

On one hand, participation in physical exercise creates a challenging and feedback-rich environment, where individuals frequently face experiences of success, failure, and ongoing challenges. These experiences are instrumental in fostering self-efficacy, as they build confidence in overcoming difficulties⁸³. Physical exercise is documented as an essential protective factor, providing not only direct benefits to physical and psychological health but also promoting the development of psychological resilience by enhancing self-efficacy, coping skills, and emotional regulation⁸⁴. On the other hand, self-efficacy significantly influences individuals’ attitudes and behavioral strategies when facing challenges, thereby shaping the development of psychological resilience and ultimately enhancing social adaptability⁸⁵.

Thus, physical exercise enhances adolescents’ social adaptability by simultaneously fortifying self-efficacy and psychological resilience. Consequently, self-efficacy and psychological resilience serve as successive mediators in the link between social adaptability and physical exercise.

Overall, our findings point to physical exercise being a potentially valuable component of adolescent development that is associated with better social adaptability, partly through positive psychological attributes. From a practical standpoint, this suggests that encouraging regular physical activity—especially programs that foster personal achievement and social interaction—could support adolescents’ social skills and adaptability. Schools and communities might consider integrating sports or structured exercise into youth development initiatives as one way to promote teamwork, confidence, and coping abilities. Importantly, any such interventions should also consider the broader context: maximizing family support for exercise (e.g., parental encouragement) and cultivating inclusive, supportive peer environments may amplify the social benefits of physical activity.

Research limitations and future directions

This study holds considerable theoretical significance and practical relevance; however, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the cross-sectional design restricts the ability to draw causal conclusions. Future studies should adopt longitudinal or experimental designs to better capture the directionality. Second, the generalizability of the findings is constrained by the use of convenience sampling and the geographic homogeneity of the sample, drawn from three provinces in China. Future research should employ more representative sampling strategies. Third, while Harman’s single-factor test did not indicate significant common method variance, the exclusive reliance on self-report measures may be subject to biases. Employing multiple informants and objective measures in future studies would help. Fourth, the PERS scale assesses overall exercise volume but does not differentiate types of exercise (e.g., team vs. individual), limiting insights into how specific activity contexts might influence the observed relationships.

Conclusion

This study systematically researched the impact of physical exercise on adolescents’ social adaptability. The findings indicate that physical exercise positively and significantly predicts adolescents’ social adaptability. However, given the cross-sectional nature of the study, these relationships are correlational rather than causal. Moreover, the use of convenience sampling limits the generalizability of the findings, and reliance on self-report data may introduce bias. Despite these limitations, self-efficacy and psychological resilience each serve as meaningful mediators in this relationship. In addition, self-efficacy contributes to the psychological resilience’s development, creating a sequential mediation pathway that further amplifies the positive influence of physical exercise on social adaptability.

Author contributions

ANW, YHY, ZBC, QBZ, JXW, and Dongdong Tang wrote the original draft.

Funding

NO

Data availability

Data is provided within the manuscript or supplementary information files.

Declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This study, titled "The relationship of physical exercise on social adaptability of adolescents: the chain mediating role of self-efficacy and psychological resilience," was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Qufu Normal University (Approval No. QF2025001). We confirm that this study was conducted in accordance with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and subsequent amendments. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants and their guardians prior to enrollment in this study.