Nutrition, phytochemical profile, bioactivities and applications in food industry of banana peels: a comprehensive review

Abstract

Global banana production exceeds 139 million tonnes annually, and the peel, which accounts for approximately one-third of the fruit mass, is largely discarded during processing. Covering literature published between 2020 and 2026, this review tests the hypothesis that banana peel of Musa spp. is a compositionally distinct by-product whose chemical and technological properties are sufficient to support food-industry valorization. The compiled evidence indicates that the peel is rich in dietary fibre, resistant starch, pectin and carotenoids, with reported values of 40–50% dietary fibre, up to approximately 60% resistant starch within the starch fraction, approximately 3–14% pectin yields depending on the extraction method, and up to approximately 338 μg/g dry weight for lutein-dominant carotenoids; these contents vary with cultivar, ripening stage, growing conditions and extraction procedures. These constituents confer antioxidant and antimicrobial activities relevant to food preservation; substitution of 5–10% wheat flour with peel powder increases dietary fibre and antioxidant capacity in bread, and 2% incorporation in meat products reduces fat content and retards lipid oxidation. Peel-derived pectin approaches the gelling performance of commercial pectins, while peel-derived nanocellulose and carbon dots provide more than 95% UV-blocking and extend the shelf life of packaged foods. Overall, the evidence supports the hypothesis that banana peel is a technically feasible functional ingredient and packaging feedstock, provided that compositional variability, extraction standardisation, sensory acceptability and safety are adequately addressed. This knowledge provides a scientific basis for converting peel waste into value-added food applications and for prioritizing the research needed to realize this potential.

Highlights

• •Banana peel contained more fibre, resistant starch, pectin and phenolics than pulp.
• •Peel extracts showed antioxidant and antimicrobial activities for food preservation.
• •Incorporating peel flour raised fibre and antioxidants in bakery and meat products.
• •Peel nanocellulose and carbon dots formed UV-blocking films that inhibited pathogens.
• •Standardised extraction, sensory evaluation and human trials were needed.

1. Introduction

Banana (Musa acuminata), a member of the Musaceae family, is extensively cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions and is now grown in more than 130 countries, ranking as the second largest fruit crop worldwide (Jesus et al., 2024). Global production of this fruit reached more than 139 million tonnes of fresh fruit in 2023, mainly in Asia (51.9%), the Americas (23.9%) and Africa (22.5%) (FAO, 2023). Most banana varieties develop yellow peels at maturity owing to carotenoid accumulation, whereas a small number, such as Musa coccinea, accumulate anthocyanins and display red skins (Huang et al., 2024). The fruit is a significant dietary source of diverse phytochemicals, including phenolic compounds, carotenoids and alkaloids (Bashmil et al., 2021; Tongkaew et al., 2022), which contribute to its nutritional and functional quality as a food commodity.

Over the past decade, rapid population growth has intensified the development of the food processing industry to meet daily consumer needs. Fruit processing for juices, jams and wines typically utilizes only selected portions of the raw material and inevitably generates substantial by-products, including peels, seeds and pomace, which constitute 25–60% of the initial fruit mass (Shukla et al., 2024). Conventionally discarded in landfills, these residues contribute to environmental burdens through greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane, and incur substantial waste management costs (Aryanfar et al., 2025). Crucially, however, such by-products are rich reservoirs of underexploited nutritional and functional compounds, including dietary fibres, polyphenols and bioactive volatiles, which present significant opportunities for valorization into high-value food ingredients (Bashmil et al., 2021; Wohlt et al., 2025).

Driven by circular bioeconomy objectives, considerable research has focused on valorizing food processing by-products into economically viable food applications (Grasso, 2020). Recent advances demonstrate promising pathways, notably the incorporation of 2–15% w/w fruit-derived by-products, such as banana peel, mango peel, orange albedo, watermelon seed meal, pomegranate marc, tomato pomace and grape seed flour, which improves bioactive content, dietary fibre profiles and antioxidant capacity in breads, crackers and extruded snacks (Shukla et al., 2024). Similarly, industrial-scale pectin recovery from passion fruit rind, apple pomace, tomato processing waste and banana peel offers sustainable alternatives to commercial citrus pectin, delivering comparable gelling functionality in jams and other food systems (Aryanfar et al., 2025). Cold-pressed essential oils from citrus peels and berry pomaces serve as natural preservatives and flavor enhancers in functional foods, while by-product fibres and proteins enable the formulation of reduced-calorie, low-sugar and fat-modified snacks through targeted binding and texturizing properties (Grasso, 2020). These examples illustrate how by-product valorization can simultaneously reduce waste and generate added value within the food chain.

Among these residues, banana peel is of particular interest. The peel accounts for approximately one-third of the whole banana fruit and is generally discarded as food waste during industrial processing and household consumption (Shukla et al., 2024). Nevertheless, banana peels contain abundant beneficial and nutritional components; their dry matter is a substantial reservoir of carbohydrates, dietary fibres, starch, crude protein, crude fat, pectin, essential amino acids and micronutrients, which could be reused as functional ingredients in food production (Tsado et al., 2021; Islam et al., 2023; Zahid et al., 2021). Bioactive compounds such as gallocatechin and catecholamines exhibit potent antioxidant capacities, enabling dual applications as natural preservatives and functional additives that extend product shelf life while improving food quality (Anwar et al., 2024; Shafi et al., 2022). The starch- and cellulose-rich matrix of the peel further supports the fabrication of edible films, coatings and biodegradable packaging materials, extending the valorization of this by-product beyond simple food fortification.

On the basis of these considerations, this review tests the hypothesis that banana peel is a compositionally distinct by-product whose chemical and technological properties are sufficient to support food-industry valorization. Accordingly, it systematically characterizes the nutritional matrix, phytochemical profile and food-relevant bioactive properties of banana (Musa spp.) peels, and critically examines the main industrial valorization pathways, including direct incorporation into formulated foods, extraction of bioactive fractions for use as functional ingredients, and development of edible coatings and active packaging for shelf-life extension. In doing so, the review aims to establish the scientific foundation required to convert banana peel from a waste stream into a reliable, safe and economically viable source of food ingredients and packaging materials.

To support this narrative review, a structured literature search was undertaken across Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, ScienceDirect and Google Scholar, covering January 2020 to July 2026. The search combined three Boolean-linked conceptual blocks: (i) substrate terms (“banana peel”, “Musa spp.”, “banana by-product”, “banana agro-waste”); (ii) compositional and functional terms (“phytochemical”, “phenolic compound”, “carotenoid”, “dietary fibre”, “resistant starch”, “pectin”, “antioxidant”, “antimicrobial”, “anti-inflammatory”, “anticancer”); and (iii) application terms (“food product”, “edible film”, “food packaging”, “functional ingredient”, “valorisation”). In addition, reference lists of retrieved reviews were hand-searched for further relevant records. Eligible records were English-language, peer-reviewed original research articles or review articles focusing on banana peel chemistry, bioactivity or food use; non-English records, conference abstracts without full text, book chapters and duplicate publications were excluded. Both original studies and review articles were deliberately retained: original studies provided the primary quantitative evidence, whereas review articles were used to contextualize findings and to identify additional primary sources through their reference lists. Where overlapping evidence was encountered (e.g., multiple reports arising from the same study or closely related datasets), the most recent or most comprehensive primary source was cited preferentially. After deduplication and title/abstract screening followed by full-text assessment, over 100 references were retained. Evidence was organized thematically into nutritional value, phytochemical composition, bioactivities, food-industry applications and safety, and synthesized narratively, with quantitative data reported alongside cultivar, ripening stage and extraction conditions to facilitate cross-study comparison.

2. Nutritional value of banana peels

The composition of the peels from several banana cultivars is illustrated in Table 1. Banana peels contain several essential nutrients, like carbohydrates, lipids and protein and a significant number of biological substances including starch, crude fibre, minerals, phytochemicals.

Table 1.

Chemical composition of banana peels.

Banana cultivar	Carbohydrates (g/100 g)	Protein (g/100 g)	Fat (g/100 g)	Ash (g/100 g)	Fibre (g/100 g)	Reference
Basrai (Pakistan)	–	6.06 ± 0.15	3.94 ± 1.00	9.76 ± 1.02	14.93 ± 0.15	Ijaz et al. (2023)
Musa paradisiaca (Nigeria)	63.82 ± 0.32	3.23 ± 0.05	0.89 ± 0.04	9.56 ± 0.06	12.67 ± 0.08	Tsado et al., (2021)
Musa acuminata cv . sagor (Bangladesh)	48.57 ± 0.54	7.57 ± 0.64	1.20 ± 0.62	9.84 ± 0.37	19.45 ± 0.44	Islam et al. (2023)
Musa acuminate (Bangladesh)	–	7.57 ± 0.64	1.20 ± 0.62	11.84 ± 0.37	19.45 ± 0.44	Kabir et al. (2021)
Musaceae (Ecuador)	–	9.2 ± 0.3	7.5 ± 0.1	–	39.0 ± 2.7	Šeremet et al. (2020)
Musa acuminate Cavendish (Australia)	25.98 ± 0.76	7.17 ± 0.06	7.85 ± 0.34	16.07 ± 0.55	42.39 ± 0.80	Zahid et al. (2021)
Musa acuminate (Brazil)	–	7.06 ± 0.38	2.89 ± 0.06	6.14 ± 0.16	11.35 ± 0.31	Leonel et al. (2021)
Musa acuminate (India)	45.67 ± 5.87	8.68 ± 0.07	6.43 ± 0.07	12.33 ± 0.15	29.52 ± 0.02	Gupta et al. (2020)
Musa Cavendish Williams (Egypt)	44.64 ± 0.19	15.10 ± 0.19	7.04 ± 0.08	25.19 ± 0.12	–	Ahmed et al. (2021)

All values are expressed on a dry weight basis.

2.1. Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the main chemical compounds in banana peels (Table 1), and major represented in dietary fibre, pectin and starch. A recent study showed that monosaccharides analyzed by triple quadruple gas chromatogram and mass spectra equipped with flame ionization detector in sun dried banana peels powder were mainly glucose (11.14 ± 0.44%), xylose (10.02 ± 0.35%), arabinose (3.21 ± 0.37%), galactose (1.31 ± 0.07%), and maltose (4.60 ± 0.20%) (Ijaz et al., 2023)(Table 2). The oligosaccharides in bananas are mainly pectin oligosaccharides, xylo-oligosaccharides, fructooligosaccharides and cello-oligosaccharides, which have biological effects such as prebiotic activity, immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties, anticancer activity, hypoglycemic activity and antioxidant activity (Pereira et al., 2021). Pectin, another major polysaccharide of banana peels, has been extracted by various techniques. Combining artificial neural networks and response surface methodology, microwave-assisted extraction was optimized to a yield of 14.34% and a degree of esterification (DE) of 63.58%, yielding high-methoxyl pectin (Aklilu, 2021). Similarly, a comparable yield of 14.2% was obtained by microwave-assisted extraction at 195 °C, although low-methoxyl pectin with an average particle size of about 300 nm was produced (Rivadeneira et al., 2020). In contrast, a lower yield of 2.83% but a higher DE of 89.36% was obtained by ultrasound-assisted extraction, comparable to commercial pectin (Phaiphan, 2022). The extraction acid also governed pectin quality, with a high DE of 76.7% favored by organic acids and the yield by inorganic acids; high-DE pectin was assembled into stable nanoparticles of approximately 255 nm (Arias et al., 2021). Recently, the yield was raised to 31.2% by a greener ultrasound-microwave-assisted extraction using natural deep eutectic solvents, while DE was reduced to 9.52%, producing low-methoxyl pectin with improved solubility for low-sugar foods (Swetha & Jeevitha, 2026). Taken together, these findings showed that extraction methods and conditions determined pectin yield and DE, thus defining their classification and applications. Banana peel was therefore confirmed as a promising sustainable source for commercial pectin production.

Table 2.

Diverse primary metabolites identified in banana peels.

Compounds	Metabolites	Method of analysis	Variety/origin	Reference
Sugars	Glucose Xylose Arabinose Galactose Maltose	GC–MS	——/Pakistan	Ijaz et al. (2023)
	Glucose Xylose Arabinose	HPLC-PAD	——/Brazil	Pereira et al. (2021)
	Fructose Glucose Succose Mannose	GC–MS, LC-MS and UPLC-DAD	Musa Pisang Awak cv. Fougamou and Musa Plantain cv. Mbi egome/Nigeria	Drapal et al. (2020)
Amino acids	Leucine Lysine Isoleucine Phenylalanine Norleucine Trytophan Valine Methionine Proline Arginine Tyrosine Histidine Cystine Alanine Glutamic acid Glycine Threonine Serine Aspartic acid	HPLC	Musa paradisiaca/Nigeria	Tsado et al., (2021)
Fatty acids	Methyl oetanoate (C8:0) Methyl palmitate (C16:0) Methyl stearate (Cl8;0) cis-9-0Leie acid methyl ester (C18:1 (n-9c)) Methyl linolelaidate (C18:2(n-6 t)) Methyl linoleate (C18:2(n-6e)) Methyl y/a-linolenate (γ/α-C18:3(n-3)) Methyl behenate+ cis-5,8,11,14,17-Eicosapentaenoic acid methylester (C22:0 + C20:5(n-3)) Methyl lignocerate (C24:0)	GC–MS	Musa acuminate L. AA group cv. Huang Di	Wang et al. (2022)
Minerals	Potassium Phosphorus Sulfur Calcium Magnesium Chloride Silver Silicon Iron Rubidium Manganese Zinc Rhenium Brom Itrium Cuprum Cobalt Nikel Selenium	X-Ray fluorescence spectrometer	——Raja/Indonesia	Syukriani et al. (2021)
	Calcium Magnesium Potassium Phosphorus Zinc Iron	Atomic absorption spectrophotometry for calcium, magnesium, iron, and zinc. Flame photometry for potassium, while spectrophotometry for phosphorus	Musa acuminata cv. sagor/Bangladesh	Islam et al. (2023)
	Copper Iron Manganese Zinc Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Phosphorus	Atomic absorption spectrophotometer for calcium, iron, magnesium and zinc, UV spectrophotometer for sodium	Musa paradisiaca/Nigeria	Tsado et al., (2021)

Dietary fibre represents a major and valorizable carbohydrate fraction in banana peel, with its composition and functionality being highly tunable based on maturity stage and processing methods. Unprocessed peels, especially from unripe fruit or specific cultivars like Berangan, are inherently rich in insoluble dietary fibre, contributing to moderate water and oil-holding capacities alongside notable mechanical strength, positioning them as suitable bulking agents or for potential use in low-load biocomposites (Ayele, 2026). Targeted processing, however, can dramatically shift this profile and enhance functionality, thermo-enzymatic treatments microwave-steaming with enzymes significantly boost soluble dietary fibre yield and hydration capacity (Wang et al., 2025), while optimized blanching effectively preserves phenolic content while markedly increasing soluble dietary fibre purity and improving hydration/oil-binding properties; subsequent drying can further elevate insoluble dietary fibre yield, demonstrating integrated benefits for functionality, safety, and stability (Wohlt et al., 2025). This inherent tunability allows for strategic sourcing, unripe or mildly processed blanched peels deliver high insoluble dietary fibre ideal for structure, bulking applications like baked goods or composites, whereas ripe or thermo-enzymatically processed peels yield soluble dietary fibre-rich fractions with enhanced bioactivity and hydration, making them particularly suited for functional beverages, low-calorie gels, and bioactive fortification (Wang et al., 2025; Wohlt et al., 2025).

Starch is the main source of carbohydrates for daily life and is abundant in plants. According to the rate and degree of starch digestion in vitro experiments, starch is usually divided into three types: rapidly digestible starch, slowly digestible starch, and resistant starch. Among them, resistant starch cannot be further absorbed in the small intestine and mainly ferments in the colon. It has the functions of stabilizing blood sugar, lowering blood lipids, increasing mineral absorption, defecating, controlling weight, and maintaining intestinal health (Fan et al., 2023). Starch contents in banana peels have been quantified across diverse cultivars and origins, with marked variations attributed to genetic and agroclimatic factors. Total starch levels of 53.40% to 59.40% were determined in plantain (Musa AAB) peel flours by Castañeda-Niño et al. (2025), while amylose contents were found to range from 17.76% to 18.60%, values consistently lower than those measured in corresponding pulp starches. The influence of cultivar on starch recovery was further demonstrated by Chuquizuta-Fernandez et al. (2026), where extraction yields of 0.24% to 1.28% were obtained for Harton, Isla, and Seda varieties, and distinct granule morphologies and swelling behaviors were observed. Regarding the resistant starch fraction, a content of 55% was reported in green banana peel powder by Kaur et al. (2022), and an optimal yield of 60.6% was achieved through ultrasound-assisted enzymatic extraction, by which green banana peels were identified as a viable source of functional resistant starch.

2.2. Proteins and amino acids

Banana peels have been increasingly recognized as a valuable and underexploited source of proteins and amino acids, with their nutritional composition being strongly modulated by genetic background, postharvest ripening stage, and drying conditions. The crude protein content of dried banana peels was reported to range from 4.32 to 10.89% across four Musa clones, namely Batard, Grande naine, PITA 14, and CARBAP K74, among which Batard and CARBAP K74 exhibited comparatively higher protein levels, and a gradual increment was observed during postharvest ripening, whereas oven drying at 45 °C was found to better preserve protein content compared with ambient drying (Ngouno et al., 2026). In a more targeted extraction and characterization study, the protein content of Grand Nain banana peels was estimated at 11.32%, whereas the protein associated with banana peel insoluble dietary fibre accounted for 7.65%, and UPLC profiling demonstrated the presence of five essential amino acids comprising methionine, isoleucine, leucine, threonine, and valine, together with several nonessential amino acids such as alanine, arginine, proline, serine, tyrosine, and aspartic acid, thereby indicating the nutritional potential of peel protein as a source of indispensable amino acids (Budhalakoti, 2021). At the molecular level, a spatiotemporal proteomic investigation based on high-throughput LC-MS/MS identified as many as 5701 proteins in banana peel tissue across different developmental and ripening stages, and the functionally annotated proteins were mainly assigned to starch and sugar metabolism, hormone regulation, cell wall modification, and transcription factor activity, offering molecular insights into the dynamic protein turnover underlying peel ripening (Mohanty et al., 2025). Collectively, these convergent findings demonstrate that banana peels possess a nutritionally meaningful protein and amino acid profile that merits further exploitation. The integration of compositional, biochemical, and proteomic evidence provides a robust foundation for the valorization of banana peel derived proteins in functional food and feed formulations.

2.3. Lipid profile

Lipids represent a quantitatively modest yet functionally important fraction of banana peels, whose content and composition were shaped by genotype, ripening stage, and postharvest handling. Total lipid contents in dried peels were found to vary widely, from 2.72% in Grande naine to 14.93% in the plantain hybrid CARBAP K74, and were generally elevated with advancing ripening, although the drying method exerted cultivar-dependent effects (Ngouno et al., 2026). At the compositional level, gas chromatographic profiling consistently revealed that banana peel lipids were dominated by long-chain fatty acids. Palmitic acid (C16:0), linoleic acid (C18:2), and linolenic acid (C18:3) were identified as the principal constituents, with C16:0 alone accounting for approximately 46% of the total fatty acid pool (Zhang et al., 2022). A closely matching profile, in which nine fatty acids were resolved and C16:0 and C18:2 predominated, was reported in an independent study, reinforcing the stability of the core fatty acid signature (Wang et al., 2022). Furthermore, both brassinolide and melatonin treatments were shown to increase unsaturated fatty acid and phospholipid contents and to inhibit lipoxygenase activity, thereby preserving membrane fluidity and integrity during cold storage (Wang et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2022). Taken together, these data demonstrated that banana peel lipids were characterized by a conserved palette of saturated and polyunsaturated long-chain fatty acids whose abundance could be modulated by postharvest treatments. This compositional malleability highlighted opportunities for processing strategies aimed at enhancing the nutritional and functional value of banana peel lipids.

2.4. Vitamins and minerals

The flesh of banana was reported to contain vitamins including vitamin A, D₂, E, K₁, B₁, B₂ and C, and vitamin E was the most abundant vitamin in all the five banana cultivars including Seenikesel, Ambulkesel, Kolikuttu, Rathambala, and Puwalu (Nadeeshani et al., 2021)(Table 2). However, the detailed information with regard to the vitamin present in banana peels are still limited. In a study, the nutritional characteristics of banana peels were estimated. Vitamin C dominates water-soluble fractions but is highly sensitive to processing. Fresh peel typically contains 10–24 mg/100 g FW, though dehydration can concentrate or degrade it. Hot-air drying at 80 °C increased ascorbic acid to 62 mg/100 g in Brazilian peels (Rodrigues et al., 2024). B-vitamins thiamine, riboflavin and B₆ show cultivar-dependent variability, with environmental factors modulating stability.

The mineral profile of banana peels is demonstrated in Table 2. A recent study reported that the mineral elements present in banana peels consisted of macro minerals including potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, chloride, and micro minerals including silver, silicon, iron, rubidium, manganese, zinc, rhenium, brom, itrium, cuprum, cobalt, nikel and selenium (Islam et al., 2023; Nadeeshani et al., 2021). Potassium is the predominant macro-element, typically exceeding 1% dry weight (DW). Values range from 487 to 570 mg/100 g fresh weight (FW) in fresh peels to over 8800 mg/100 g DW after drying, reflecting processing-induced concentration (Nadeeshani et al., 2021; Rodrigues et al., 2024). Calcium and magnesium form a consistent secondary cluster, with Calcium at 41–62 mg/100 g FW and magnesium at 292–294 mg/100 g DW across studies. Trace minerals of iron and zinc are consistently detected at nutritionally relevant levels (Nadeeshani et al., 2021). Exceptionally high values of iron 559 mg/100 g DW reported under optimized extraction protocols highlight methodological impacts (Islam et al., 2023). The mineral profile of banana peel is critically influenced by processing, genetic, and physiological factors. Processing methods, particularly oven or freeze-drying, concentrate minerals per unit dry weight and significantly alter their ratios, with dried peel exhibiting a high K:Na ratio that enhances its suitability for low-sodium food formulations (Rodrigues et al., 2024).

3. Phytochemical composition of banana peels

3.1. Phenolic compounds

Oxidative stress is widely recognized as a significant factor contributing to the development of various chronic diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, metabolic syndromes, and cancer (Forman & Zhang, 2021). This has spurred increasing interest from both researchers and consumers in exploring natural bioactive compounds, particularly phenolic compounds with antioxidant properties, to mitigate oxidative stress. Banana peels, often discarded as agricultural waste, have emerged as a promising source of bioactive phenolic compounds, including flavonoids, phenolic acids, tannins, and other bioactive molecules (Bashmil et al., 2021). These compounds have been shown to exhibit strong antioxidant activity, which may help in scavenging free radicals and reducing oxidative damage. Recent studies have also highlighted the potential health benefits of banana peels, such as their ability to inhibit microbial growth and support overall health (Ranjha et al., 2022). The specific phenolic compounds identified in banana peels are detailed in Table 3.

Table 3.

Highlights of phenolic profile of banana peels.

Phenolic compounds	Identified compounds	Methods of detection	Variety and origin	Reference
Phenolic acids	Quinic acid Chlorogenic acid Glucocafeic acid trans-p-Coumaric acid 4-glucoside 5Z-Cafeoylquinic acid 1-O-2’-Hydroxy-4′-methoxycinnamoyl-bD-glucose 3′-Glucosyl-2′,4′,6′-trihydroxyacetophenone Perilloside E 3-O-Cafeoyl-4-O-methylquinic acid	HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS	Kluai Hin (Musa sapientum Linn.) (Tailand)	Tongkaew et al. (2022)
	Cafeic acid Coumaric acid Ferulic acid Rosmarinic acid Quercetin	HPLC	Musa acuminate (India)	Dibanda et al. (2020)
Hydroxyphenylpropanoic acids	3-Hydroxyphenylpropionic acid	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Cavendish, Ladyfinger (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
Hydroxycinnamic acids	p-Coumaroyl glycolic acid	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Cavendish, Ladyfinger, Red dacca, Plantain, Ducasse (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
Hydroxyphenylacetic acids	3,4-Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Red dacca, Cavendish (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
Hydroxybenzoic acids	3,4-O-Dimethylgallic acid	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Ladyfinger (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
Flavonoids	(−)-Epicatechin 7-O-glucuronide Prunin 3″,6″-di-p-coumarate (±)-Catechin Macrocarposide 3,3′,4′,5,7-Pentahydroxyfavan(4- > 8)-3,4′,5,7-tetrahydroxyfavan Epiafzelechin (2R,3R)(−) Vitexin 7-O-glucoside Hovenitin I 4′-O-Methylneobavaisofavone 7-O-(2″-p-coumaroylglucoside) Kuwanon Z Kuwanon K Eriodictyol Saponarin Sophorapterocarpan A	HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS	Kluai Hin (Musa sapientum Linn.) (Tailand)	Tongkaew et al. (2022)
Anthocyanins	Delphinidin 3-O-(6″-acetyl-galactoside)	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Plantain, Cavendish, Monkey (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
	Cyanidin 3,5-O-diglucoside	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Red dacca, (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
	Malvidin 3-O-(6″-acetyl-glucoside)	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Red dacca, (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
Flavonols	Isorhamnetin 3-O-glucoside 7-O-rhamnoside	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Cavendish (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
	Myricetin 3-O-rutinoside	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Cavendish (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
	Patuletin 3-O-glucosyl-(1- > 6)- [apiosyl(1- > 2)]-glucoside	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Red dacca, (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
	Quercetin 3-O-xylosyl-glucuronide	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Cavendish (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
Flavanols	(+)-Gallocatechin 3-O-gallate	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Red dacca, (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
Flavones	Chrysoeriol 7-O-glucoside	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Cavendish (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
Flavanones	Neoeriocitrin	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Red dacca, (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
Hydroxycoumarins	Scopoletin	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Plantain (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
	Urolithin A	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Cavendish (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)
	Umbelliferone	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS	Monkey (Melbourne)	Bashmil et al. (2021)

A consistent finding across studies is that banana peel contain significantly higher levels of total phenolics, tannins, and flavonoids compared to the pulp, regardless of banana variety or ripeness stage. A group of scientists investigated the phenolic profile of six varieties of bananas grown in Australia with LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS (Bashmil et al., 2021). The total phenolic contents (TPC) determined in peel and pulp of unripe Cavendish banana were 0.71 ± 0.04 and 0.55 ± 0.03 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g, while in the ripe were 0.54 ± 0.03 and 0.43 ± 0.01 mgGAE/g. The total tannin contents in peel and pulp of Ducasse were 3.34 ± 0.2 and 0.34 ± 0.04 mg catechin equivalents (CE)/g. Furthermore, the phenolic profiles revealed that the phenolic acids in the peel was mainly conposed of hydroxyphenylpropanoic acids including 3-hydroxyphenylpropionic acid, hydroxycinnamic acids including p-coumaroyl glycolic acid, hydroxyphenylacetic acids including 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, hydroxybenzoic acids including 3,4-O-dimethylgallic acid. The flavonoid components were mainly composed of anthocyanins, including cyanidin 3,5-O-diglucoside, delphinidin 3-O-(6″-acetyl-galactoside) and malvidin 3-O-(6″-acetyl-glucoside), flavonols including isorhamnetin 3-O-glucoside 7-O-rhamnoside, myricetin 3-O-rutinoside, patuletin 3-O-glucosyl-(1- > 6)-[apiosyl(1- > 2)]-glucoside, quercetin 3-O-xylosyl-glucuronide, flavanols including (+)-gallocatechin 3-O-gallate, flavones including chrysoeriol 7-O-glucoside, flavanones including neoeriocitrin, and other polyphenols including scopoletin and Urolithin A. It is worth noting concluded that the phenolic contents in the peel were higher than the pulp both in mature and immature bananas of six varieties.

Similar results were reported in another study later (Tongkaew et al., 2022). The content of polyphenols in peel including gallic acid, (−)-gallocatechin and (−)-epicatechin were 24.14 ± 03, 766.55 ± 12 and 74.66 ± 04 mg/100 g FW, respectively, while in pulp was (−)-gallocatechin 274.55 ± 00 mg/100 g FW. Herein, phenolic acids detected in the peel of Kluai Hin banana by HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS were identified including quinic acid, chlorogenic acid, glucocafeic acid, trans-p-coumaric acid 4-glucoside, 5Z-zafeoylquinic acid, 1-O-2′-hydroxy-4′-methoxycinnamoyl-b-d-glucose, 3′-glucosyl-2′,4′,6′ -trihydroxyacetophenone, perilloside E, 3-O-cafeoyl-4-O-methylquinic acid, flavonoids and derivatives including (−)-epicatechin 7-O-glucuronide, prunin 3″,6″-di-p-coumarate, (±)-catechin, macrocarposide, 3,3′,4′,5,7-pentahydroxyfavan(4- > 8)-3,4′,5,7-tetrahydroxyfavan, epiafzelechin (2R,3R)(−), vitexin 7-O-glucoside, hovenitin I, 4′-O-methylneobavaisofavone 7-O-(2″-p-coumaroylglucoside), kuwanon Z, kuwanon K, eriodictyol, saponarin, sophorapterocarpan A.

The efficient recovery of phenolic compounds from banana peel is highly dependent on the extraction solvent. In the study by Chaudhry et al. (2022), the influence of solvent type on the recovery of distinct polyphenolic fractions from banana peel was systematically assessed. Higher yields (13.48%) and elevated total phenolic contents were attained when 50% (v/v) ethanol was employed, whereas methanol and acetone at the same concentration yielded markedly lower values. Total flavonoid contents were similarly maximized with 50% ethanol, followed by methanol and acetone. Absolute solvents (100%) were consistently associated with reduced extraction efficiencies for all measured fractions. Thus, ethanol at a 50% concentration was identified as the most effective solvent, regardless of the specific polyphenol class targeted.

Pre-treatment methods significantly impact phenolic content and profile. Microwave blanching serves as a notable example; increasing blanching time 1 to 3 min led to a substantial increase in both free polyphenols 1.76 to 4.31 mg GAE/100 g DW and bound polyphenols 1.67 to 3.86 mg GAE/100 g DW in banana peel. This suggests the treatment facilitates the release or transformation of bound phenolics, with compounds like rosmarinic acid showing a marked concentration increase (Dibanda et al., 2020).

3.2. Carotenoids

Banana peels represent a significant yet underutilized source of carotenoids, lipophilic pigments with potent antioxidant and provitamin A activities. Recent research highlights their potential for valorization in functional foods and nutraceuticals, shifting perception from waste to valuable resource.

Carotenoid profiling of banana peel identified lutein as the predominant xanthophyll, accompanied by α-carotene, β-carotene, and cryptoxanthins, with total carotenoids reaching approximately 96 μg/g dry weight (DW) in non-saponified Cavendish peel (Jing et al., 2023). Lutein recovery was markedly decreased by saponification, whereas the levels of α- and β-carotene were elevated, indicating that a substantial fraction of peel lutein occurred in esterified form. Importantly, carotenoid accumulation in banana was strongly governed by genotype, as systematic metabolomics across AAA, AAB, and ABB genome groups revealed genome group-specific compositional patterns. The highest α-carotene contents were observed in AAA cultivars, while more balanced profiles were exhibited by ABB bananas (Sheng et al., 2023), and this genotypic effect necessarily extended to peel carotenoid pools and accounted for the divergent contents reported across cultivars. Capitalizing on this compositional knowledge, an integrated biorefinery approach employing GRAS solvents and ultrasound-assisted extraction was developed, by which (all-E)-lutein was recovered at 338.05 μg/g DW from ‘Prata’ banana peel, together with pectin and ferulic acid, highlighting the industrial valorization potential of this abundant by-product (Silva et al., 2026). This finding is critical for optimizing industrial extraction protocols. Furthermore, carotenoid-rich peel extracts, including those from insoluble dietary fibres, demonstrate significant antioxidant capacity, correlating with their β-carotene content.

3.3. Terpenoids

Banana peels harbor diverse terpenoids, volatile and non-volatile compounds with emerging roles in flavor, preservation, and health. Their characterization and valorization align with sustainable agro-waste management strategies.

Terpenoid profiles in banana peels exhibit dynamic shifts influenced by ripening stage, cultivar, and extraction methods. Volatile terpenoids contribute critically to sensory properties; elemicin (a phenylpropene) accumulates during ripening, driving the development of characteristic banana aroma (Zhou et al., 2023). Recent discoveries like dihydroisovaltrate, first identified in banana peels and structurally linked to valerenic acid derivatives, underscore the untapped chemodiversity within this matrix (Silva et al., 2020). This compositional complexity positions banana peels as a versatile source for flavor compounds and functional lipids.

Terpenoids significantly underpin the biofunctional properties of banana peel extracts. Concurrently, terpenoids exhibit synergistic antioxidant effects with phenolic compounds, enhancing free radical scavenging capacity DPPH and ABTS radical quenching and reducing oxidative stress in model systems (Narwal et al., 2024). Furthermore, they contribute to broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against foodborne pathogens E. coli and S. aureus, highlighting potential for natural preservative development in minimally processed foods. These combined actions position terpenoids as key mediators of banana peels' protective functionalities.

3.4. Tannins

Tannins represent a major class of bioactive polyphenols in banana peels, characterized by significant antioxidant, antimicrobial, and potential health-promoting properties (Hassanin et al., 2025). These compounds contribute substantially to the valorization potential of this agro-waste stream, though their composition and functionality are dynamically influenced by genetic and post-harvest factors.

Tannin levels in banana peels exhibit notable variation across cultivars and ripening stages. Quantitative analyses typically report concentrations of 4–6% dry matter in common varieties like Cavendish with red skin, with unripe peels containing significantly higher levels than ripe counterparts due to enzymatic oxidation and polymerization during maturation (Ishak et al., 2020). Ultrasound-assisted extraction optimizes recovery from unripe peels up to 119.2 mg TAE/g, concurrently enhancing antioxidant capacity by improving compound accessibility (Ishak et al., 2020).

Tannins in banana peels drive multifaceted bioactivities with significant industrial implications. Their antimicrobial action is particularly compelling for food safety applications, tannins synergize with co-occurring flavonoids to disrupt microbial membranes, effectively inhibiting key foodborne pathogens including Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Bashir et al., 2021). This dual-action mechanism positions tannin-rich extracts as natural preservatives for minimally processed foods. When immobilized in biopolymer matrices chitosan or zein films, tannins retain free radical-scavenging activity while minimizing astringency, creating active packaging systems that simultaneously inhibit oxidation and microbial growth (Ishak et al., 2020).

Collectively, these functionalities highlight tannins as versatile agents for developing sustainable food preservation technologies, natural veterinary therapeutics, and bioactive biomaterials.

3.5. Volatile compounds

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are critical determinants of fruit aroma and quality, serving as dynamic biomarkers throughout banana ripening and storage. Recent advances in VOCs profiling reveal their potential for monitoring peel biochemistry and optimizing post-harvest management.

Banana peels emit a diverse array of VOCs whose composition is strongly governed by ripening stage and post-harvest degradation. Using SPME-GC–MS, 35 VOCs, predominantly esters together with minor alcohols, aldehydes, terpenoids, ketones and hydrocarbons, were identified across five ripening stages (Zhou et al., 2023). Esters, particularly isoamyl acetate and isopentyl butanoate, dominated the profile, with isoamyl acetate progressively accumulating to 33.75% at advanced browning, whereas hexanal and (E)-2-hexenal were detected exclusively in green peels. ROAV analysis identified isoamyl acetate, isopentyl butanoate, ethyl butyrate and 2-hexanol acetate as key aroma contributors, and PCA combined with LDA enabled effective discrimination of ripening stages. In contrast to these ester-rich aromas, the aerobic decomposition of discarded banana peel released 18 VOCs across ten functional groups, with a cumulative emission of 44.3 × 10⁻³ mg/kg dry peel, more than half of which were malodorous (Zhang et al., 2021). Three emission stages were resolved, with dimethyl sulphide, diethyl sulphide and styrene identified as the principal offensive odourants, peaking between days 4 and 9. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that the volatile profile of banana peels transitions from pleasant ester-driven aromas during ripening to malodorous sulfur and aromatic hydrocarbon emissions during decomposition. This transition underscores the dual significance of peel volatiles in both food quality assessment and waste odour management.

4. Food-relevant bioactive properties of banana peels

4.1. Antioxidant properties relevant to food preservation

Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that banana peels possess considerable antioxidant potential, which is largely attributed to their abundant phenolic compounds and is modulated by genetic, agronomic and processing factors (Table 4, Fig. 1). In a comprehensive screening of six Australian banana cultivars, seven complementary assays were employed by Bashmil et al. (2021), and antioxidant capacity was revealed to be strongly cultivar- and ripening-dependent. The highest DPPH and FRAP values were recorded in ripe Ducasse pulp, while the greatest ABTS radical-scavenging and reducing power were exhibited by ripe Ladyfinger peel; a significant positive correlation between total phenolic content and DPPH, FRAP and reducing power confirmed that the antioxidant activity was principally contributed by phenolics. Pronounced intercultivar variation was likewise reported among six Thai organic banana cultivars by Naksing et al. (2021), with the highest total phenolic content, DPPH scavenging activity and FRAP value displayed by Kluai Kai and the lowest by Kluai Namwa.

Table 4.

Highlights of bioactivities of banana peel or peel extracts.

Variety and Origin	Method or experimental model	Sample	Major identified compounds	Bioactive activities	Key findings	References
Musa sapientum, Pakistan	In vitro experiment- DPPH/FRAP antioxidant	50% and 75% ethanol, methanol, and acetone extracts obtained by sonication and maceration	Phenolic compounds	Antioxidant	50% EtOH + sonication gives highest yield and strongest antioxidant activity.	Chaudhry et al. (2022)
Yellow banana peels, China.	In vitro experiment-ABTS, DPPH assays	Hydrothermally synthesized carbon dots from banana peel dispersed in ultrapure water	Spherical blue-fluorescent carbon dots (6.4 nm) rich in —OH, —COOH, —NH2.	Antioxidant	95.5% ABTS, 88.4% DPPH scavenging at 320 μg/mL	Fan et al. (2025)
Musa acuminata, India.	In vitro experiment - broth dilution method for MIC	Methanolic extract	Tetracyclononane hexamethyl, phthalic acid, 9-octadecenal, 7-methyl undecane, 2-dodecyl-propanediol	Anti-microbial	All four peels inhibited S. aureus, P. aeruginosa and K. pneumoniae	Gopalraaj & Velayudhannair, (2025)
Musa acuminata cv. Red banana & cv. Rasthali, India	In vitro experiment - agar well diffusion method	Aqueous-alcoholic extract	Flavonoids, tannins, phlobatannins, alkaloids, glycosides, terpenoids	Anti-microbial	Rasthali peel > red banana peel in overall activity; both peels inhibit S. mutans, Lactobacillus, E. faecalis and C. albicans in a dose-dependent manner	Balajee et al. (2025)
Musa acuminata, Arabia	In vitro experiment - broth microdilution method for MIC/MBC	Green-synthesized ZnO nanoparticles using aqueous banana-peel extract	ZnO nanoparticles capped with peel-derived phenolics, flavonoids, pectin	Anti-microbial	ZnONPs-BPE MIC 0.75 mg/mL against Salmonella enteritidis and 1.5 mg/mL against S. aureus, E. coli, B. subtilis; complete bactericidal at 1.5–3 mg/mL.	Hussien (2023)
Musa acuminata × balbisiana, BBB group, Saba, Philippines	In vitro experiment - pancreatic lipase inhibition assay, cholesterol micellar solubility inhibition assay, and bile-acid binding assay	0.5 N citric-acid-extracted pectin; 0.5 N HCl-extracted pectin; microwave-assisted pectin	High-ester (>50%) pectin	Anti-obesity	Acid-extracted pectin binds cholesterol (≈55%) and bile acids best; none inhibit pancreatic lipase	Estribillo et al. (2022)
‘Saba’, Philippines	In vivo experiment - male ICR mice model (HFD-induced obesity)	Aqueous-citric-acid extracted pectin	Saba peel pectin (degree of esterification ∼75%)	Weight control, hypocholesterolemia, anti-obesity	SPP lowers body weight & TC comparably to citrus pectin; reduces liver fat & adiposity	Bagabaldo et al. (2022)
Musa acuminata, Indonesia	In vivo experiment - male Wistar rat obesity model induced by high-fat high-fructose (HFHFr) diet	80% methanol macerated extract	Flavonoids, phenols, tannins, alkaloids, saponins	Anti-obesity (lipogenesis inhibition), pancreatic lipase inhibition, antioxidant	800 mg/kg/day RBPE significantly reduced BW, BMI, BFP; visceral fat unchanged	Kezia et al. (2024)
Musa sp., Brazil	In vivo experiment - 6-month randomized controlled trial in 39 type-2 diabetic patients (21 banana, 18 control)	40 g/day green-banana biomass added to individualized diet	Resistant starch-2, carotenoids, phenolic antioxidants	Low density lipoprotein particle protection against oxidation, anti-atherogenic, glycemic control	Banana biomass lowered total cholesterol, non-HDL-C, glucose	Lotfollahi et al. (2020)
Musa sapientum, India	In vitro experiment - in silico docking & 50 ns MD simulation vs PARP-2 (4ZZX)	Aqueous and ethanol extracts	P-coumaric acid ethyl ester, gallocatechin, epicatechin, vitamin E	Anticancer (PARP-2 inhibition)	Four peel compounds dock strongly to PARP-2 and remain stable in MD; good ADME profile	Sangavi et al. (2021)
Musa spp., China	In vitro experiment – CCK-8 & transwell migration assay on breast/lung cancer cells; In vivo experiment - nude mouse LLC tumor model	Banana peel aqueous extract used as sole reductant/protectant to hydrothermally synthesize Au-dendrite nanoparticles	Peel polysaccharides/starch act as reductant, phenolic acids/flavonoids provide surface functionalization	Antiproliferative, anti-migration, photothermal enhancement under NIR	200 μg/mL Au-dendrite kills cancer cells; in vivo tumor weight ↓ 60% vs control; no systemic toxicity	Liu et al. (2020)
Musa sp., Taiwan	In vitro experiment-LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage model; In vivo experiment-LPS-induced endotoxemia BALB/c mouse model	95% ethanol extract	5-Hydroxymethylfurfural, guaiol, oleamide, oleic acid, linoleic acid	Anti-inflammatory, T-cell immunomodulatory	BP-95E-H2O-BuOH lowered IL-6 and TNF-α, reduced CD3CD69 T cells, prolonged survival in LPS mice.	Hong et al. (2023)
Musa Cavendish, Nigeria	In vivo experiment - female Wistar rats with heavy-metal mixture (Pb, Hg, Mn, Al) nephrotoxicity.	Aqueous extract	phenolic-rich fraction	Anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, metal chelation	800 mg/kg BP reduced hepato-renal metals 52–79%, restored antioxidant enzymes, lowered IL-6, TNF-α, MDA, caspase-3 via Nrf2/Hmox-1 activation and NF-κB inhibition	Eddie-Amadi et al. (2022)
Musa acuminata, Indonesia	In vivo experiment – male Wistar rats with incision wounds; In vitro experiment - disc diffusion against Staphylococcus aureus	96% ethanol extracts	Methyl salicylate, linalool, ascorbic acid 2-glucoside, betaine	Anti-inflammatory, wound healing	75% peel extract gave 91% wound healing and best anti-inflammatory action	Muniroh et al. (2025)
Musa AAB Nendran, India	In vitro experiment – RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cell model for anti-inflammatory assays; in vitro experiment - α-glucosidase inhibitory assay.	extracted sequentially with ethyl acetate, chloroform and methanol	18 molecular species of glucocerebrosides containing α- and ω-hydroxy fatty acids.	Anti-inflammatory (nitric-oxide suppression, cytokine modulation) and α-glucosidase inhibition	GC at 50 μg/mL suppressed NO, lowered pro-inflammatory cytokines, raised IL-10, and inhibited α-glucosidase	Raveena et al. (2024)
Musa acuminata, Vietnam	In vitro assays - DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, protease inhibition, protein-denaturation inhibition, α-glucosidase inhibition, and simulated gastrointestinal digestion for bioaccessibility	60% moisture banana peel fermented 4 days at 30°C, extracted with absolute ethanol	Catechin, gallic acid, rutin	Anti-inflammatory (protease/protein-denaturation inhibition), anti-diabetic (α-glucosidase inhibition)	Fermentation doubled total phenolics, improved every bioactivity, and achieved >95% polyphenol bioaccessibility after intestinal digestion.	Nguyen et al. (2025)
Yellow-ripe, China.	In vivo experiment - STZ & high-fat-diet-induced type-2 diabetic Kunming mice model	Dietary fibre prepared by enzymatic extraction and freeze-drying	Dietary fibres (mainly cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin)	Hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, gut-microbiota modulation, hepato-pancreatic protection	Banana peel soluble dietary fibre best reduced fasting glucose, restored pancreatic β-cells, raised GLP-1 & SCFAs, and up-regulated IRS/PI3K/AKT pathway	Wang et al. (2022)
Musa paradisiaca, Pakistan	In vivo experiment - paracetamol-induced hepatotoxicity rabbit model	Air-dried, ground powder of orange peel or banana peel suspended in distilled water	Phenolics, flavonoids, carotenoids, anthocyanins	Hepatoprotective, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory	Banana peels dose-dependently lowered ALT, AST, bilirubin and TOS while increasing TAC	Asif et al. (2024)
Musa acuminata, Musa paradisiaca L., Musa acuminata Colla cv. Señorita, Philippines	In vivo experiment - ethanol-, aspirin-, and cold-restraint-stress-induced gastric ulcer rat models	95% ethanol extract	Total phenolics (12.3–40.3 mg GAE/g dw) and flavonoids (2.5–16.6 mg QE/g dw)	Gastro-protective/anti-ulcer	Extracts significantly inhibited ulcers (up to 100%), correlated with high phenolic/flavonoid content and antioxidant capacity.	Gogola (2020)
Musa sapientum, Nigeria	In vivo experiment - lead-acetate-induced neurotoxicity female Wistar rat model	Absolute ethanol extract	9,19-Cyclolanostan-3-ol acetate, stigmasterol, α-tocopheryl acetate, oleic acid, hexadecanoic acid, sucrose, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural	Neuroprotective, acetylcholinesterase inhibition	Peel extract reversed lead-induced memory deficits, reduced hippocampal damage, and restored antioxidant enzyme levels dose-dependently.	Inwang et al. (2024)

Fig. 1.

Multifunctional bioactivities of banana peel and its extracts. (A) Anti-obesogenic/lipid-lowering. Pectin sequesters bile acids and lowers plasma TC/TG without caloric restriction. (B) Antimicrobial. Inhibits Gram-positive/−negative bacteria and Candida via membrane disruption. (C) Anti-diabetic. Inhibition of α-glucosidase and improved glucose tolerance in diabetic subjects. (D) Antioxidant. Scavenges DPPH/ABTS radicals and exceeds pulp activity 3–4-fold. (E) Anti-cancer. Induces ROS-mediated apoptosis in HepG2, MCF-7, Caco-2 cells and enhances activity when nano-formulated. (F) Anti-inflammatory. Suppresses NF-κB/TNF-α and accelerates wound closure in murine models. (G) Hepatoprotective. Restores Nrf-2, reduces ALT/AST and mitigates drug-induced liver damage. (H) Gastroprotective. Abolishes aspirin/ethanol ulcers in rats with omeprazole-like efficacy. (I) Neuroprotective. Reverses lead-induced memory loss and oxidative stress in hippocampus. (J) Anti-osteoporotic. Flavonoid-rich fraction restores trabecular bone volume via BMP-2/RUNX2 up-regulation. (K) Anti-atherogenic. Inhibits NF-κB and up-regulates eNOS to prevent endothelial dysfunction.

In a comparative assessment of fruit by-products, banana peel extracts were found by Hanafy et al. (2021) to possess lower total antioxidant capacity than pomegranate and orange peels; nevertheless, an ethanolic banana peel extract still displayed appreciable antioxidant capacity, and proportional relationships between antioxidant values and the contents of phenolics, flavonoids and tannins were observed across all tested peels. Extraction conditions also govern the recovery of antioxidant compounds, since significantly higher polyphenol content and DPPH and FRAP activities were yielded by ultrasound-assisted extraction than by conventional maceration, with 50% ethanol identified as the optimal solvent (Chaudhry et al., 2022).

Beyond conventional extracts, carbon dots first synthesized from banana peels via a hydrothermal approach by Fan et al. (2025) displayed concentration-dependent free radical scavenging, achieving 95.5% ABTS and 88.4% DPPH inhibition at 320 μg/mL, an effect attributed to the abundant hydroxyl and carboxyl groups on the nanomaterial surface. Collectively, these findings confirm that banana peels are a valuable source of natural antioxidants whose activity can be substantially enhanced through cultivar selection and optimized extraction, and whose application to the control of oxidative deterioration in food products warrants further investigation.

4.2. Antimicrobial properties relevant to food safety and preservation

Beyond its antioxidant properties, banana peel demonstrates significant and multifaceted antimicrobial potential of direct relevance to food safety and preservation (Fig. 1). This activity stems primarily from its rich content of bioactive compounds, including flavonoids, tannins, phthalic acid esters and 1,3-propanediol-2-dodecyl, which act through mechanisms such as membrane disruption and biofilm inhibition (Chaudhry et al., 2025; Hussien, 2023). The choice of extraction technique and solvent critically influences the recovery and potency of antimicrobial agents: sonicated ethanolic extracts have demonstrated superior activity compared with maceration or the use of other solvents such as methanol and acetone, exhibiting broad-spectrum inhibition against common foodborne pathogens including Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli, as well as Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Chaudhry et al., 2025).

Significant differences also exist among banana cultivars, underscoring the potential for selecting high-performance cultivars for dedicated antimicrobial ingredient production. In addition, banana peel serves as an effective bio-reductant and capping agent in the green synthesis of antimicrobial nanoparticles; zinc oxide nanoparticles synthesized using banana peel extracts have demonstrated potent broad-spectrum activity against both Gram-positive pathogens such as S. aureus and B. subtilis and Gram-negative pathogens such as S. enteritidis and E. coli at low concentrations (Hussien, 2023).

Collectively, these findings establish banana peel, whether as solvent extracts or as a template for biosynthesized nanoparticles, as a readily accessible and eco-compatible resource for food-compatible antimicrobial applications, although the efficacy of these preparations in real food matrices and during storage still requires systematic validation.

4.3. Lipid-modulating effects in experimental models

Accumulating evidence positions banana peel, whether used as a source of pectin, processed biomass or whole flour, as a potential intervention for managing dyslipidaemia and obesity in experimental models. The primary lipid-modulating mechanism appears to center on the sequestration of cholesterol and bile acids within the gut lumen, facilitated by the abundant pectin content, particularly high-methoxyl pectin. Supplementation with banana peel pectin significantly reduced plasma total cholesterol, triglycerides, adiposity index and hepatic fat accumulation in obese-hypercholesterolemic mice (Bagabaldo et al., 2022).

Beyond bile acid binding, multi-targeted effects on lipid metabolism and energy homeostasis have been observed, including modulation of hepatic gene expression, as extracts from green banana peel downregulated de novo lipogenesis genes such as HMG-CoA reductase and upregulated markers of fatty acid oxidation and bile acid synthesis such as CYP7A1, enhancement of thermogenesis through the bile acid–TGR5–BAT axis as reflected by increased UCP1 expression, and suppression of NF-κB-mediated signalling (Bagabaldo et al., 2022; Barroso et al., 2022). Importantly, these effects on body weight gain, fat percentage and plasma lipids often occurred independently of caloric restriction, pointing to direct bioactive interference (Barroso et al., 2022).

Preliminary human evidence also supports the potential of peel-derived fractions, since supplementation with green banana biomass containing peel-derived resistant starch improved atherogenic lipid profiles in adults with type 2 diabetes. Collectively, these findings identify banana peel as a sustainable, low-cost source of bioactives with potential relevance to the development of lipid-modulating functional food ingredients. Nevertheless, because most of this evidence derives from rodent models and human data remain scarce, these effects should be regarded as preliminary, and controlled human studies are required before any functional claim can be made.

4.4. Antiproliferative activity in cell-based and animal studies

Banana peel has been increasingly explored in laboratory studies for its antiproliferative potential against cancer cell lines. For example, extracts of blanched green banana peel nanoparticles prepared by physical ball milling exerted stronger cytotoxicity against human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells than their normal-sized counterparts, with a lower half-maximal inhibitory concentration of 189.69 μg/mL compared with 283.55 μg/mL, implying that nanosizing enhanced the release of phenolic bioactives (Hassanin et al., 2025). In agreement, dendrite-shaped gold nanoparticles synthesized via a hydrothermal route using banana peel as both reducing and protective agent showed better biocompatibility than classical gold nanoparticles and inhibited the growth and migration of breast and lung cancer cells, as well as tumor weight in a mouse lung cancer model (Liu et al., 2020).

Concerning breast cancer cells, p-coumaric acid ethyl ester, gallocatechin, epicatechin and vitamin E from Musa sapientum peel were identified by molecular docking as potential inhibitors of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-2 with favorable binding energies (Sangavi et al., 2021). Building on these leads, pyrazole-linked thiazole derivatives were synthesized via a green protocol using the alkaline water extract of banana peel, and the methoxy-substituted derivative exhibited the strongest cytotoxicity against MCF-7 breast cancer cells, with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration of 11.03 μM and the highest binding affinity toward the epidermal growth factor receptor (Vahora et al., 2025). Moreover, Hom Thong banana peel extracts were reported to reduce melanin content and tyrosinase activity in human and mouse melanoma cells by down-regulating MITF and its downstream pigmentary genes TYR, TRP-1 and DCT (Linsaenkart et al., 2024).

It should be noted that all of these observations derive from in vitro assays or animal models and indicate potential mechanisms rather than established effects in humans; further mechanistic and clinical studies are therefore required.

4.5. Anti-inflammatory properties in in vitro and in silico studies

Banana peel has emerged as a potential source of anti-inflammatory agents in laboratory studies, with recent investigations identifying novel bioactive classes and mechanisms. Key findings include the identification of glucocerebrosides, a previously overlooked compound class in peel that suppresses NF-κB signalling and reduces TNF-α production at physiologically relevant concentrations (Raveena et al., 2024). This activity is complemented by synergistic interactions within the peel's phytocomplex, as flavonoids such as quercetin derivatives, ω-3 fatty acids and methyl salicylate collectively modulate iNOS, COX-2 and 15-LOX pathways, as validated through in silico binding studies and cytokine profiling (Widoyanti et al., 2023).

Mechanistic analyses further reveal NF-κB inhibition via IκBα stabilization as a primary action, complemented by secondary immunomodulatory effects including T-cell cytokine suppression and antioxidant enzyme potentiation (Eddie-Amadi et al., 2022). These observations, which are derived mainly from in silico and cell-based experiments, support the potential of banana peel as a source of food-grade anti-inflammatory ingredients, although their physiological relevance requires validation in vivo and in humans.

4.6. Further bioactivities observed in laboratory and animal studies

Recent studies have additionally reported anti-diabetic, hepatoprotective, gastroprotective, anti-atherogenic, neuroprotective and anti-osteoporotic activities for banana peel preparations, almost exclusively in in vitro assays or animal models; these findings should be regarded as preliminary. For glucose regulation, glucocerebrosides isolated from unripe peels exhibit potent α-glucosidase inhibition in vitro, disrupting oligosaccharide hydrolysis and thereby suggesting a potential contribution to postprandial glucose control (Raveena et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2022). In hepatoprotection studies, sophorolipids biosynthesized from peel via yeast fermentation restored Nrf-2 expression while suppressing caspase-3 activity, reversing drug-induced liver damage in preclinical models (Abdel-Latif et al., 2023), and polyphenol–fibre complexes in whole peel powder normalized serum ALT/AST levels and mitigated centrilobular necrosis, attributed to their combined antioxidant and membrane-stabilizing actions (Asif et al., 2024).

Regarding gastroprotection, Gogola (2020) reported that an ethanolic peel extract abolished aspirin- and cold-restraint-induced gastric ulcers in rats and markedly attenuated ethanol-provoked mucosal injury, while preserving mucosal architecture without macroscopic toxicity at the doses tested. The anti-atherogenic potential of banana peels has been supported by in vivo evidence, as serum triglycerides and total cholesterol were significantly lowered in hyperlipidemic rats by aqueous extracts of Musa sapientum peels, and total cholesterol, triglycerides, LDL and VLDL cholesterol were likewise diminished when peels were supplied as a dietary component (Bucalen, 2023). Neuroprotection has been demonstrated against lead-induced brain damage, with ripe Musa sapientum peel extract dose-dependently restoring recognition and spatial memory and suppressing hippocampal oxidative and cholinergic markers in lead-exposed rats (Inwang et al., 2024). In addition, a banana peel flavonoid-rich extract reversed ovariectomy-induced bone loss in mice, restoring trabecular bone volume and reducing osteoclast surface through BMP-2/RUNX2 up-regulation and RANKL/OPG modulation (Sinha et al., 2025).

Taken together, these convergent yet mechanistically diverse findings indicate that banana peel contains multiple bioactives with wide-ranging functional potential. However, since the majority of this evidence is derived from in vitro assays or animal models and human data are scarce, these activities should be regarded as preliminary indications rather than established health benefits. From a food science perspective, they may nevertheless provide a rationale for developing peel-derived ingredients with targeted functional properties, provided that standardised extraction, rigorous toxicological assessment and, ultimately, controlled human studies are undertaken.

5. Applications in food industry of banana peels

5.1. Applications in food products

5.1.1. Wheaten and bakery products

The global food-processing sector has been intensively exploring the valorisation of banana-peel by-products as high-value functional ingredients to simultaneously reduce waste, enhance nutrition, and maintain sensory acceptability; the following review synthesises the latest findings across four major product categories, bread, cakes, biscuits, and noodles (as shown in Table 5 and Fig. 2). Meta-analysis of independent bread trials shows that replacing 5–10% wheat flour with spray-dried banana-peel powder doubles total dietary fibre and triples DPPH-scavenging capacity without loss of loaf moisture or specific volume (Akhter et al., 2024; Maschio et al., 2023). Beyond 10%, arabinoxylan-mediated dough stiffening and Maillard-induced darkening reduce consumer liking by 15–20%; fermentative debittering or enzyme-assisted softening are presently the only scalable remediation routes.

Table 5.

Highlights of banana peel applications in food products.

Variety and Origin	Application	Sample introduced	Analyses carried out	Key findings	Functions	Appropriateration of addition	References
Musa paradisiaca AAB (Malbhog), Bangladesh	Wheat bread	Dried banana peel powder (BPP), <0.18 mm	Nutritional analysis, total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, DPPH, colour, sensory evaluation	↑protein, fat, fibre, ash; ↓carbohydrates; ↑antioxidant; darker colour; 5% acceptable	Antioxidant, nutritional fortification	5% (best sensory + nutrition)	Akhter et al. (2024)
Musa sapientum, Brazil	Cake	Whole vs. powdered peel	Acceptance, health/sustainability/innovation perception, EsSense emotion profile, FTNS segmentation, risk analysis	Neophilic cluster unaffected by peel info; neophobic cluster rated BP cakes healthier, sustainable, innovative; powdered peel boosted acceptance in neophobics	Sustainability & health communication tool; consumer segmentation key	6–7.5% (with targeted info)	Zandanotto et al. (2025)
Musa acuminata, India	Biscuits	Banana peel powder	Nutritional analysis, physical characteristics (weight, diameter, thickness, spread ratio), texture profile, colour, sensory evaluation, optical microscopy, storage stability	↑protein and fibre, decreased moisture. Sensory acceptability was best at 10–15% substitution. Storage caused decline in ash, fat, and protein but increase in moisture.	Dietary fibre enrichment, antioxidant potential	10%	Ayoub et al. (2022)
Not specified, India	Cookies	Banana peel flour	Nutritional analysis, physical characteristics (weight, diameter, thickness, spread ratio), hardness, colour, total phenolic content, DPPH scavenging, lipid peroxidation inhibition, sensory evaluation	↑TPC, DPPH, and lipid peroxidation inhibition. Hardness increased with BPF. Sensory acceptability was best at 7.5–10% BPF.	Antioxidant, shelf-life extension, nutritional enhancement	7.5–10%	Shafi et al. (2022)
Musa acuminata, Pakistan	Noodles	Banana peel powder	Nutritional analysis, mineral analysis (K, Ca, Fe, Na, Mn, Zn, P), total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, DPPH and FRAP antioxidant assays, pasting properties, water absorption, cooking losses, sensory evaluation	↑fibre, minerals, TPC, TFC, and antioxidant activity. Decreased viscosity and increased cooking losses. Sensory best at 10%.	Antioxidant, mineral fortification, dietary fibre enrichment	10%	Pasha et al. (2022)
Saba (Musa balbisiana) and Berangan (Musa acuminata), Sabah, Malaysia	Chicken sausage	Peel flours	Water- and oil-holding capacity, swelling power, texture profile, colour, rheology, SEM, sensory evaluation.	Berangan peel showed higher WHC & OHC; Saba gave harder texture; ≥ 2% inclusion darkened colour and reduced sensory acceptance.	Fibre source, water/oil binder, antioxidant implied.	2%	Zaini et al. (2020)
unspecified cultivar, Egypt	Chicken patties	Peel powder	Proximate, DPPH, phenolics/flavonoids, TVBN, TBA, microbiology, sensory.	↑protein, ↓fat, ↓TBARS, ↑sensory; banana least active	Antioxidant, antimicrobial.	1%	Abdel-Naeem et al. (2022)
Musa acuminata cv. Chenkathali, Indian	Beef patties	Banana peel powder	TBARS, tyrosine, pH, cooking yield, Hunter colour, sensory	7.5% peel cut TBARS 30–40%, slowed protein breakdown, maintained acceptability	Antioxidant, dietary fibre source	7.5%	Kuzhiyengal (2024)
Musa balbisiana, Malaysia	Fish patties	Banana peel powder	proximate, WHC, cooking yield, texture, colour, sensory	2% BPP ↑ hardness, cooking yield, DF; 6% ↓ acceptability	antioxidant, water-binding, fibre fortification	2%	Zaini et al. (2020)
Musa acuminata, Thailand	Dried plant-based meat	Banana peel powder	Colour, pH, Aw, texture, proximate chemistry, TP/DPPH, microbiology, sensory	≤50% peel kept protein, safety; darkened colour, softer texture; 50% scored highest acceptability.	Antioxidant, dietary fibre, partial TVP substitute	50%	Issara et al. (2024)
Musa cavendish, Pakistan	yogurt	dried or fresh peel extract	LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS, DPPH, TPC, mineral, colour	1.5% BPAE maximized phenolics, antioxidant activity, reduced syneresis	Antioxidant, shelf-life extension	1.5%	Anwar et al. (2024)
Local Cavendish, India.	3-D printed food packaging casings.	Banana peel–sugarcane bagasse powder blend (1:1) + 1% guar gum.	Rheology, flexural test, printing precision.	400 mm min−1 printing speed yielded 78% precision, 11 MPa flexural stress.	Printability, mechanical support.	1% guar gum	Nida et al. (2022)
Unspecified, Indonesia.	Fish preservative	Banana peel vinegar (fermented extract) + NaCl.	Organoleptic test (1–9 scale), pH, moisture.	Vinegar+NaCl reduces spoilage vs formalin.	Antimicrobial (salt), antioxidant (vinegar).	15 min soak in 10% vinegar +5% NaCl.	Athawirya et al. (2022)

Fig. 2.

The applications of banana peel or peel extracts in food products. Banana peels are rich in dietary fibre, essential minerals and antioxidant phytochemicals, enabling: 1) their incorporation into wheaten and bakery products (such as bread, cakes, biscuits and noodles); 2) their use in meat and aquatic products (including chicken sausages, beef patties, fish meatballs and plant-based meat); 3) their addition to dairy products (exemplified by milk and yogurt); 4) their exploitation as a prebiotic ingredient.

A convergent body of evidence demonstrates that up to 10% substitution of wheat or rice flour with banana peel-derived ingredients yields functional cakes without major sensory penalties, whereas higher inclusion compromises texture and colour.In chemically-leavened systems, 15% green-banana peel flour retains volume and delivers a five-fold antioxidant increment versus control (Türker & Savlak, 2022). Consumer emotion profiling further reveals that transparent banana peel labelling converts neophobic resistance into a perceived health-and-sustainability bonus, effectively extending the acceptable dosage to 15% (Zandanotto et al., 2025). The limiting factor now shifts to excessive batter viscosity, correctable by 1–2% added water or lecithin.

Hardness rises linearly above 10% inclusion, crossing the consumer fracture threshold about 9 N while bitterness from condensed tannins becomes detectable (Ayoub et al., 2022; Shafi et al., 2022). Encapsulation of polyphenols with β-cyclodextrin or co-drying with maltodextrin currently emerges as the most promising mitigation strategy.

Banana peel has emerged as a potent functional ingredient for wheat-based noodle reformulation, as demonstrated by three recent studies that systematically varied its form and inclusion level. In yellow-alkaline and salted formats, 10–30% banana peel incorporation progressively lowers predicted glycaemic index and elevates total phenolics 3- to 4-fold (Pasha et al., 2022). NaHSO₃ pre-bleaching or alkaline pH suppresses PPO browning, allowing 30% inclusion to achieve the highest consumer preference while maintaining tensile strength.

Taken together, the evidence establishes banana peel as a technically viable, nutritionally potent, and consumer-conditional fortifier for cereal-based foods when dosage, product format and transparency strategies are carefully aligned. Future work should therefore pivot from “how much can be added” to “how best to communicate and contextualise” peel inclusion, ensuring that sustainability and health gains are not undermined by neophobia or sensory drift.

5.1.2. Meat and aquatic product

In recent years, banana peel has emerged as a promising natural functional ingredient in meat processing, valued for its dual antioxidant and textural benefits (as shown in Table 5 and Fig. 2). Incorporation of banana peel into chicken sausage improves water-holding capacity and cooking yield via its high dietary fibre (Zaini et al., 2020). However, inclusion above 2% markedly increases hardness and darkness, reducing cohesiveness and overall liking. Two percent banana peel also delays lipid oxidation by 55%, confirming antioxidant benefit (Zaini et al., 2020). Comparable 2% levels in patties cut fat and cholesterol by 15% without compromising emulsion stability, illustrating how banana peel simultaneously replaces fat and retards oxidation (Abdel-Naeem et al., 2022).

Banana peel has recently been valorised as a functional ingredient in beef matrices. Unal et al. (2025) revealed that banana peel albedo powder at 0.5–1.5% (w/w) of raw beef enhanced water-holding capacity and reduced cooking loss, while 1% banana peel albedo powder optimized emulsion capacity, stability and microstructural homogeneity; excessive levels reversed these benefits.

Banana peel has been investigated in fish products as a functional ingredient. In fish patties prepared from surimi, the substitution of banana peel powder improved hardness, cooking yield, water-holding capacity and dietary fibre content, with 2% affording the highest overall acceptability, although higher levels darkened the product and reduced sensory scores (Joseph et al., 2024).

Beyond aquatic matrices, banana peel was also used as a textured vegetable protein replacer in dried plant-based meat. Replacing textured vegetable protein with banana peel darkened colour, left pH and Aw unchanged, conserved protein, reduced hardness and chewiness, and raised consumer acceptability to 43% versus 33% for control, all without microbial risk; higher levels impaired texture (Issara et al., 2024).

Collectively, these studies establish banana peel as a cost-effective, multifunctional additive for clean-label meat products, provided inclusion levels remain below 2% to balance functionality and sensory quality.

5.1.3. Dairy products

Banana peel applications have also been explored in dairy products, particularly yogurt, demonstrating significant potential (Kabir et al., 2021). Ultrasound-extracted polyphenols from banana peel triple total phenolics and DPPH activity while suppressing syneresis by 30%, yet the same dose lowers post-acidification, creating an atypically flat pH profile that consumers reject (Anwar et al., 2024; Mahomud et al., 2024). Freeze-dried banana peel fibre similarly doubles viscosity and sustains probiotic counts over 28 days, but darkens L* by over 10 units and halves hedonic scores (Safdari et al., 2021). Thus, the functional optimum is 0.3–0.5% extract or 0.5% fibre, beyond which colour drift and muted acidification dominate.

Collectively, these studies indicate that banana peel and its extracts serve as functional natural additives capable of enhancing phenolic content, antioxidant activity, textural properties like viscosity and reduced syneresis, and probiotic viability in dairy products. However, their incorporation must be carefully optimized regarding form and dosage to manage potential trade-offs in sensory acceptability, acidity, colour, and shelf-life.

5.1.4. Prebiotics

Banana peel has emerged as a compelling prebiotic feedstock, with recent work revealing consistent yet mechanistically distinct benefits (Zahid et al., 2021; Phirom-on & Apiraksakorn, 2021; Tan et al., 2024). Banana peel contains 40–50% dietary fibre of which 15–20% can be enzymatically depolymerised to cello-oligosaccharides with a degree of polymerization 3–5. These cello-oligosaccharides outperform commercial inulin by doubling the prebiotic index (PI = 0.74 vs 0.37) and selectively accelerating Lactobacillus plantarum growth while suppressing E. coli (Phirom-on & Apiraksakorn, 2021).

In food matrices, the same cello-oligosaccharides translate into rapid fermentation kinetics. 2% (w/w) oven-dried banana peel shortens the generation time of Lactobacillus to 1.1 h and drives pH below 3.5 within 6 h, metrics superior to glucose and inulin controls (Tan et al., 2024). Dose escalation beyond 2% yields no further probiotic benefit, indicating substrate saturation and underscoring the low-inclusion advantage of banana peel. Leveraging this threshold, reformulated biscuits with 2% banana peel deliver a 20% reduction in predicted glycaemic index and a 3-fold increase in Bifidobacterium counts after in vitro digestion, without altering hardness or consumer liking (Tan et al., 2024). Together, the evidence positions banana peel as a cost-effective, low-inclusion prebiotic whose soluble fibres and oligosaccharides robustly stimulate beneficial gut microbiota while simultaneously lowering post-prandial glycaemia.

5.2. Food packaging and edible films

5.2.1. Film matrix

The valorization of plant-based food processing residues, such as banana peels rich in starch and cellulose, presents a promising route for fabricating edible coatings, packaging films, biodegradable film matrices and bionanocomposite films, spurring recent advances in formulations utilizing peel-derived powders, starch, and cellulose fractions.

Banana peel has been regarded as an attractive film matrix owing to its abundant film-forming biopolymers, including cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and starch. Nevertheless, films prepared directly from peel flour or biomass have repeatedly been reported to suffer from poor mechanical resistance and pronounced hydrophilicity. For instance, edible films formulated from ripe banana peel flour and corn starch were found to be weakly resistant, with a tensile strength of only 0.74 MPa but high flexibility reflected by an elongation at break of 31% (Silva et al., 2020). Likewise, a biopolymeric membrane derived from mature banana peel biomass was shown to exhibit a water absorption as high as 115.23% together with a tensile strength of only 0.8 MPa, a limitation attributed to its irregular surface morphology (Sánchez et al., 2025).

To remedy these drawbacks, the film matrix has been reinforced either by blending with other polysaccharides or by chemical crosslinking. When banana peel powder was blended with corn starch, a more organized polymer network was generated through intermolecular interactions, and the water solubility of the films was drastically reduced from 76.63% to below 0.1%, which also enabled the fabrication of synbiotic edible films with probiotic viability retained for 35 days (Oraç, 2026). In a similar manner, the incorporation of guar gum was found to improve the flowability of banana peel and sugarcane bagasse mixtures, allowing extrusion-based 3D printing of packaging structures whose flexural strength exceeded that of expanded polystyrene (Nida et al., 2022). A more pronounced reinforcement was achieved by crosslinking, whereby lignocellulosic fibre extracted from banana peel was solubilized in ZnCl₂ and crosslinked with increasing Ca²⁺ concentrations; this treatment raised the tensile strength up to 31.30 MPa while decreasing moisture content, water solubility, moisture absorption and water vapor permeability, and the resultant films remained transparent and degraded by more than 50% of their weight within 3 weeks of soil burial (Hoque & Janaswamy, 2024).

Taken together, these studies demonstrate that the banana peel film matrix can be flexibly engineered through blending and crosslinking to balance mechanical, barrier and biodegradation performance. Banana peel therefore represents a renewable and biodegradable matrix for edible packaging, although further optimization is still required to satisfy practical application demands.

5.2.2. Active ingredients

Banana peels, as a by-product, have shown promising potential in food preservation through various applications. Edible coatings that double as functional barriers have been the first to reach proof-of-concept. A green-banana-peel film reduced psychrotrophic counts on chicken breast by 1 log cycle during chilled storage without compromising sensory scores (Salazar et al., 2021). When the same extract was embedded in banana-starch films at 5% (w/v), radical-scavenging activity peaked and E. coli O157:H7 growth on minced pork was suppressed; lipid oxidation remained lower than under PVC wrap. Likewise, a 4% chitosan/banana-peel-extract composite outperformed neat chitosan in preserving post-harvest apples, cutting respiration and weight loss while maintaining firmness and ascorbic acid.

Banana peel has rapidly emerged as a multi-functional feedstock for active food packaging. Thermoplastic films reinforced with peel-derived nanocellulose exhibit 98% UV-blocking and prolong bread shelf-life by 10 days (Chandrasekar et al., 2023). Carbon dots obtained by hydrothermal conversion of peel have been 3-D-printed into bilayer constructs: an outer carbon dots layer blocks >95% UV, while an inner cinnamon-oil layer delays mango browning, keeping fruit marketable for 8 days at 25 °C (Chen et al., 2024). Embedding the same carbon dots in chitosan/gelatin films yields composites that eradicate Listeria monocytogenes within 6 h and maintain beef colour for 48 h at 20 °C.

Selective gas permeability and antimicrobial release have been further refined by nanocomposite design. A cocoyam-starch/banana-peel-nanoparticle (1.14–1.64 nm) film restricts O₂ while favouring CO₂ egress, reducing microbial counts in locust beans compared with LDPE over 30 days. Bacterial nanocellulose grown on peel extract and modified with PVOH-AgNPs strongly inhibits E. coli and S. aureus and keeps mushrooms fresh for 7 days at 4 °C, outperforming polyethylene (Khan et al., 2023). Even simple peel-fermented vinegar, combined with 2% NaCl, suppresses fish spoilage flora under ambient storage through a synergistic organic-acid/salt hurdle.

Collectively, these studies establish banana peel as a potent, renewable platform for active packaging, combining gas regulation, antimicrobial release and bio-based film reinforcement to enhance food safety and longevity.

6. Safety and possible toxicity

From what has been discussed above, banana peels contain abundant essential nutrients and various bioactive substances like carotenoids, terpenoids, tannins, alkaloids, and volatile compounds, highlighting their food industry potential. However, they may produce anti-nutritional factors or toxic constituents to fend off phytopathogens or insects, and whether these pose risks to human health remains uncertain and requires consideration.

The intrinsic safety of dried peels was characterized by Ngouno et al. (2026), who reported that cyanide content remained very low (0.21–0.80 mg/100 g), far below the safety limit, although phytate, oxalate and tannin levels varied considerably with cultivar and ripening stage. Importantly, oven drying at 45 °C was found to reduce these antinutritional factors while preserving nutritional quality, suggesting that appropriate processing is essential for the safe incorporation of banana peels into foods. In addition, concentration-dependent toxicity was demonstrated in vitro by Balajee et al. (2025), who showed that low concentrations (5–40 μg/mL) of peel extracts maintained high nauplii viability in a brine shrimp lethality assay, whereas viability declined markedly at 80 μg/mL, highlighting the importance of dose optimization.

Consistent with this dose-dependence, peel-derived nanomaterials were reported to be biocompatible, since ZnO nanoparticles capped with banana peel extract showed low cytotoxicity toward normal human skin fibroblasts, with an IC₅₀ above 100 μg/mL (Hussien et al., 2023). Moreover, no evident toxicity was observed in rodent models; rather, banana peel extract exhibited protective effects against heavy metal-induced injury. Eddie-Amadi et al. (2023) demonstrated that co-administration of the extract (200–800 mg/kg) dose-dependently reduced the accumulation of Pb, Hg, Mn and Al in the thyroid, attenuated oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis, and modulated the Nrf2/Hmox-1 and NF-κB pathways, although recovery of the thyroid histoarchitecture was incomplete. Similarly, Eddie-Amadi et al. (2025) showed that the extract mitigated heavy metal-induced ovarian toxicity by restoring antioxidant enzyme activities, inflammatory, apoptotic and transcriptional markers and ovarian histology, without inducing adverse effects at the doses tested.

Taken together, the available evidence indicates that banana peels are generally safe when properly processed and consumed at moderate doses, with potential toxicity being largely restricted to high concentrations and to antinutritional factors that can be minimized through drying. Nevertheless, further comprehensive toxicological studies, including sub-chronic and chronic assessments, are still required to establish reliable safety thresholds for human consumption.

7. Discussion

This review consolidates current evidence on the nutritional composition, phytochemical profile, bioactive properties and food-industry applications of banana peel. The compiled data consistently show that the peel is a chemically concentrated fraction of the fruit, being richer than the pulp in dietary fibre, resistant starch, pectin and phenolic compounds, and that this compositional advantage translates into measurable technological functions, including antioxidant and antimicrobial activities relevant to food preservation, pectin with gelling performance approaching that of commercial citrus pectin, and film-forming and barrier properties that support edible coatings and active packaging.

At the same time, the reviewed literature is highly heterogeneous, and direct comparisons are complicated by differences in cultivar, ripening stage, growing conditions, extraction procedures and analytical methods. Pectin yields, for example, ranged from approximately 3% to more than 30% depending on the extraction technique (Aklilu, 2021; Phaiphan, 2022; Swetha & Jeevitha, 2026), and reported phenolic and antioxidant values varied several-fold across cultivars. This variability reflects genuine biological diversity, but it also underlines the need for standardised sampling, extraction and analytical protocols before compositional data can be translated into reproducible industrial specifications.

The strength of the evidence also differs markedly among the reported bioactivities. Antioxidant and antimicrobial capacities are supported by extensive compositional and in vitro data, in several cases confirmed in real food matrices. By contrast, the lipid-modulating, anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative activities rest mainly on animal models or in vitro assays, and human evidence is scarce. These findings should therefore be regarded as indications of functional potential rather than established health benefits, and any health-related claim would require controlled human studies.

Compared with established alternatives, banana peel offers both opportunities and constraints. Peel-derived pectin can match the gelling functionality of commercial citrus pectin, but its extraction has not yet been standardised at industrial scale (Aryanfar et al., 2025). Peel flour provides a low-cost source of fibre and antioxidants for cereal, meat and dairy products, but bitterness and colour changes at higher inclusion levels limit practical doses (Ayoub et al., 2022; Shafi et al., 2022). Peel-derived nanocellulose and carbon dots confer attractive packaging functionalities, although their production remains largely at laboratory or pilot scale (Chandrasekar et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2024). These considerations position banana peel as a complementary rather than a replacement feedstock, and its economic viability will probably depend on the co-production of several value streams, such as pectin, phenolic-rich extracts and packaging materials, from the same peel biomass.

Several limitations of this review should be acknowledged. First, this is a narrative review based on a structured, non-protocolized literature search rather than a formal systematic review; accordingly, no systematic-review protocol, PRISMA-type reporting or quantitative meta-analysis was applied. The search was restricted to English-language, peer-reviewed literature published between January 2020 and July 2026, which may have excluded relevant earlier or non-English studies; the heterogeneity of the included studies precluded quantitative meta-analysis; and reported values were drawn from diverse cultivars and processing conditions. In addition, data on bioaccessibility, bioavailability and toxicology at food-relevant doses remain limited. Notwithstanding these limitations, the available evidence supports the technical feasibility of banana peel valorisation in the food industry and identifies the key bottlenecks to be resolved, namely standardisation of extraction and processing, mitigation of sensory defects, assessment of potential contaminants, and toxicological and human studies.

8. Conclusion

Global banana production exceeds 139 million tonnes annually, and the peel, which accounts for approximately one-third of the fruit mass, is largely discarded during processing, representing an abundant yet underutilized source of food-grade constituents. The reviewed evidence indicates that banana peel is comparatively rich in dietary fibre, resistant starch, pectin, phenolic compounds and minerals relative to the pulp, and that these constituents confer antioxidant and antimicrobial activities relevant to food preservation. Valorization pathways, including the incorporation of peel flour into bakery, meat and dairy products, the recovery of pectin with gelling performance comparable to that of commercial citrus pectin, and the use of peel-derived nanocellulose and carbon dots in active packaging, have shown promising results in the compiled studies. Nevertheless, the strength of the evidence differs across these applications, with most bioactivity data deriving from in vitro or animal studies, and reported values vary considerably with cultivar, ripening stage and processing conditions. Safety concerns, sensory limitations and the lack of standardised extraction and evaluation protocols currently constrain industrial uptake, and future research should prioritise extraction standardisation, toxicological and sensory evaluation, and controlled human studies. Addressing these gaps will determine whether banana peel can be converted from a waste stream into a reliable, safe and economically viable food ingredient.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Limin Wang: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization. Yutao Min: Writing – original draft, Investigation. Mengxing Gou: Investigation. Shuzhi Yuan: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Ranran Xu: Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Yanfang Pei: Validation, Supervision.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.