Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Fathers' Experiences of Early Parenting: A Qualitative Study

ABSTRACT

Aim

This study aimed to explore culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) fathers' early parenting support needs in the perinatal period in Australia.

Design

A qualitative descriptive research study. Participant fathers were recruited using purposive and snowball sampling who self‐identified as CALD.

Methods

Data were collected through semi‐structured telephone interviews with 15 Australian fathers aged between 29 and 56 years in July–November 2022. Data were analysed using Braun and Clarke's six stages of thematic analysis to code, categorise and identify themes from the data.

Findings

Four major themes and six sub‐themes emerged from the data, ‘Under pressure’, ‘Slipping through the cracks’, ‘Gaining knowledge and support by health professionals’, and ‘Path ahead: changed roles and being supported by peers’ that encompassed fathers' early parenting experiences and support needs in the perinatal period.

Conclusion

Culturally and linguistically diverse fathers experience challenges in navigating maternal health care settings and at times interactions with health professionals. However, findings from this study showed that fathers were determined to navigate resources, services and networks that supported their transition to fatherhood in the early postpartum weeks. There is a need for maternity settings to be a ‘father‐inclusive’ environment where informational and practical support is readily available to them. Legislation reform is needed that recognises fathers as parents who require adequate ‘paid’ parental leave entitlements that foster family relationships and recognises the role fathers play in the development of their child.

Implications for the Profession and/or Patient Care

This study provides insights into the support needs of CALD fathers in the perinatal period. Findings from this study have the potential to shape and design culturally appropriate health services and interventions tailored to CALD fathers that meet their nuanced needs through the lens of cultural competence and trauma informed maternity care.

Impact

What problem did the study address?: The study explored the support needs of CALD fathers in the perinatal period. What were the main findings?: The findings revealed CALD fathers feel a sense of responsibility and pressure to live up to socio‐cultural expectations and support the family unit while engaging in paid employment to earn a living. At times fathers were not encouraged to be parenting partners by health professionals, and there was an expectation that they would be familiar and have knowledge about pregnancy, labour, birth and the transition to fatherhood. Some fathers struggled with their transition to parenthood either due to lack of paid parental support or limited to no family support. However, some fathers found alternatives to manage and adjust in the early weeks postpartum, which included peer support groups and online information. Where and on whom will the research have an impact?: The research has the potential to impact all fathers, as the findings may be transferrable across a number of communities. The research also has the potential to influence cultural competence training for health care professionals and inform policy development that employs a family centred model of maternity care inclusive of culturally diverse families.

Reporting Method

The paper has adhered to the EQUATOR COREQ reporting guideline.

No Patient or Public Involvement

This study did not include patient or public involvement in its design, conduct or reporting.

What Does This Paper Contribute to the Wider Global Clinical Community?

The findings from the study have the potential to contribute to global health sectors and services to consider father‐inclusive practices in maternity settings to ensure CALD fathers feel welcome and included as parenting partners across the maternity continuum. Findings have the potential to guide maternity care practices to ensure a consistent family centred approach is adopted to involve and engage fathers in the care of their partners and newborns.

1. Background

During the perinatal period, parents experience a mixture of emotions and challenges as they navigate the transition to parenthood (Refaeli et al. 2024). In Western societies, fathers/partners as parenting partners are expected to be present at the birth of their child, to form a close relationship with their child as well as to provide ongoing support for their partners (Philpott et al. 2022). Research demonstrates that fathers have a significant impact on maternal well‐being (Marrs et al. 2014; Wells 2016); pregnancy outcomes such as mode of birth (Alio et al. 2011; Dolan and Coe 2011); and the child's physical, mental, behavioural, social and emotional development (Widarsson et al. 2012). The more fathers are included in perinatal care and are viewed as parenting partners, the more likely they will remain involved with their child's ongoing care (Wells 2016; Xue et al. 2018).

Research, however, has identified that men are unclear about their role when becoming fathers, particularly during pregnancy and the first few months of their child's life (Leahy‐Warren et al. 2023). Fathers' relationship develops later in the perinatal period than mothers and usually at the time when the infant starts showing signs of development such as smiling, giggling and other facial expressions (Xue et al. 2018). Additional challenges such as financial pressures, employment commitments and time constraints negatively impact marital and co‐parenting relationships (Wells 2016; Wells and Aronson 2021; Short et al. 2023). It is unsurprising that rates of paternal depression in the first year after birth are similar to those experienced by mothers (Wells and Aronson 2021). The prevalence of fathers who experience postnatal depression ranges between 7.2% and 12.7% (Cameron et al. 2016; Paulson and Bazemore 2010), with the most challenging time reportedly being between three to six months post‐birth (Cameron et al. 2016). Evidence additionally proposes that due to personal, societal and cultural pressures (Wells 2016; Condon et al. 2004; Kothari et al. 2022), men are more likely to hide their mental health issues (Wells 2016; Wells and Aronson 2021; Kothari et al. 2022; Baldoni et al. 2022) therefore, it is expected the rates of postnatal depression are a lot higher than reported in the literature.

Nonetheless, data demonstrates that despite fathers' being willing and motivated to participate, even in countries like Sweden with a strong emphasis on gender equality, they still perceive themselves to be inadequately included, supported or considered; resulting in some feelings of unimportance and helplessness (Wells 2016). Similar findings likewise suggest fathers feel insignificant or patronised by health care professionals (HCPs), as well as awkward add‐ons to mothers (Xue et al. 2018; Leahy‐Warren et al. 2023; Dahlen et al. 2022; Forbes et al. 2021). Furthermore, conformity to male stereotypes with an emphasis on self‐reliance (Short et al. 2023; Kothari et al. 2022; Giallo et al. 2017), and the down‐playing of problems due to fear of stigma (Giallo et al. 2017) can result in non‐receptiveness (Rominov et al. 2017), and less help‐seeking behaviour (Short et al. 2023; Giallo et al. 2017; Gorczynski et al. 2017).

Challenges faced in the perinatal period can be even greater for fathers who are from culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) backgrounds, as a consequence of social, religious and cultural expectations differing across cultures (Forbes et al. 2021; Rominov et al. 2017). In addition to navigating differing societal expectations in Australia (Forbes et al. 2021), the ability to and appropriateness of seeking support during the perinatal period can be further hampered by traditional cultural and religious expectations, including an understanding of gender roles (Forbes et al. 2021; Rominov et al. 2017). These factors not only influence how men transition to fatherhood, but also how they integrate in a new country, with many feeling ‘confused’ or ‘ostracised’ as they navigate the cultural and social shift of resettling in a different country (Pangas et al. 2019). For expectant and new fathers, being away from family members who are the key sources of support can be stressful, with low social support being an identified risk factor for the development of paternal perinatal depression (Short et al. 2023; Baldoni et al. 2022; Ngai and Ngu 2015). Additional difficulty can arise as a consequence of role conflict between traditional and modern ways (Leahy‐Warren et al. 2023; Forbes et al. 2021), with men having to step into roles not previously occupied, due to Australian healthcare and societal expectations; but also as a consequence of isolation creating a ‘gap’ in the support usually provided by female relatives in traditional settings (Forbes et al. 2021). Language barriers further complicate matters, with the inability to effectively communicate with maternity care providers and access health care services being a commonly expressed concern (Forbes et al. 2021; Rominov et al. 2017).

The combined impact of lack of support from woman‐centred services, barriers to seeking help and a sense of exclusion by HCPs has contributed to fathers experiencing conflict between their expectations of fatherhood and the realities of parenting (Xue et al. 2018; Pålsson et al. 2017; Cosson and Graham 2012). However, studies have shown that when HCPs actively engage fathers and seek their perspectives, men feel more validated and included (Kothari et al. 2022; Massoudi et al. 2023). This in turn leads to the better building of trust and rapport throughout the therapeutic relationship, and a more positive influence on their engagement at home and with their baby (Massoudi et al. 2023). Research suggests that during these critical periods, receiving appropriate support from healthcare providers such as nurses and midwives who understand and are culturally responsive to their needs as a father reduces fathers' risk of psychological distress (Wells 2016; Kothari et al. 2022), which in turn benefits not only them, but also their partners and babies (Wells 2016; Short et al. 2023). Cultural understanding may only be possible through a demonstration of cultural competence.

Cultural competence is a set of behaviours, attitudes and policies that come together to work effectively in cross‐cultural situations. The ability for culturally diverse families to engage with health services is also likely to be impacted by the cultural responsiveness of services and service providers (Forbes et al. 2023) and the accessibility of resources such as interpreters and cultural liaisons that fosters diversity within the healthcare workforce (Ng et al. 2025). A study in Australia identified that there is a willingness of healthcare professionals to engage fathers from CALD backgrounds, but emphasised the need for greater levels of policies, training and support to achieve a level of engagement with fathers (Forbes et al. 2023).

There is a significant knowledge gap in relation to CALD fathers supports needs in the perinatal period in Australia. Therefore, the research question was ‘what are the support needs of CALD fathers in the perinatal period?’ The aim was to explore culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) fathers' early parenting support needs in the perinatal period in Australia.

2. Methods

2.1. Research Design

A qualitative descriptive research design was used as the study was focused on uncovering meanings and interpretations individuals make of their experiences and the social construction of their reality (Lim 2025). The goal of descriptive research is to understand ‘what’, ‘who’, ‘where’ and ‘when’ and how people make sense of the world and their place within it rather than to measure or quantify social reality through numeral translations (Lim 2025). In qualitative research participants are the seen as the ‘experts’ and the ‘knowers’ of their experiences. The researcher's purpose is to elicit rich data that meets the aims of the study (Lim 2025). A qualitative descriptive approach was most suited to the study as this study aimed to gain insights of CALD fathers early parenting experiences and support needs in the perinatal period.

2.2. Ethics Statement

Ethical approval was granted for this study by Western Sydney University Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC), approval number H14749.

2.3. Recruitment, Participants and Ethical Considerations

Purposive and snowball sampling methods were used to recruit participants through social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram and X and faith‐based organisations such as the Migrant Resource Centre and the Lebanese Muslim Association and the PREPARED Dad Foundation that supports first‐time fathers. Fathers were eligible if they were aged 18 years of age or over, had a baby in the last 5 years (for recent memory recall) in New South Wales or Queensland, as these are two of the largest States in Australia, allowing for a greater sample of CALD fathers. Fathers also needed to self‐identify as being from a CALD background. Culturally and linguistically diverse was defined as individuals with a cultural or linguistic heritage different from the dominant Anglo‐Australian culture, encompassing diverse languages, ethnicities, nationalities, traditions and religions (Australian Bereau Statistics 2022). Participants were invited to participate in the study who were either born in or outside Australia as both perspectives were deemed important to provide their perspective of early parenting support needs.

Interested participants directly contacted the primary researcher by email, after which potential participants were screened for eligibility, provided with an information sheet which detailed the purpose of the study, the right to withdraw and details of consent procedures. Potential participants were encouraged to make contact with the primary researcher to ask questions about the study to ensure informed consent was obtained in accordance with the World Medical Association of Declaration of Helsinki (2013). Once participants consented to participate, a convenient time was arranged for an interview with the option of being interviewed either face to face, by telephone or through video conferencing mediums. All participants preferred to be interviewed by telephone as it was more convenient for them. Only the first author knew the identities of participants through data collection. Participants' anonymity was maintained by allocating them a participant code.

2.4. Data Collection

Data were collected in 2022 through open ended semi‐structured, digitally recorded telephone interviews with fourteen CALD participant fathers aged between 29 and 56 years. One father preferred not to have his interview recorded; therefore, notes were transcribed during the telephone interview. Overall, 15 fathers participated in the study. Data sufficiency and information power were used to determine the sample size. Information power refers to the determination by researchers that rich data about the phenomenon of interest was obtained (Younas et al. 2025). Interviews lasted between 15 and 60 min. Open ended questions served as a guide for the researcher to capture data about their early parenting experiences and support needs in the perinatal period (see Table 1). At the end of the interview, demographic data were collected including age, cultural background, religion, number of children, marital/relationship status, work status, model of maternity care their partner received, maternity care provider and type of birth, for example, vaginal or caesarean birth.

TABLE 1.

Interview schedule.

Tell me about your experiences of seeking or receiving support before, during and after the birth of your baby?

Prompts

Tell me about the model of care you accessed and why?

Describe the support you were able or felt comfortable in seeking

Describe the support you received from health professionals and family

2.5. Data Analysis

Recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim by a professional transcription service (REV transcription). Manual Inductive thematic analysis was selected as the most suitable data analysis approach, as it is a bottom‐up approach with themes arising from the data rather than from pre‐existing theories. This approach allowed for the discovery of key concepts after immersion in the data (Bradley et al. 2007). Once identified, key concepts were further developed into themes and subthemes, ensuring that each encompassed the scope and breadth of the detail provided. Analysis was concluded when no additional themes or subthemes could be discerned (Bradley et al. 2007). As qualitative research necessarily provides content that is subject to multiple meanings and interpretations, some degree of data inference was required (Graneheim and Lundman 2004). Consequently, reflexive thematic analysis was applied using an inductive approach as this method enables the identification of ‘frequent, dominant or significant themes inherent in raw data’ [p. 238] (Thomas 2006). The interviews were conducted by the first author and the analysis was conducted and reviewed by all the authors.

2.6. Reflexivity

Reflexivity in qualitative research is the process of critically examining the researcher's own role and influence on the research process, including their biases, assumptions and experiences (Ide and Beddoe 2024). It is about acknowledging how the researcher's perspectives shape data collection, analysis and interpretation. This self‐awareness is critical to the quality of the qualitative findings (Ide and Beddoe 2024). The first author, RE, is a woman who self‐identifies as culturally diverse and a midwife with more than 20 years' experience working with CALD families. RE was mindful that potential participants may not feel comfortable with being interviewed by her. Therefore, a strategy was put in place in the event prospective participants preferred and felt more comfortable to be interviewed by a male researcher assistant. No participant requested to be interviewed by a male researcher. VS is a midwife, AK is an obstetrician and gynaecologist, both have extensive experience working closely with CALD fathers in the perinatal period. LP is a public health nurse with research expertise in fathers' perinatal mental health. PLW is a midwife and a public health nurse with research expertise on transition to motherhood, fatherhood, parenting and social support in the perinatal period and SO is a researcher with expertise in researching diverse populations. The data was reviewed by all authors to prevent underdeveloped themes and to ensure thick description of the findings.

2.7. Rigour

Rigour in qualitative research refers to the quality and trustworthiness of the study, ensuring its findings are credible, dependable and meaningful (Johnson et al. 2020; Ahmed 2024). In this study, credibility was maintained through ongoing engagement with participants during the interview process to establish rapport and trust. A detailed description of the research process, including participant demographics, sample size, sampling approach and data analysis was provided for transferability purposes. Dependability and confirmability were adhered to through a detailed approach in the methodology of the study and confirmability was ensured by representing the authentic voices of participants, researcher interpretations of the data, debriefing with researchers and providing details of the researchers' reflexive positions.

3. Findings

Participants were interviewed regarding their experience of becoming a father and their parenting support needs in the perinatal period. Most participants were married, engaged in full‐time employment, were not born in Australia, and had permanent residency/citizen status. A range of non‐religious and religious orientations were reported amongst the participants, with Islam and Hinduism being the most common religions. Participants were either first‐time fathers or fathers who had subsequent children. Participants' partners accessed care from Private Obstetricians and midwives in continuity of care models such as Midwifery Group Practice and Caseload. Participants' partners had given birth either vaginally or via caesarean. Participant demographics are provided in Table 2.

TABLE 2.

Demographic details of participant characteristics.

Participant number	Age	State	Country of birth	Cultural background	Religion	Time since last birth	Model of care	Mode of birth	Number of children	Relationship status	Employment status	Migration status
1	37	NSW	New Zealand	Indian	Not specified	9 months	Private Obstetrician	Caesarean	1	Married	Full‐time	Permanent resident/citizen
2	31	NSW	Australia	Samoan & Dutch	Atheist	2.5 months	Standard Hospital care	Vaginal birth	1	Defacto	Full‐time	Permanent resident/citizen
3	36	QLD	India	Indian	Sikh	10 months	Hospital & GP Shared Care	Normal Vaginal birth	2	Married	Full‐time	Permanent resident/citizen
4	29	NSW	Australia	Fijian Indian	Not specified	3 months	Caseload Midwifery	Normal Vaginal birth	1	Married	Full‐time	Permanent resident/citizen
5	56	NSW	Nigeria	Nigerian	Christian	4 years	Midwifery continuity of care	Caesarean	2	Married	Full‐time	Permanent resident/citizen
6	29	NSW	Lebanon	Lebanese	Muslim	6 months	Midwifery continuity of care	Vaginal birth	1	Married	Full‐time	Permanent resident
7	30	QLD	India	Indian	Sikh	7 months	Private Obstetrician	Caesarean	1	Married	Casual	Student visa
8	34	NSW	Australia	Lebanese	Muslim	2 months	Standard Hospital Care	Vaginal birth	3	Married	Full‐time	Permanent resident
9	48	NSW	UK	Indian	Sikh	1 year	Private Obstetrician	Caesarean	2	Married	Full‐time	Permanent resident/citizen
10	31	NSW	India	Indian	Hindu	8 months	Private Obstetrician	Caesarean	3	Married	Full‐time	Permanent resident/citizen
11	38	NSW	Fiji	Fijian Indian	Muslim	5 years	Standard Hospital Care	Vaginal birth	1	Married	Full‐time	Permanent resident
12	38	NSW	Australia	Lebanese	Muslim	2 months	Private Obstetrician	Caesarean	3	Married	Full‐time	Permanent resident
13	40	NSW	Indian	Indian	Hindu	2 years and 3 months	Standard Hospital Care	Caesarean	2	Married	Full‐time	Permanent resident
14	32	NSW	Jordan	Jordanian	Muslim	1 year	Midwifery Continuity of Care	Normal vaginal birth	1	Married	Casual	Student Visa
15	35	NSW	Fiji	Fijian Indian	Hindu	1 year	Private Obstetrician	Normal vaginal birth	1	Married	Full‐time	Australian citizen

Thematic analysis revealed four major themes, which included (1) Under pressure, (2) Slipping through the cracks, (3) Gaining knowledge and support from health professionals and (4) Pathway ahead: changed roles and being supported by peers. The themes encompassed participants feeling out of their depth, to discovering what was necessary and helpful along the way. Fathers recognised feeling under pressure as they navigated their journey into parenthood, acknowledging the various challenges they encountered that led them to feel like they were slipping through the cracks of the maternity care system. Attempting to regain control, men exerted effort to gain knowledge and stay informed by accessing various forms of support, which at times included their own inner resources. Reflecting upon their experiences, participants identified a pathway ahead not only for potential future pregnancies for their partners but also to benefit other fathers through shared experiences (see Table 3).

TABLE 3.

Major themes, sub‐themes and concepts.

Theme	Sub‐theme	Concept
Under pressure	Juggling responsibilities	Paid employment Financial constraints Contributing to household chores
	Traditional role of father	Maternity as ‘women's Business’ Being tough Masculinity Restrictions on visitations Loss of community support
Slipping through the cracks	Excluded and dismissed	Not communicating with fathers Model of care Lack of father inclusive language
	Feeling helpless	Out of control Not being able to take away partner's pain Not knowing how to care for the baby
Gaining knowledge and support by health professionals		Relying on oneself to research information Internet as a source of information Overloaded with information Learning through being hands on Continuity of care
Pathway ahead: changed roles and being supported by peers	Changed gender roles: working together	Challenging traditional gender roles in caring for baby Sharing the load around the house Government support Faith and culture Being prepared for a baby and other children
	‘Somebody to talk to’: Support groups and forums	Peer to peer support Connecting with other fathers online Asking for help

3.1. Under Pressure

The first major theme ‘under pressure’ relates to participants feeling the pressure of being a father and having to manage a number of competing priorities such as work, caring for a new baby, their partners and trying to help around the home with domestic chores. Two sub‐themes ‘juggling responsibilities’ and ‘traditional role of father’ were identified.

3.1.1. Juggling Responsibilities

The sub‐theme ‘juggling responsibilities’ describes participants' perceived expectations of the need to contribute to the household chores as well as work. Consequently, time constraints were an issue that prevented access to adequate knowledge (such as non‐attendance at educational courses), as well as sufficient parental leave to care for the family, including a new baby.

I had to take care of my wife and the baby [Interviewee 13].

The juggle between conflicting financial needs was also highlighted by this father ‘it's the financial cost of using that support’ [Interviewee 13]. The participants were also aware that their feelings of stress and being overwhelmed could negatively impact their partners with one participant for example stated that he ‘didn't want to confront her with too many things to make life easier for her’ [Interviewee 15].

3.1.2. Traditional Role of Father

Participants talked about the traditional cultural roles involved in being a new father and the ‘man’ in the household, caring and supporting their partner and the baby. Participants referred to the maternity period as ‘women's business’. This expression alluded to the woman's or their own traditional family values where extended family provide support for the expectant and new mother. It would often be a female‐centric role where the expectant or new father is not included or involved until later in the infant's life.

One participant reported, ‘the fathers, from my experience they don't do too much. Maybe some… do some support for the mother, like taking care for the baby, cleaning him …but the most the mother will do…’ [Interviewee 9].

Participants discussed the pressure men face to appear strong and self‐contained that prevents them from seeking the support they need as they believed men should be ‘tough’. Interviewee 2 revealed ‘too tough to go to seek help even if you acknowledged that you need it…I'm not sure how much people are accessing it’ [Interviewee 2]. A culture that demanded men to be strong and not talk about pregnancy and birth was also identified that silenced participants and prevented feelings of safety to discuss pregnancy, birth and babies. ‘It's just not a guy thing. You got different things to talk about. They'll probably tell me, Mate, are you feeling okay?’ ‘No. … I wouldn't even raise it… it'd be awkward, they'll say is something wrong with him? Why is he talking about pregnancy and birth stuff’ [Interviewee 4].

The traditional family‐unit where the fathers were normally welcome into the maternity space changed due to the COVID‐19 pandemic. Visits to the hospital were also extremely difficult due to visiting restrictions and the quality of spent with their partner and baby.

They were allowing only one person’ in at a time, and the husband would have to make the visit quick, ‘to come back and look after other children at home [Interviewee 3].

Several participants discussed how detrimental it was not having family members such as their own mothers or mothers in law being able to travel to Australia to provide help during the time of the COVID‐19 pandemic.

COVID was the biggest barrier for … calling on support from friends and family [Interviewee 16].

As a result of most participants not being in their countries of origin, participants talked about the lack of support arising from loss of community. Men discussed that in their traditional environments, there is an entire circle of support and community around them, making them feel connected. Interviewee 9 articulated ‘you have family support in Nigeria, and you are happy as a man because Nigerians have a bigger family but it's quite different here. You don't have anybody around you. Now, I clean, I cook when my wife had the baby because she had complications after delivery. But that would not happen in a place like Nigeria, back home you have family members, nephews and nieces to help you do all those things’.

Similarly, Interviewee 8 talked about the tradition of living with extended families in their home country that offer help to expectant and new parents. However, not having family also forced participants to be more involved fathers.

In India, usually we live with our families, our parents… their families have to take care of their wife and kids. Usually in India we know nothing. But here, I know every process from the first pregnancy to the last, like caesarean, I know everything, and was always with my wife. [Interviewee 8].

Even if the men had friends within Australia, it still was not the same as friends where consistently available to support them. Interview 1 described ‘they are not coming every day, every time. Because everyone [is] busy here’ [Interviewee 1].

3.2. Slipping Through the Cracks

The third theme ‘slipping through the cracks’ encompassed men perceiving themselves to be ‘excluded and dismissed’ and ‘feeling helpless’ in their interactions with health professionals during pregnancy, birth and the early postpartum period.

3.2.1. Excluded and Dismissed

Fathers described health professionals excluding them from medical conversations pertaining to discussions related to the care of their partner and baby or medical procedures, which left them feeling unimportant.

…the midwife usually talks to the mother, and give advice to the mother…. Even … the GP or the Dr, …they are talking to the mother, and I ask, he says [doctor] ‘don't worry you will be at work, but she must learn this…’ [Interviewee 1]

A bad experience… first time you're showing new parents [sonography] their baby and not talking or communicating [Interviewee 7].

For men in the study, being included meant being informed throughout the entire pregnancy and birth process so that they felt informed. One participant stated ‘not someone necessarily holding my hand… at least some steps or guidance to what to expect… there nothing in there (information) for me’ [Interviewee 5].

Many of the participants wanted to be present at the birth for a memorable experience as they had experienced this with their other children. Participants noticed a difference with the mode of birth. Participants felt they bonded in a different way.

I wanted to be there, I was there for the first two and it's a very memorable thing. It's not as pleasant as you see in the movies, but I thought I was there more of a support for my wife, just letting her know that she's doing good. It was a c‐section, so we knew what we were in for and it was the third one. But I still bond with my daughter, but I don't feel I have what I did with my first two sons. Being the first one to hold them and just share that moment with them, their first breath, being there for that [Interviewee 5].

This sense of being left out and not being equipped with tools to support their partners also impacted men's ability to care for their partners. Interviewee 1 explained ‘…not many details how to help her, to assist her…’ [Interviewee 1].

The availability of informational resources was acknowledged as being present for mothers. However, what was missing was information explicitly directed for fathers that they could tap into and access. One father indicated:

There's no advertisement to say this support exists…There's brochure after brochure, advertisement after advertisement, advertising for a female to mental health. For a female, for the pregnant person, but not the partner or the husband…. I didn't know it existed … I knew there was support for my wife, but I didn't know there was any support for myself…. no one ever asked me, ‘Are you okay,’ or any of that [Interviewee 5].

3.2.2. Feeling Helpless

Participants indicated a sense of ‘feeling helpless’ during various stages of their partner's pregnancy, birth and postpartum journey. Participants expressed being out of control and not being able to take away the pain for their partners. They found themselves in a difficult position, however they felt determined to protect their partners and advocate for their needs.

‘A father feels torn [during labour] because all you want to do is help your partner in pain… be the protector, just rise above that in that moment and just whatever their non‐negotiables were, just protect those’ (Interviewee 11). One father reported the hospital system reinforced his sense of uselessness when his wife was in the operating theatre.

I wasn't allowed in the operating theatre. I walked in but the anaesthetist said, ‘I think it's a better idea if you wait outside. I was really sad and heartbroken’ [Interviewee 5].

The notion of needing to take the pain away for their partners was echoed across many of the participants narratives. Some participants tried to distract their partners and do what they perceived as helpful without success.

My wife was inducted… it was really painful. The midwives provided support for me. I felt helpless, there was nothing I could do to take the pain away. I tried to keep a straight face and be there for her. We did watch YouTube but that didn't work [Interviewee 6].

Beyond feeling helpless during the labour, participants felt they were not very helpful with caring for the baby even though they desperately wanted to support their partner and share the load.

I don't know what I'm doing. I still to now have not changed a nappy. I have no idea how to do it. So, I make up for it elsewhere, but at the same time, I don't know how to do it. I've neve done it. I tired to watch some YouTube videos, but it doesn't work like they say [Interviewee 5].

3.3. Gaining Knowledge and Support From Health Professionals

Participants strived to gain knowledge and be informed about certain pregnancy conditions, labour, birth and the early postpartum weeks by either taking the initiative to do their research or relying on health professionals to share information. Participants indicated how gaining knowledge restored some sense of control over their lives. One father stated, ‘knowledge is power… knowing and understanding things and knowing and understanding that there might be other support services. I think that is quite beneficial’ [Interviewee 15]. There was a reliance on the internet whereby fathers filled in knowledge gaps.

I'm always googling. Google's my best friend. So, when it comes to different stages of the pregnancy, we're always doing our own little research. First, we do our research and then we ask the professionals. Does it marry up with what we're hearing? [Interviewee 4].

While men described sourcing knowledge from the internet, however rather than always finding benefit, at times it contributed to feelings of anxiety and uncertainty, as the information was overwhelming [Interviewee 5].

They gave us all these books and maybe information overload…Okay, read all this and you'll be fine…. That's probably a little bit daunting for me [Interviewee 12].

Along with needing to do their own research to be informed and knowledgeable about different aspect of the maternity care continuum, participants also felt out of depth and encouraged to be involved in the baby's cares. Participants were at times expected to care for the baby straight away with little to no guidance. [Interviewee 12]. One participant stated

I think you've just got to be hands‐on from day one… you just got to get in the trenches and get your hands dirty. There's nothing else you can do [Interviewee 14].

Fathers who migrated to Australia needed additional support as they navigated different cultural expectations and a cultural shift.

My recommendation to someone that would be a first‐time father in this country or city, or state, it would be the willingness to learn. Go out there and do your research, go and speak to medical professionals, read things… the willingness to learn is something that will help a first‐time parent so that they are not overwhelmed [Interviewee 11].

Participants discussed how they filled in the gaps in what they needed in the absence of traditional settings. They tapped into health and community resources and created their own support system and inner circle. Interviewee 2 perceived health professional support to be helpful.

…in the hospital, they show you how to feed him, how to wrap him…. How to put him to sleep and that sort of stuff, as well as when back home…the midwife comes in for three consecutive days just to check everything was going good [Interviewee 2].

Similarly, another father described feeling lucky to have access to midwifery continuity of care whereby his partner accessed the caseload midwifery programme, in which he described as ‘some of the best access to healthcare in the world… access to healthcare regarding a pregnancy, has been just some of the best… with the midwives coming to our house and visiting us at home and educating us and just being there every step of the way, I was just blown away by how amazing the public system is’ [Interviewee 11]. Similarly, participant 15 had a positive experience with their private obstetrician and the care and support they received.

My obstetrician was fantastic, gave us lots of support, followed up, was in a very good manner when we were speaking to him…always left his contact to be open to us. So if we needed to get a hold of him… [Interviewee 15].

Despite having some participants acknowledging a good healthcare system, there was consensus amongst participants that services and care could be improved.

‘Some of the best healthcare and support available just about anywhere…that doesn't mean that we're anywhere near perfect, …there's huge room for improvement’ [Interviewee 11]. Others also suggested more careful attention to the individual needs of families and the appropriate tailoring of resources, as well as ongoing checking in was needed.

3.4. Pathway Ahead: Changed Roles and Being Supported by Peers

In the last theme ‘pathway ahead: changed roles and being supported by peers’ refers to the changed roles and the need for fathers to be engaged and present. This theme encompasses two sub‐themes ‘changed gender roles: working together’ and ‘Somebody to talk to’: support groups and forums. Being supported by community and the usefulness of peer support networks and speaking with other dads who shared similar lived experiences was helpful for fathers to validate and reconcile their feelings.

3.4.1. Changed Gender Roles: Working Together

The sub‐theme ‘changed gender roles: working together’ alluded to participants' perception of the changed gender roles in modern society due to women having careers, as well as not having access to extensive family networks. Some participants acknowledged that defined roles in a marriage were sometimes blurred and often related to cultural traditions. For some participants their own fathers were not being actively involved in raising them. While others were taught to care for the family and help out when able.

‘My father didn't do a thing’ [Interviewee 4] and Interviewee 7 ‘my dad …always taught us to do all the errands at home from childhood’ [Interviewee 7].

Overall, it became clear that shared parenting was a way forward, debunking any traditional expectations for fathers. For example, participant 2 mentioned ‘it's not like the old traditional ways anymore’ [Interviewee 2].

In addition, government support was seen as a form of validation for the important role a father plays in the early weeks postpartum. The desire for paid leave and government support was unsurprising, with men indicating that more time and financial support was required to better enable them to care for their partners and children.

Really important for a child to have both of their parents, or if they only have one, ‘… for as long as possible in that first year of development’, for dads to be more present but unsure how this could be achieved fiscally [Interviewee 11].

Some fathers indicated that guidance, predominantly from Islamic scripture, had assisted the juggling of family and household priorities. For example:

‘…we've been asked and ordered to respect… beginning with your mum and then that goes down to your wife when you get married’ [Interviewee 2] and interviewee 4 talked how his faith has guided him to work in partnership with his wife.

Islam teaches us that we must help our wives and we must assist in raising the children or we must assist with their household chores… [Interviewee 4].

Being supported with paid employment also meant fathers being organised and have forward thinking about time off from work to be with their families after birth. One participant described saving money and preparing prior to the birth.

I actually take days off from work… I have already saved money for these things because I already prepared when we had a baby [Interviewee 8].

Another participant stated that to properly support and prepare for the birth and afterwards, he ensured he was present and available for the children. ‘For me support is basically making sure the other person doesn't fall. Support is making sure that the partner doesn't get depressed. Support is that you need time off for yourself… the woman alone is not the support for the kids. The kids need their fathers as much as the mum… the more time they spend with the father… it helps the child, and their childhood get moulded well so they can become better parents in future’. [Interviewee 7].

The importance of being involved in the early stages of parenting provided more appreciation for his partner and the reproductive process was further indicated by another father:

…if they have the opportunity, … I would say that it would almost be a necessity to take that time off and be the primary carer. Cause I feel like you also tend to appreciate what women have to go through to get that point of having a child and then afterwards, I think you really start to develop a strong sense of appreciation and respect for it and you understand that it isn't just a paid holiday [Interviewee 14].

3.4.2. ‘Somebody to talk to’: Support Groups and Forums

All the fathers expressed their desire for more structured forms of help such as a forum or organisation that supports new and expectant fathers and explains information for fathers to easily understand. This form of support needs to be tailored to their unique needs and what they were experiencing.

I think there should be a forum whereby people should be told that you have this kind of support. For me, I wasn't told whether it was there. For me, the kind of support is somebody that can really talk to what you might expect… to provide me extensive information and explain to me in quite lay man form or lay person form on how to access all information. Not just give me a handout… either a Facebook connection among people of the same cultural background… you guys can share experiences, that would be brilliant [Interviewee 9].

Having peer, another father to chat and converse with was seen as therapeutic for participants. A peer was viewed as a form of social support. For example, one participant, a stay‐at‐home father described. ‘As a stay‐at‐home parent, it's on you. The night shifts are on your, the screaming kids in the middle of the night are on you. So, when you've got that, these activities (parent support groups) are a bit of an outlet as a parent, a sense there is a support network that you're hoping to tap into. When that isn't there, it's quite isolating’. (Interviewee 14). Similarly, another participant stated a need to be included in parenting groups where they felt supported rather than attending with issues they are experiencing. ‘openness or inclusivity from other parents… a peer support group, rather than attending for a peer support issue.’ [Interviewee 14].

For many of the participants, their experiences as fathers shaped and influenced the information they share with other expectant and new fathers. Interview 11 explained, ‘so when the times comes for one of my mates who's going to become a first‐time dad, I want to be able to support and fill him in and not just have that very generic support that comes from other dads’. (Interviewee 11). Similarly, another father talked about the value of support.

something that would help both emotionally or psychologically [Interviewee 9].

In addition to practical support and advice, participants simply wanted to know what to expect as a dad and for parents who already experienced parenthood to be frank about what it is like to be a parent.

Just be honest …. and truthfully reveal…here's what we did. If it does work, it works. If it doesn't, it doesn't… and to go…day by day. Expect the unexpected [Interviewee 12].

Talking to a mate (father) in a similar situation, was described as therapeutic as they could relate to other fathers about their experiences. ‘There wasn't any support offered. I knew there was support for my wife, but didn't know there was any support for myself. I think the only support I had would've been a friend of mine sitting with me’ [Interviewee 5].

Similarly, another participant described talking to male friends as helpful as they had the life experience as a parent and were open and transparent about the transition.

‘[male] friends who have already gone through the same experience …knew that they were willing to talk about it and …were also very open’ [Interviewee 13]. One participant described seeking support as empowering men to start a conversation about speaking up about pregnancy and birth and normalise fathers to come forward to seek help.

Don't be shy to ask for help. Help is out there. You just need to push a button to get it. It's not diminishing or whatever… no, asking for help is actually powerful [Interviewee 2].

In contrast, fathers expressed feelings of dismissal and exclusion when attending parenting groups. Postpartum support groups were largely geared towards mothers. Fathers felt this space was difficult to navigate as it was often not welcoming and reflected a maternal gate keeping approach.

Mothers being very standoffish, not …overly welcoming of new dads…there isn't a sense of openness or inclusivity from other parents, I think that can be really, really hard [Interviewee 14].

4. Discussion

This study aimed to explore CALD fathers' early parenting support needs in the perinatal period in Australia. The findings revealed that men not only demonstrated motivation to be the ‘bread winner’, but also to educate themselves in the best ways that they could, to care for their partners and families. Within this proactive stance, the men relied heavily on online resources, as well as newly formed friendships with other parents, as they accepted the need to let go of traditional ways of parenting. They also identified areas needing improvement, such as relationships with HCPs, as well as more guidance towards relevant knowledge and available support, both within and outside of the healthcare system.

The desire for men to be self‐reliant (Giallo et al. 2017) and educate themselves via online resources (Giallo et al. 2017; Lohan et al. 2015) was reinforced in this study. In this study men indicated being aware of not having access to traditional forms of support, that it was time to ‘roll up their sleeves’ and just get on with the tasks at hand. As a consequence of cultural and language barriers, time constraints, feeling blindsided by HCPs and being overwhelmed by information booklets provided to them, these CALD men reported engaging in online resources was an easy way for them to navigate through the confusion or conflicting information, to educate themselves and regain some sense of autonomy over their lives. Not only did they indicate sourcing educational content to better understand their partner's pregnancy and birthing journeys, but they also sought support from online forums and groups, with one participant referring to his peers as the ‘google generation’. The convenience of accessing instant and confidential up‐to‐date online information (Giallo et al. 2017; Jia et al. 2021), ease of content sharing and being able to have real‐time interactions with peers, has likewise been reported to be a facilitator of health‐related seeking behaviour amongst digitally competent men (Jia et al. 2021). Anonymous access to translated content is also desired by non‐native speakers, not only due to English language difficulties, but also the discomfort and loss of privacy arising from discussing sensitive and potentially culturally taboo subjects via interpretation services (Whitehead et al. 2023). Not all knowledge gained via the internet was discussed in a positive light however, with some content being contradictory, as well as alarming in nature, and rather than alleviating fears, it had compounded them. Similar findings have been reported elsewhere, with information seeking regarding exercise, vaccination, testing in pregnancy and labour pain and childbirth for example, being associated with higher anxiety scores in Turkish fathers (Şatır 2023). Examination of online information seeking behaviours of Swedish fathers‐to‐be also identified that 62% had been concerned by some of the content they had accessed (Oscarsson et al. 2018).

This research highlighted that social supports for fathers during pregnancy and childbirth were highly valued and a contributory factor towards promoting positive outcomes for CALD fathers, their families and their children. Research consistently reports that fathers who receive emotional, informational and practical support from family, friends and healthcare providers are more likely to feel confident and engaged in their parenting role (Rominov et al. 2018; Persson et al. 2012; Elmir and Schmied 2022; Elmir and Schmied 2016), and to form more secure attachments with their children; contributing to better child development and well‐being (Brown et al. 2012). The COVID‐19 pandemic significantly disrupted traditional family support structures, particularly for fathers navigating parenthood in non‐traditional settings. Forbes et al. (2021) highlighted how, in the context of migration and the pandemic, families in Australia were forced to adapt by creating ‘family‐like’ relationships with peers, friends and support groups. Understandably, the absence of family, especially for immigrant communities, has led to a heightened sense of isolation. While there was a strong willingness to involve male partners in parenting, it was recognised that this represented a significant cultural change, one that required rethinking of traditional gender roles (Forbes et al. 2021). The pandemic has thus underscored the importance of self‐reliance and the creation of alternative support systems for fathers as they increasingly turn to peers and support groups to navigate the challenges of parenthood in a new and uncertain world.

If CALD men experience pregnancy and or birth as a traumatic experience, the importance of social connections is even more critical (Kothari et al. 2022; Pearson et al. 2023). Kothari et al. (2022) found that many fathers valued support from family members, male friends and work colleagues, noting that these connections helped them process their experiences. However, not all fathers have access to such support systems, and a lack of understanding from friends and family, or well‐meaning but insensitive inquiries, may exacerbate their emotional struggles (Kothari et al. 2022).

The additional finding that the CALD men in this study felt excluded from conversations during their partners' interactions with HCPs aligns with earlier Australian reports indicating that men can feel like superfluous additions to their wives' pregnancies and birthing journeys (Dahlen et al. 2022; Cosson and Graham 2012). Whilst efforts have been made to adjust women‐centric services by increasing the incorporation of fathers into perinatal health care policies (Giallo et al. 2017; The World Health Organisation and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) 2022), gaps in services still clearly exist. Organisational barriers, such as men not engaging with maternity‐related printed materials and antenatal appointments predominantly being available only within working hours, are two suggested issues. In addition, a lack of training, particularly in regard to cultural differences and appropriate care for CALD families (Rominov et al. 2017) has been identified, with poor cultural competency amongst Australian HCPs (Forbes et al. 2021) reportedly leading to feelings of helplessness amongst some recipients (Harrison et al. 2020). Feeling disempowered and unable to help their partners was also reported in this study and encompassed not only language difficulties and poor understanding of medical jargon but also being excluded from spaces in which procedures were being performed on their partners, especially during COVID‐19 restrictions.

Lingering beliefs regarding traditional roles, and norms pertaining to masculinity have further been recognised as contributing to a lack of engagement of fathers (Giallo et al. 2017; The World Health Organisation and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) 2022). For example, men's desire to be self‐reliant, feel in control and not disclose emotions or feeling have been identified as an obstacle to help‐seeking in another Australian study (Giallo et al. 2017), as well as reiterated here. Despite roles morphing around the lack of traditional family support, Australian ‘blokey’ culture was still highlighted as a barrier to some CALD men feeling comfortable discussing female related topics, that were not perceived to be ‘a guy thing’, and or to disclosing feelings of being out of their depth with respect to parenting.

Men in this study reinforced the importance of, as well as the need to have greater access to adequately paid and/or supported parental leave. Whilst men have increasingly been able to access parental leave over time, in recognition of women playing a more significant role in the workforce (Australian Government 2017), as well as the benefits to women, children and families of fathers being more involved in the parenting of their children (Marrs et al. 2014; Wells 2016; Widarsson et al. 2012; Brown et al. 2012), there is still a low number of Australian fathers taking leave, when compared to international standards (Australian Governement 2019). Suggested reasons include a lack of a nationally legislated approach that elevates fathers from the status of ‘secondary carers’, as many organisations provide only limited leave in this case, if any at all; as well as lingering engendered ‘breadwinner’ role norms; workplace stigma regarding taking extended leave; and support payments being financially inadequate (Australian Governement 2019; Baird et al. 2021). Consequently, much more positive change is required in this regard, as rather than giant leaps being made, to date, only modest ‘baby steps’ have been achieved (Baird et al. 2021).

Lastly, the men highlighted the need to have greater access to convenient and practical resources that they could readily engage with, rather than the printed materials provided to them in tertiary settings. Instead, due to being ‘the google generation’ men suggested the need for more structured institutionally provided online forums and peer group support platforms that would provide them with the translated information that they needed, that they could access privately, and whenever they had a need and/or moment of free time. Such resources would lessen the need to rely on their friendship groups for information and support, thereby diminishing the potential for discomfort, having to broach culturally sensitive subjects not traditionally discussed amongst men. Such a resource would invariably also be valuable to those who had just migrated to Australia, as they may not be automatically connected to large and supportive friendship groups.

Whilst the Australian government does provide online support for men, which information and guidance around relationships, stress and wellbeing and mental health support can be accessed, the resource isn't specifically tailored towards CALD men, nor the challenges they may face navigating the health system during their wives' perinatal period (Government Department of Social Services 2024). Additionally, the raisingchildren.net.au website provides links to a range of multicultural services and resources to CALD communities across Australia, and specific information regarding pregnancy, newborns and impacts to families during child development (Website‐raisingchildren.net.au, T.A.P 2024), however, this information is generic and may insufficiently cover the specific issues CALD men face. In addition, it does not provide an interactive platform in which men can connect with each other and ask questions, as well as provide support to their peers.

5. Limitations and Strengths

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first Australian study to engage with a small group of CALD fathers to explore CALD fathers' early parenting support needs in the perinatal period in Australia. The research design was a qualitative interpretive approach, hence the small sample size that may not be representative of the support needs of fathers. However, the sample included first‐time fathers and fathers who had previously engaged with the maternity care system and services, offering varying perspectives. Partners of the men who participated experienced a range of maternity models of care, providing insights into the value of continuity of care models in shaping fathers' encounters with midwives and other health professionals.

6. Recommendations for Further Research

The study findings pave the way for future research to explore a larger sample of fathers' representative of a diverse CALD population to identify variables that may be predictors to the type of support required. Further research is needed to understand fathers' motivations for seeking peer support and the timeliness of when to offer support to fathers. Researching couples' experiences of engaging with maternity care could provide some additional insights into the needs of women and men and strategies to support each other during the early weeks postpartum.

7. Implications for Policy and Practice

A family centred approach to father‐inclusive practice is paramount where the mother–father–infant are treated as one unit. CALD fathers may have some unique challenges when it comes to engaging with maternity services. Normalising and changing the narrative to father inclusive practice can only occur when there are receptive maternity clinicians such as midwives and nurses willing to include fathers as parenting parents. Accessible, father inclusive resources and support groups are needed where fathers can speak with health professionals for parenting advice, to ask questions and share their lived experiences, to mitigate distress and anxiety as they transition into fatherhood. Cultural competence training is needed at all levels of healthcare professionals' education for midwives, nurses and other maternity clinicians. This training is crucial to identify strategies to best support culturally diverse fathers in Australia and globally to achieve a culturally diverse family‐centred model of care in maternity.

8. Conclusion

The findings highlighted the experiences of CALD fathers as they navigated the expectations of fatherhood within the context of cultural norms, limited support systems and societal pressures. While they carry a strong sense of responsibility to support their families, they often face a lack of guidance and inclusion from health professionals. The perinatal period can be particularly challenging for CALD fathers without adequate paid leave and family support. Despite these challenges, some fathers demonstrated resilience to seek other forms of support through peer networks to assist them with their transition in the early postpartum weeks. These insights highlight the need to be more father inclusive, culturally sensitive maternity services.

Funding

The authors have nothing to report.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.