An Updated Checklist and Narrative Review of Helminth Parasites of Terrestrial and Semiaquatic Carnivorous Mammals in Uzbekistan

ABSTRACT

Background

Helminth parasites are critical components of biodiversity and influence the health of both wild and domestic carnivorous mammals. Despite their ecological and public health importance, comprehensive data on helminth diversity in Uzbekistan remain fragmented. This study delivers a thorough and updated synthesis of helminth parasites infecting 15 species of terrestrial and semi‐aquatic carnivorous mammals in Uzbekistan.

Methods

This study was designed as an updated checklist and narrative review rather than a formal systematic review or meta‐analysis. A total of 120 documents published between 1926 and 2024 were reviewed, including 61 journal articles, 54 national conference abstracts and 5 PhD theses written in Russian, Uzbek and English. Data were obtained from PubMed, ResearchGate, Google Scholar and local archival sources. Parasite and host nomenclatures were updated using internationally recognized taxonomic databases and recent parasitological references.

Results

The review identified 74 helminth species, including 9 trematodes, 24 cestodes, 5 acanthocephalans and 36 nematodes, recorded from 15 carnivorous mammal species belonging to the families Canidae, Felidae and Mustelidae. Among these parasites, 37 species (50.0%) were retained as having zoonotic relevance after reassessment, although their public health importance varies from well‐established zoonoses to occasional or accidental human infections. Research efforts were strongly biased toward domestic dogs, jackals and foxes, while several host taxa and geographic regions remain poorly investigated.

Conclusion

This review highlights the rich but unevenly documented helminth diversity of carnivorous mammals in Uzbekistan and provides a taxonomically updated baseline for future regional studies. Persistent gaps in host coverage, geographic sampling, molecular identification and zoonotic risk assessment limit current understanding. Future research should prioritize representative sampling, inclusion of poorly studied carnivore taxa, molecular and non‐invasive diagnostic approaches and integrated One Health surveillance to better assess parasite biodiversity, wildlife health and public health risks in Uzbekistan and Central Asia.

This updated checklist synthesizes 120 publications from 1926 to 2024 and documents 74 helminth species in 15 terrestrial and semiaquatic carnivorous mammals of Uzbekistan. The fauna comprises 36 nematodes, 24 cestodes, 9 trematodes and 5 acanthocephalans. Thirty‐seven species have zoonotic relevance. The review highlights uneven host and regional coverage and supports taxonomic updating, molecular surveillance and integrated One Health research

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1. Introduction

The conservation and sustainable use of the environment and biological resources during Uzbekistan's rapid economic and social development is a crucial task and a priority of state policy (Kashkarov and Metropolskaya 2021).

Uzbekistan's rich fauna is largely attributed to its geographical location, which allows for the migration of animal species from Northern Europe, Central Asia, India and Africa. The region's natural and climatic conditions, along with its varied landscape, further contribute to the diversity of animal life. Most areas of Uzbekistan are home to specific animals, so each area is often unique in its fauna. Some animals living in Uzbekistan are especially significant because of their decreasing population, and in some cases, there is a risk of extinction (Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan 2019).

The fauna of Uzbekistan comprises 107 mammal species, 5 amphibians, 62 reptiles and 474 birds (Kashkarov et al. 2020). The Red Data Book of Uzbekistan (Conservation of Animals) lists 30 mammal species, 52 bird species, 21 reptile species, 18 fish species, 3 annelid worms, 15 mollusc species and 67 arthropod species (Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan 2019). Among the animal species, Carnivora are known for their diverse ecological adaptations. They inhabit various landscapes, thriving both on land and in aquatic environments, and play crucial roles in Uzbekistan's biological diversity (Deak et al. 2022; Safarov, Nasreen, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024). In Uzbekistan's ecosystems, 24 carnivorous mammals belonging to the families Canidae, Ursidae, Mustelidae, Hyaenidae and Felidae live (Shernazarov et al. 2006), which are at risk of several ecto‐ and endoparasites (Safarov 2024).

The initial studies of the helminth fauna of predatory mammals in Uzbekistan were conducted by the renowned Russian zoologist Professor A. P. Fedchenko, who led a scientific expedition from 1868 to 1871 (Safarov 2024). Current information about the helminth fauna of Uzbekistan, especially of predatory mammals, however, is closely associated with Academician K.I. Skrjabin and his school. Professor A. M. Petrov (1926) began examining the helminth fauna of various predatory mammal groups in Uzbekistan. In his work on the fauna of parasitic worms of domestic carnivores in Turkestan, he reported several helminth species found in dogs and cats, with some material collected from Uzbekistan (Petrov 1926).

Systematic studies of the helminth fauna in domestic and wild carnivores of Uzbekistan have been ongoing since 1950, and the findings from these studies have been published (Irgashev 1958; Irgashev and Sadykov 1967; Sultanov et al. 1969, 1971, 1975; Muminov 1976; Muminov et al. 1986; Safarov et al. 2018; Safarov 2020; Safarov et al. 2021; Berdibayev 2021; Safarov et al. 2022, 2023, 2024).

However, the majority of the existing literature is in Uzbek and Russian languages, or the documents are not indexed in international databases, making their access limited for the international scientific community. In the literature published from 1926 to 1980, very few animals were studied, making it difficult to draw a proper conclusion regarding their parasitic fauna. Also, the research work was carried out was based exclusively on classical methods.

The most recent research work was published by Safarov et al. (2023), where the authors provided information on the distribution and epidemiology of helminths in carnivorous mammals of Uzbekistan. However, detailed information on the taxonomic status and parasite–host relationships of each species, as well as the regions of Uzbekistan in which they are distributed, was not provided. The authors identified a total of 71 species of helminths in representatives of 3 families of carnivorous mammals of Uzbekistan (Canidae, Felidae and Mustelidae). No data were provided on species of zoonotic significance. Also, outdated taxon names were used for some species (Multiceps multiceps, M. serialis, M. skrjabini, Rictularia affinis, R. cahirensis and Diphyllobothrium latum). In addition, some listed species are not included in international databases and are not accepted by the international community (Troglostrongylus badanini, Oxynema numidica, Vigisospirura skrjabini). These cases have always been the subject of discussion among foreign researchers.

Considering these issues and the lack of comprehensive information on the species composition and taxonomic status of helminths in carnivorous mammals in Uzbekistan, this article aims to provide an updated overview of their diversity, known hosts, geographical distribution and zoonotic potential. The taxonomic status of species is also regulated. Gaps in different aspects of knowledge are also discussed.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Data Sources and Literature Search

This study was designed as an updated checklist and narrative review rather than a formal systematic review or meta‐analysis. Data were compiled from published journal articles, conference abstracts, PhD theses, governmental reports, local archival documents, personal communications with relevant governmental organizations, and the authors' own research data. The reviewed literature covered the period from 1926 to 2024 and included documents written in Russian, Uzbek and English. Literature searches were conducted in March 2025 using three electronic databases: PubMed, ResearchGate and Google Scholar. The search strategy combined the terms ‘Uzbek’, ‘Uzbekistan’, ‘parasite’, ‘helminth’, ‘helminth fauna’ and ‘Carnivora’ with the Latin names of carnivorous mammal species recorded in Uzbekistan. Searches were performed in English, Russian and Uzbek to maximize the recovery of regional and internationally indexed literature. Because much of the historical parasitological literature from Uzbekistan is not indexed in international databases, electronic searches were supplemented by archival and local sources. Additional documents were collected from the Central Library of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan, the Samarkand State University of Veterinary Medicine, Livestock and Biotechnology and the Veterinary Research Institute. Based on these collected records, the taxonomic status of helminth parasites infecting carnivorous mammals in Uzbekistan was reviewed and updated.

2.2. Search Strategy and Inclusion Criteria

The search strategy combined the keywords ‘Uzbek’ and ‘Uzbekistan’ in English, Russian and Uzbek with parasite‐related terms, including ‘parasite’, ‘helminth’, ‘helminth fauna’ and ‘Carnivora’. These terms were further combined with the Latin binomials of all carnivorous mammal species recorded in Uzbekistan, following Kashkarov et al. (2020). The targeted hosts included 15 carnivorous mammal species, comprising 14 terrestrial species and one semi‐aquatic species: Canis aureus, C. lupus, Vulpes corsac, V. vulpes, C. lupus familiaris, Martes foina, Neogale vison, Meles meles, Mustela nivalis, Felis chaus, F. lybica, F. catus, Lutra lutra, Lynx lynx and Vormela peregusna. Among these species, L. lutra, L. lynx and V. peregusna are listed in the Red Data Book of Uzbekistan. In addition, L. lutra is classified as ‘Near Threatened A2c’, whereas V. peregusna is classified as ‘Vulnerable A2c’ according to the IUCN Red List. Documents were included if they reported original or reviewed data on helminth parasites infecting the targeted carnivorous mammals within the geographic boundaries of Uzbekistan and were published between 1926 and 2024. Eligible document types included peer‐reviewed journal articles, conference abstracts, doctoral theses, governmental reports, archival documents and verified unpublished records. Studies were excluded if they lacked primary parasitological data, did not concern carnivorous mammals, were conducted outside Uzbekistan, or provided parasite records that could not be linked to a defined host or locality. Duplicate records were identified by comparing titles, authors, year of publication, host species, parasite species and geographic locality. When the same parasite–host–locality record was reported in more than one source, the most complete and/or peer‐reviewed source was retained, while duplicate information was not counted twice in the synthesis.

2.3. Data Extraction and Synthesis

A total of 120 documents were reviewed, including 61 journal articles, 54 national conference abstracts and 5 PhD theses. The language distribution was as follows: 68 documents in Russian, 36 in Uzbek and 16 in English. These documents were retrieved from Google Scholar (31), PubMed (7), ResearchGate (9) and the Central Library of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan (73). Data on parasite species, definitive hosts and precise geographic localities within Uzbekistan were systematically extracted and compiled. Unpublished records and personal communications were included only when they could be linked to verifiable institutional sources, archival documents or expert‐confirmed records. Such data were used cautiously and were not prioritized over peer‐reviewed publications when conflicting information was present. The compiled parasite fauna encompasses a broad diversity of taxa among Trematoda, Cestoda, Acanthocephala and Nematoda, representing infections in both domestic and wild carnivorous mammals. These data allowed for detailed ecological and epidemiological analyses.

2.4. Taxonomic Validation and Data Quality

Parasite and host nomenclatures were verified and standardized according to internationally recognized references, including the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF, https://www.gbif.org), Fauna Europaea (https://fauna‐eu.org), the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS, https://www.marinespecies.org/) and updated classifications, catalogues and indexes of valid genera (Vieria et al. 2008; Nakao et al. 2013; Mathison and Sapp 2021; Hodda 2022). The names of helminth species reported from carnivorous mammals in Uzbekistan between 1926 and 2024 were revised according to currently accepted nomenclature, with historical synonymies and outdated taxonomic combinations updated where appropriate. Because the reviewed records covered a long period and were published in different languages and document types, methodological quality was carefully assessed. Priority was given to peer‐reviewed publications, while conference abstracts, theses, archival documents and verified unpublished data were included cautiously to fill gaps for poorly studied parasite–host associations. When conflicting information was encountered, peer‐reviewed and taxonomically updated sources were prioritized. It should be noted that, to the best of our knowledge, no reference specimens from the historical records were deposited in scientific collections or museums. Therefore, older records based exclusively on morphology were interpreted cautiously, especially for taxa known to include cryptic species or historically problematic synonymies. The multilingual search approach helped reduce language bias and allowed the inclusion of regional literature that is often inaccessible to the broader international scientific community.

2.5. Determining the Zoonotic Characteristics of Species

The zoonotic status of helminth species recorded in carnivorous mammals of Uzbekistan between 1926 and 2024 was assessed using information from the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH) and recent peer‐reviewed publications. A species was considered zoonotic only when published evidence of natural human infection was available. To avoid overinterpretation, zoonotic species were classified into three categories according to the strength of evidence and public health relevance: confirmed zoonotic species, for parasites with well‐documented and epidemiologically recognized human infections, occasional zoonotic species, for parasites reported only sporadically or accidentally in humans and potential zoonotic species, for parasites with limited evidence, rare spillover events or uncertain epidemiological importance. When evidence was insufficient or controversial, the species was not considered a confirmed zoonosis.

3. Results

3.1. Overview of Helminth Diversity

A total of 74 helminth species were identified in wild and domestic carnivorous mammals across Uzbekistan, summarizing nearly a century of research efforts (Table 1). These parasites comprise 9 species of Trematodes, 24 Cestodes, 5 Acanthocephalans and 36 Nematodes, affecting hosts from five major families: Canidae, Felidae and Mustelidae. While helminth records are documented throughout the country, research efforts have been disproportionately concentrated on domestic dogs, jackals and foxes, as reflected by the higher number of studies for these hosts. Table 1 provides a consolidated overview of all helminth species detected, their corresponding hosts, geographic distribution by administrative region and zoonotic status. This summary highlights both the broad parasite diversity and the uneven representation among host taxa and regions. Geospatial analysis, visualized in Figure 1, demonstrates that helminth parasite records are not evenly distributed nationwide. Most confirmed localities are clustered in well‐studied Central and Northern provinces, with some regions lacking data, potentially revealing true knowledge gaps or reflecting limitations in historical and recent sampling. The areas shaded in brown on Figure 1 denote administrative regions where at least one helminth species has been confirmed in carnivorous mammal hosts. Collectively, these data underscore the rich but incompletely mapped diversity of helminth fauna in Uzbekistan's carnivores, and reveal both substantial progress and persistent gaps in our current knowledge base. These patterns justify the need for expanded, geographically comprehensive surveillance and integrative studies, including molecular diagnostics, to achieve a more complete understanding of the helminth community and its implications for animal and public health.

TABLE 1.

Checklist of helminth parasites of terrestrial and semiaquatic carnivorous mammals in Uzbekistan.

Mammalian species (scientific name + author)	English common name	Uzbek common name	IUCN status	Uzbekistan conservation status	Parasite species	Reference
Canis lupus Linnaeus, 1758	Grey wolf	Bo'ri	Include (least concern)	Guarded	Cestoda: 1. Dibothriocephalus latus (Linnaeus, 1758) Lühe, 1899 2. Diplopylidium nölleri (Skrjabin, 1924) 3. Dipylidium caninum (Linnaeus, 1758) 4. Echinococcus granulosus (Batsch, 1786) 5. Echinococcus multilocularis (Leuckart, 1863) 6. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782) 7. Taenia ovis (Cobbold, 1869) 8. Taenia pisiformis (Bloch, 1780) 9. Taenia polyacantha Leuckart, 1856 10. Taenia multiceps Leske, 1780 11. Taenia hydatigena Pallas, 1766 Trematoda: 12. Plagiorchis elegans (Rudolphi, 1802) Braun, 1902 13. Alaria alata (Goeze, 1782) Acanthocephala: 14. Macracanthorhynchus catulinus Kostylew, 1927 15. Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus (Pallas, 1781) 16. Moniliformis moniliformis (Bremser, 1811) Nematoda: 17. Ancylostoma caninum Ercolani, 1859 18. Toxascaris leonina (Linstow, 1902) Leiper, 1907 19. Toxocara canis (Werner, 1782) Stiles, 1905 20. Dioctophyme renale (Goeze, 1782) Collet‐Meygret, 1802 21. Dirofilaria immitis Leidy, 1856 22. Dirofilaria repens Railliet & Henry, 1911 23. Physaloptera sibirica Petrow & Gorbunov, 1931 24. Pearsonema plica (Rudolphi, 1819) 25. Capillaria putorii Zeder, 1800 26. Trichuris vulpis (Froelich, 1789) 27. Crenosoma vulpis (Rudolphi, 1819) 28. Cylicospirura subaequalis (Molin, 1860) 29. Spirocerca lupi (Rudolphi, 1809)	Petrov (1926) *** , Matchanov (1959) * , Matchanov (1968) * , Sadikov (1967) *** , Irgashev (1956, 1958) * , Delyanova (1958) * , Taryannikov (1983) *** , Safarov et al. (2018) * , (2022) * , Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023); Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * , Safarov (2024) ** , Azimov et al. (2019) * , A. S. Berdibaev (2020c) *** , A. S. Berdibaev (2021) ** , Khakberdiev et al. (2021) *** , Turgunov (2022) ** , Shakarboev et al. (2023) *
Canis aureus Linnaeus, 1758	Golden Jackal	Shoqol (chiyabo'ri)	Include (least concern)	Guarded	Cestoda: 1. Dibothriocephalus latus (Linnaeus, 1758) Lühe, 1899 2. Dipylidium caninum (Linnaeus, 1758) 3. Echinococcus granulosus (Batsch, 1786) 4. Echinococcus multilocularis (Leuckart, 1863) 5. Hydatigera taeniaeformis (Batsch, 1786) 6. Joyeuxiella echinorhynchoides (Sonsino, 1884) 7. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782) 8. Spirometra erinaceieuropaei (Rudolphi, 1819) 9. Taenia hydatigena Pallas, 1766 10. Taenia multiceps Leske, 1780 11. Taenia ovis (Cobbold, 1869) Trematoda: 12. Alaria alata (Goeze, 1782) 13. Plagiorchis elegans (Rudolphi, 1802) Braun, 1902 Acanthocephala: 14. Macracanthorhynchus catulinus Kostylew, 1927 Nematoda: 15. Ancylostoma caninum Ercolani, 1859 16. Pearsonema plica (Rudolphi, 1819) 17. Capillaria putorii Zeder, 1800 18. Cylicospirura subaequalis (Molin, 1860) 19. Dioctophyme renale (Goeze, 1782) Collet‐Meygret, 1802 20. Dirofilaria immitis Leidy, 1856 21. Dirofilaria repens Railliet & Henry, 1911 22. Dracunculus medinensis (Linnaeus, 1758) 23. Gongylonema pulchrum Molin, 1857 24. Physaloptera praeputialis Linstow, 1889 25. Physaloptera sibirica Petrow & Gorbunov, 1931 26. Pterygodermatites cahirensis (Jägerskiold, 1904) 27. Pterygodermatites affinis (Jägerskiold, 1904) 28. Spirocerca arctica Petrow, 1927 29. Spirocerca lupi (Rudolphi, 1809) 30. Strongyloides vulpis Petrov, 1940 31. Toxascaris leonina (Linstow, 1902) Leiper, 1907 32. Toxocara canis (Werner, 1782) Stiles, 1905 33. Trichuris vulpis (Froelich, 1789). 34. Uncinaria stenocephala (Railliet, 1884)	Murtazaev (1965) *** ; Kairov (1966) * ; (1971); Koshchanov (1970) *** ; (1972a) * (1972b) *** ; Taryannikov (1983); A. S. Berdibaev et al. (2019) *** ; A. S. Berdibaev (2020a) *** ; Safarov et al. (2018) * , (2022) * ; Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) * ; Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * ; (2024) **
Canis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758	Domestic Dog	Uy iti	Not included	Unprotected	Cestoda: 1. Dibothriocephalus latus (Linnaeus, 1758) Lühe, 1899 2. Dipylidium caninum (Linnaeus, 1758) 3. Echinococcus granulosus (Batsch, 1786) 4. Echinococcus multilocularis (Leuckart, 1863) 5. Hydatigera taeniaeformis (Batsch, 1786) 6. Joyeuxiella rossicum (Skrjabin, 1923) 7. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782) 8. Spirometra erinaceieuropaei (Rudolphi, 1819) 9. Taenia hydatigena Pallas, 1766 10. Taenia macrocystis (Diesing, 1850) 11. Taenia ovis (Cobbold, 1869) 12. Taenia pisiformis (Bloch, 1780) 13. Taenia serialis (Gervais, 1847) 14. Taenia multiceps Leske, 1780 Trematoda: 15. Alaria alata (Goeze, 1782) 16. Brachylaemus sp. 17. Dicrocoelium dendriticum (Rudolphi, 1819) Looss, 1899 18. Echinochasmus perfoliatus (Ratz, 1908) Gedoelst, 1911 19. Mesorchis denticulatus (Rudolphi, 1802) Dietz, 1909 20. Plagiorchis elegans (Rudolphi, 1802) Braun, 1902 21. Stephanoprora denticulata (Rudolphi, 1802) Odhner, 1910 Acanthocephala: 22. Macracanthorhynchus catulinus Kostylew, 1927 23. Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus (Pallas, 1781) Nematoda: 24. Ancylostoma caninum Ercolani, 1859 25. Pearsonema plica (Rudolphi, 1819) 26. Cylicospirura subaequalis (Molin, 1860) 27. Dioctophyme renale (Goeze, 1782) Collet‐Meygret, 1802 28. Dirofilaria immitis Leidy, 1856 29. Dirofilaria repens Railliet & Henry, 1911 30. Dracunculus medinensis (Linnaeus, 1758) 31. Gongylonema pulchrum Molin, 1857 32. Physaloptera praeputialis Linstow, 1889 33. Physaloptera sibirica Petrow & Gorbunov, 1931 34. Pterygodermatites cahirensis (Jägerskiold, 1904) 35. Pterygodermatites affinis (Jägerskiold, 1904) 36. Spirocerca arctica Petrow, 1927 37. Spirocerca lupi (Rudolphi, 1809) 38. Toxascaris leonina (Linstow, 1902) Leiper, 1907	Matchanov (1967) *** ; (1968a) * ; Irgashev and Sadykov (1964); Murtazaev (1964a) *** ; Petrov (1926) *** ; Matchanov (1959) * , (1968) * ; Sadikov (1967) *** ; Irgashev, (1956) * ; (1958) * ; Delyanova (1957) * ; (1958) * ; Muminov (1968a) *** ; Muminov et al. (1984) * , Shakarboev et al. (2018) *** ; Norkobilov et al. (2020) * ; Berdibaev, 2021; Shakarboev and Berdibaev, 2023 *; Safarov et al. (2018) * , (2022) * ; Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) * ; Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * ; (2024) **
					39. Toxocara canis (Werner, 1782) Stiles, 1905 40. Trichuris vulpis (Froelich, 1789) 41. Uncinaria stenocephala (Railliet, 1884) 42. Eucoleus aerophilus (Creplin, 1839) 43. Strongyloides stercoralis (Bavay, 1876) 44. Crenosoma vulpis (Rudolphi, 1819) 45. Filaroides osleri Cobbold, 1879
Vulpes corsac (Linnaeus, 1768)	Corsac Fox	Korsak tulki	Include (least concern)	Guarded	Cestoda: 1. Diplopylidium nölleri (Skrjabin, 1924) 2. Dipylidium caninum (Linnaeus, 1758) 3. Echinococcus granulosus (Batsch, 1786) 4. Echinococcus multilocularis (Leuckart, 1863) 5. Hydatigera taeniaeformis (Batsch, 1786) 6. Taenia crassiceps (Zeder, 1800) 7. Taenia polyacantha Leuckart, 1856 Trematoda: 8. Alaria alata (Goeze, 1782) Acanthocephala: 9. Macracanthorhynchus catulinus Kostylew, 1927 10. Moniliformis moniliformis (Bremser, 1811) Nematoda: 11. Ancylostoma caninum Ercolani, 1859 12. Eucoleus aerophilus (Creplin, 1839) 13. Physaloptera praeputialis Linstow, 1889 14. Physaloptera sibirica Petrow & Gorbunov, 1931 15. Pterygodermatites affinis (Jägerskiold, 1904) 16. Spirocerca arctica Petrow, 1927 17. Spirocerca lupi (Rudolphi, 1809) 18. Toxascaris leonina (Linstow, 1902) Leiper, 1907 19. Toxocara canis (Werner, 1782) Stiles, 1905 20. Uncinaria stenocephala (Railliet, 1884)	Safarov et al. (2018) * , (2022) * , Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) * ; Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * ; (2024) **
Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus, 1758)	Red Fox	Tulki	Include (least concern)	Guarded	Cestoda: 1. Dibothriocephalus latus (Linnaeus, 1758) Lühe, 1899 2. Dipylidium caninum (Linnaeus, 1758) 3. Echinococcus granulosus (Batsch, 1786) 4. Echinococcus multilocularis (Leuckart, 1863) 5. Taenia macrocystis (Diesing, 1850) 6. Hydatigera taeniaeformis (Batsch, 1786) 7. Joyeuxiella rossicum (Skrjabin, 1923) 8. Joyeuxiella echinorhynchoides (Sonsino, 1884) 9. Joyeuxiella pasqualei (Diamare, 1893) 10. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782) 11. Spirometra erinaceieuropaei (Rudolphi, 1819) 12. Taenia hydatigena Pallas, 1766 13. Taenia pisiformis (Bloch, 1780) 14. Taenia polyacantha Leuckart, 1856 15. Hydatigera krepkogorski Schulz & Landa, 1934 16. Diplopylidium nölleri (Skrjabin, 1924) Trematoda: 17. Alaria alata (Goeze, 1782) 18. Dicrocoelium dendriticum (Rudolphi, 1819) Looss, 1899 19. Echinochasmus perfoliatus (Ratz, 1908) Gedoelst, 1911 20. Plagiorchis elegans (Rudolphi, 1802) Braun, 1902 Acanthocephala: 21. Macracanthorhynchus catulinus Kostylew, 1927 22. Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus (Pallas, 1781) 23. Moniliformis moniliformis (Bremser, 1811) 24. Mediorhynchus micracanthus (Rudolphi, 1819) Nematoda: 25. Ancylostoma caninum Ercolani, 1859 26. Pearsonema plica (Rudolphi, 1819) 27. Capillaria putorii Zeder, 1800 28. Crenosoma vulpis (Rudolphi, 1819) 29. Cylicospirura subaequalis (Molin, 1860) 30. Dioctophyme renale (Goeze, 1782) Collet‐Meygret, 1802 31. Dirofilaria immitis Leidy, 1856 32. Dirofilaria repens Railliet & Henry, 1911 33. Eucoleus aerophilus (Creplin, 1839) 34. Gongylonema pulchrum Molin, 1857 35. Physaloptera praeputialis Linstow, 1889 36. Physaloptera sibirica Petrow & Gorbunov, 1931 37. Spirocerca lupi (Rudolphi, 1809) 38. Spirura rytipleurites (Deslongchamps, 1824)	Muminov (1960) * , (1962) *** , (1976) * ; Sadykov (1964) * ; Matchanov and Bekirov (1968) *** ; Matchanov et al. (1973) *** , Irgashev (1958) * ; Irgashev and Sadykov (1964) *** ; (1966) *** ; (1967); Kairov (1965) * , Berdibaev et al. (2020) * ; Safarov et al. (2018) * , (2022) * ; Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) * ; Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * ; (2024) **
					39. Strongyloides vulpis Petrov, 1940 40. Trichinella britovi Pozio et al., 1992 41. Toxascaris leonina (Linstow, 1902) Leiper, 1907 42. Toxocara canis (Werner, 1782) Stiles, 1905 43. Trichuris vulpis (Froelich, 1789) 44. Uncinaria stenocephala (Railliet, 1884)
Felis chaus Schreber, 1777	Jungle Cat	To‘qay mushugi	Include (least concern)	Guarded	Cestoda: 1. Diplopylidium nölleri (Skrjabin, 1924) 2. Dipylidium caninum (Linnaeus, 1758) 3. Hydatigera krepkogorski Schulz & Landa, 1934 4. Hydatigera taeniaeformis (Batsch, 1786) 5. Joyeuxiella rossicum (Skrjabin, 1923) 6. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782) 7. Spirometra erinaceieuropaei (Rudolphi, 1819) 8. Taenia hydatigena Pallas, 1766 9. Taenia macrocystis (Diesing, 1850) Acanthocephala: 10. Macracanthorhynchus catulinus Kostylew, 1927 11. Moniliformis moniliformis (Bremser, 1811) Nematoda: 12. Ancylostoma caninum Ercolani, 1859 13. Cylicospirura subaequalis (Molin, 1860) 14. Dioctophyme renale (Goeze, 1782) Collet‐Meygret, 1802 15. Dirofilaria immitis Leidy, 1856 16. Dirofilaria repens Railliet & Henry, 1911 17. Eucoleus aerophilus (Creplin, 1839) 18. Physaloptera sibirica Petrow & Gorbunov, 1931 19. Toxascaris leonina (Linstow, 1902) Leiper, 1907 20. Gnathostoma spinigerum Owen, 1836 21. Vigisospirura potekhina Chabaud, 1959 22. Pterygodermatites cahirensis (Jägerskiold, 1904)	Muminov and Alloyarov (1963) * ; Muminov (1964) * ; (1976) * , Irgashev (1965) * ; A. B. Berdibaev (2020b) *** ; (2021) ** ; Safarov et al. (2018) * , (2022) * ; Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) * ; Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * , (2024) **
Felis lybica Forster, 1780	Afro‐Asiatic Wildcat	Cho‘l mushugi	Include (least concern)	Guarded	Cestoda: 1. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782) 2. Taenia macrocystis (Diesing, 1850) 3. Spirometra erinaceieuropaei (Rudolphi, 1819) 4. Dipylidium caninum (Linnaeus, 1758) 5. Diplopylidium nölleri (Skrjabin, 1924) 6. Joyeuxiella rossicum (Skrjabin, 1923) 7. Echinococcus multilocularis (Leuckart, 1863) 8. Taenia pisiformis (Bloch, 1780) Nematoda: 9. Uncinaria stenocephala (Railliet, 1884) 10. Physaloptera sibirica Petrow & Gorbunov, 1931 11. Toxascaris leonina (Linstow, 1902) Leiper, 1907 12. Toxocara cati (Schrank, 1788) 13. Vigisospirura potekhina Chabaud, 1959 14. Pterygodermatites affinis (Jägerskiold, 1904)	Irgashev (1965) *** ; Safarov et al. (2018) * , (2022) * ; Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) * ; Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * ; (2024) ** ; A. S. Berdibaev (2021) **
Felis catus Linnaeus, 1758	Cat	Mushuk	Not included	Unprotected	Cestoda: 1. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782) 2. Echinococcus granulosus (Batsch, 1786) 3. Taenia macrocystis (Diesing, 1850) 4. Taenia pisiformis (Bloch, 1780) 5. Hydatigera taeniaeformis (Batsch, 1786) 6. Taenia hydatigena Pallas, 1766 7. Taenia laticollis Rudolphi, 1819 8. Taenia crassiceps (Zeder, 1800) 9. Dipylidium caninum (Linnaeus, 1758) 10. Diplopylidium acanthotetra (Parona, 1886) 11. Joyeuxiella pasqualei (Diamare, 1893) 12. Joyeuxiella rossicum (Skrjabin, 1923) Nematoda: 13. Ancylostoma caninum Ercolani, 1859 14. Uncinaria stenocephala (Railliet, 1884) 15. Toxascaris leonina (Linstow, 1902) Leiper, 1907 16. Dirofilaria immitis Leidy, 1856 17. Dirofilaria repens Railliet & Henry, 1911 18. Physaloptera sibirica Petrow & Gorbunov, 1931 19. Physaloptera praeputialis Linstow, 1889 20. Capillaria putorii Zeder, 1800 21. Spirura rytipleurites (Deslongchamps, 1824) 22. Pterygodermatites affinis (Jägerskiold, 1904)	Irgashev (1965) *** ; Muminov et al. (1984) * ; Irgashev (1958) * ; Safarov et al. (2018) * , (2022) * ; Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) * ; Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * ; (2024) ** ; A. S. Berdibaev (2021) **
Lynx lynx (Linnaeus, 1758)	Eurasian Lynx	Silovsin	Include (least concern)	Guarded. Listed in the Red Data Book of the Republic of Uzbekistan	Cestoda: 1. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782) 2. Echinococcus granulosus (Batsch, 1786) 3. Taenia pisiformis (Bloch, 1780) 4. Hydatigera taeniaeformis (Batsch, 1786) 5. Taenia hydatigena Pallas, 1766 6. Taenia laticollis Rudolphi, 1819 7. Spirometra erinaceieuropaei (Rudolphi, 1819) Nematoda: 8. Ancylostoma caninum Ercolani, 1859 9. Ancylostoma tubaeforme (Zeder, 1800) 10. Uncinaria stenocephala (Railliet, 1884) 11. Toxocara cati (Schrank, 1788) 12. Capillaria putorii Zeder, 1800 13. Pearsonema plica (Rudolphi, 1819) 14. Cylicospirura lyncis (Matschulsky, 1952) 15. Eucoleus aerophilus (Creplin, 1839) 16. Petrowospirura lynxi Matschulsky, 1952	Irgashev (1965) *** ; Safarov et al. (2018) * , (2022) * ; Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) * ; Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * ; (2024) ** ; A. S. Berdibaev (2021) **
Martes foina (Erxleben, 1777)	Beech Marten (stone marten)	Tog‘suvsari	Include (least concern)	Guarded	Cestoda: 1. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782) 2. Hydatigera taeniaeformis (Batsch, 1786) 3. Taenia hydatigena Pallas, 1766 4. Taenia crassiceps (Zeder, 1800) 5. Taenia martis (Zeder, 1803) 6. Versteria mustelae (Gmelin, 1790) Trematoda: 7. Alaria alata (Goeze, 1782) 8. Isthmiophora melis (Schrank, 1788) Lühe, 1909 Acanthocephala: 9. Macracanthorhynchus catulinus Kostylew, 1927 Nematoda: 10. Uncinaria stenocephala (Railliet, 1884) 11. Dioctophyme renale (Goeze, 1782) Collet‐Meygret, 1802 12. Gnathostoma spinigerum Owen, 1836 13. Pearsonema plica (Rudolphi, 1819) 14. Capillaria putorii Zeder, 1800 15. Pearsonema mucronata (Molin, 1858) 16. Eucoleus aerophilus (Creplin, 1839) 17. Strongyloides martis Petrov, 1940 18. Crenosoma vulpis (Rudolphi, 1819) 19. Filaria martis Gmelin, 1791	Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) * ; Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * , (2024) ** ; A. S. Berdibaev (2021) **
Mustela vison Schreber, 1777	American Mink	Amerika norkasi	Include (least concern)	Guarded	Cestoda: 1. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782) 2. Taenia pisiformis (Bloch, 1780) 3. Taenia crassiceps (Zeder, 1800) 4. Taenia martis (Zeder, 1803) 5. Dibothriocephalus latus (Linnaeus, 1758) Lühe, 1899 6. Versteria mustelae (Gmelin, 1790) Trematoda: 7. Alaria alata (Goeze, 1782) 8. Isthmiophora melis (Schrank, 1788) Lühe, 1909 9. Plagiorchis elegans (Rudolphi, 1802) Braun, 1902 Acanthocephala: 10. Corynosoma strumosum (Rudolphi, 1802) Nematoda: 11. Uncinaria stenocephala (Railliet, 1884) 12. Dioctophyme renale (Goeze, 1782) Collet‐Meygret, 1802 13. Pearsonema plica (Rudolphi, 1819) 14. Capillaria putorii Zeder, 1800 15. Eucoleus aerophilus (Creplin, 1839) 16. Strongyloides vulpis Petrov, 1940 17. Crenosoma petrowi Morosov, 1939 18. Filaroides osleri Cobbold, 1879	Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) * ; Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * , (2024) ** , A. S. Berdibaev (2021) **
Meles meles (Linnaeus, 1758)	Eurasian Badger	Bo‘rsiq	Include (least concern)	Guarded	Cestoda: 1. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782) 2. Taenia crassiceps (Zeder, 1800) 3. Taenia martis (Zeder, 1803) 4. Dibothriocephalus latus (Linnaeus, 1758) Lühe, 1899 5. Dipylidium caninum (Linnaeus, 1758) Trematoda: 6. Alaria alata (Goeze, 1782) Acanthocephala: 7. Macracanthorhynchus catulinus Kostylew, 1927 8. Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus (Pallas, 1781) 9. Moniliformis moniliformis (Bremser, 1811) Nematoda: 10. Ancylostoma caninum Ercolani, 1859 11. Uncinaria stenocephala (Railliet, 1884) 12. Physaloptera sibirica Petrow & Gorbunov, 19319 13. Gnathostoma spinigerum Owen, 1836 14. Pearsonema plica (Rudolphi, 1819) 15. Capillaria putorii Zeder, 1800 16. Eucoleus aerophilus (Creplin, 1839) 17. Crenosoma vulpis (Rudolphi, 1819) 18. Cylicospirura subaequalis (Molin, 1860) 19. Vigisospirura potekhina Chabaud, 1959 20. Metathelazia capsulata Gerichter, 1948. 21. Filaria martis Gmelin, 1791 22. Metathelazia capsulata Gerichter, 1948.	Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) * ; Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * , (2024) ** , A. S. Berdibaev (2021) **
Mustela nivalis Linnaeus, 1766	Least Weasel	Latcha	Include (least concern)	Guarded	Cestoda: 1. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782) 2. Versteria mustelae (Gmelin, 1790) Trematoda: 3. Alaria alata (Goeze, 1782) 4. Isthmiophora melis (Schrank, 1788) Lühe, 1909 Acanthocephala: 5. Macracanthorhynchus catulinus Kostylew, 1927 Nematoda: 6. Gnathostoma spinigerum Owen, 1836 7. Capillaria putorii Zeder, 1800 8. Strongyloides martis Petrov, 1940 9. Filaria martis Gmelin, 1791	Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) * ; Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * , (2024) ** , A. S. Berdibaev (2021) **
Lutra lutra (Linnaeus, 1758)	Eurasian Otter	Suv qunduzi	Near threatened A2c	Guarded. Listed in the Red Data Book of the Republic of Uzbekistan	Cestoda: 1. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782) 2. Hydatigera taeniaeformis (Batsch, 1786) 3. Taenia hydatigena Pallas, 1766 4. Taenia crassiceps (Zeder, 1800) 5. Taenia martis (Zeder, 1803) 6. Versteria mustelae (Gmelin, 1790) Trematoda: 7. Alaria alata (Goeze, 1782) 8. Fasciola hepatica Linnaeus, 1758 9. Plagiorchis lutrae Fahmy, 1954 Nematoda: 10. Uncinaria stenocephala (Railliet, 1884) 11. Dioctophyme renale (Goeze, 1782) Collet‐Meygret, 180212. Capillaria plica Rudolphi, 1819 13. Capillaria putorii Zeder, 1800 14. Pearsonema mucronata (Molin, 1858) 15. Eucoleus aerophilus (Creplin, 1839) 16. Strongyloides martis Petrov, 1940 17. Crenosoma vulpis (Rudolphi, 1819) 18. Filaria martis Gmelin, 1791	Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) * ; Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * , (2024) ** ; A. S. Berdibaev (2021)
Vormela peregusna (Güldenstädt, 1770)	Marbled Polecat	Olakuzan	Vulnerable A2c	Guarded. Listed in the Red Data Book of the Republic of Uzbekistan	Cestoda: 1. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782) 2. Hydatigera taeniaeformis (Batsch, 1786) 3. Taenia hydatigena Pallas, 1766 Trematoda: 4. Alaria alata (Goeze, 1782) 5. Fasciola hepatica Linnaeus, 1758 6. Plagiorchis lutrae Fahmy, 1954 Acanthocephala: 7. Moniliformis moniliformis (Bremser, 1811) Nematoda: 8. Uncinaria stenocephala (Railliet, 1884) 9. Dioctophyme renale (Goeze, 1782) Collet‐Meygret, 1802 10. Pearsonema plica (Rudolphi, 1819) 11. Capillaria putorii Zeder, 1800 12. Pearsonema mucronata (Molin, 1858) 13. Eucoleus aerophilus (Creplin, 1839) 14. Strongyloides martis Petrov, 1940 15. Filaria martis Gmelin, 1791	Safarov, Ionică, et al. (2023) * ; Safarov, Khan, et al. (2023) * , (2024) ** ; A. S. Berdibaev (2021) **

^*Scientific journals and monographs.

^**Thesis.

^***Conference abstract.

FIGURE 1.

Prevalence of parasitic helminths in carnivorous mammals distributed in different regions of Uzbekistan. The red location shows the known distribution area, while the purple location shows the approximate area. The number of publications resulting from research conducted in these regions is also separately noted (1926–2024).

3.2. Parasite Inventory

The following inventory details the full spectrum of helminth parasites identified in wild and domestic carnivorous mammals of Uzbekistan over the course of nearly a century of research. Compiled from both historical and recent sources, this list integrates morphological and available molecular data, offering an up‐to‐date reference for the region's helminth fauna. For each parasite species, we present taxonomic classification, definitive host records and precise geographic localities when available. This comprehensive listing is intended to serve as a baseline for future epidemiological studies, molecular investigations and regional biodiversity assessments.

Phylum Platyhelminthes Gegenbaur, 1859

Class: Trematoda Rudolphi, 1808

Order: Diplostomida Olson et al. in 2003

Family: Diplostomidae Poirier, 1886

Genus: Alaria Schrank, 1788

1. Alaria alata (Goeze, 1782)

   Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, M. foina, M. meles, M. nivalis, L. lutra.

   Regions: Karakalpakstan, Khorezm, Namangan, Andijan, Tashkent, Syrdarya, Jizzakh, Samarkand (Kairov 1966; Koshchanov, 1971, Tokobaev, 1976, Azimov et al. 1991, Safarov et al. 2018; Safarov, 2020; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

   *Zoonotic—Alaria alata is a widespread trematode that is considered a potential cause of a human disease called alariosis, which is associated with the consumption of raw or undercooked meat of intermediate (snails, frogs) or paratenic (mainly game) hosts of this parasite.

   Family: Brachylaimidae Joyeux & Foley, 1930

   Genus: Brachylaima Dujardin, 1843

2. Brachylaima sp.

   Hosts: C. familiaris.

   Regions: Tashkent, Fergana, Kashkadarya (Delyanova 1958).

   Order: Plagiorchiida La Rue, 1957

   Family: DicrocoeliidaeLooss, 1899

   Genus: Dicrocoelium Dujardin, 1845

3. Dicrocoelium dendriticum Rudolphi, 1819

   Hosts: C. familiaris, V. vulpes.

   Regions: Surkhandarya (Irgashev 1958; Matchanov 1959; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023, 2024).

   *Zoonotic—Infection, known as dicrocoeliasis, is rare in humans, typically causing mild or asymptomatic biliary tract issues, though it can occasionally cause abdominal pain and digestive upset.

   Family: Echinochasmidae Odhner, 1911

   Genus: Echinochasmus Dietz, 1909

4. Echinochasmus perfoliatus (Ratz, 1908) Gedoelst, 1911

   Hosts: C. familiaris, V. vulpes.

   Regions: Karakalpakstan, Samarkand, Bukhara, Khorezm (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023)

   *Zoonotic—Humans become infected accidentally by ingesting raw or undercooked freshwater fish that contain the encysted infective larvae (metacercariae).

   Genus: Isthmiophora Lühe, 1909

5. Isthmiophora melis (Schrank, 1788) Lühe, 1909

   Hosts: M. foina, M. nivalis, M. vison.

   Regions: Surkhandarya, Jizzakh (Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

   *Zoonotic—while it naturally parasitizes semi‐aquatic mammals like badgers and otters, humans can contract the infection by eating raw or undercooked freshwater fish, amphibians or snails that harbor the parasite's larval (metacercarial) stages.

   Genus: Stephanoprora Odhner, 1902

6. Mesorchis denticulatus (Rudolphi, 1802) Dietz, 1909

   Hosts: C. familiaris.

   Regions: Karakalpakstan, Samarkand, Bukhara, Khorezm (A. S. Berdibaev 2021,; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023)

   Family: Fasciolidae Railliet, 1895

   Genus: Fasciola Linnaeus, 1758

7. Fasciola hepatica Linnaeus, 1758

   Hosts: V. vulpes, L. lutra.

   Regions: Surkhandarya region (Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024)

   *Zoonotic—caused by the liver fluke, it is a foodborne zoonotic infection in which humans become infected from infected animals (primarily cattle and sheep).

   Family: PlagiorchiidaeLuche, 1901

   Genus: PlagiorchisLühe, 1899

8. Plagiorchis elegans (Rudolphi, 1802) Braun, 1902

   Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, M. foina.

   Regions: Karakalpakstan, Bukhara, Khorezm (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

   *Zoonotic—members of the genus Plagiorchis are known to cause accidental intestinal infections in humans, typically through the ingestion of infected, raw aquatic insect larvae.

9. Plagiorchis lutrae Fahmy, 1954

   Hosts: L. lutra.

   Regions: Surkhandarya (Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

   Class: Cestoda Van Beneden, 1849

   Order: Cyclophyllidea Van Beneden, 1850

   Family: Dipylidiidae Railliet, 1896

   Genus: Dipylidium Leuckart, 1863

10. Dipylidium caninum (Linnaeus, 1758)

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, F. chaus, F. lybica, F. catus, M. meles.

    Regions: all regions Uzbekistan (Petrov 1926; Irgashev 1956; Delyanova 1958; Matchanov 1959; Sadykov 1967; Matchanov, 1968; Safarov et al. 2018; Safarov, 2020; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—it primarily infects dogs and cats, but humansespecially young childrencan become infected if they accidentally ingest an infected flea harboring the tapeworm's larval stage.

    Genus: Diplopylidium Beddard, 1913

11. Diplopylidium acanthotetra (Parona, 1886)

    Hosts: F. catus

    Regions: North‐western Uzbekistan (Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

12. Diplopylidium nölleri (Skrjabin, 1924)

    Hosts: C. lupus, V. corsac, V. vulpes, F. chaus, F. lybica.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Samarkand and Khorezm (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Toshov 2021; Safarov et al. Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    Genus: Joyeuxiella Fuhrmann, 1935

13. Joyeuxiella echinorhynchoides (Sonsino, 1884)

    Hosts: V. vulpes.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Jizzakh, Samarkand, Bukhara, Tashkent city (Irgashev 1958; Safarov, 2018; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

14. Joyeuxiella pasqualei (Diamare, 1893)

    Hosts: V. vulpes

    Regions: Tashkent, Jizzakh, Samarkand, Bukhara, Tashkent city (Irgashev 1958; Safarov, 2018; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

15. Joyeuxiella rossicum (Skrjabin, 1923)

    Hosts: C. familiaris, V. vulpes, F. chaus, F. lybica, F. catus

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Syrdarya, Jizzakh, Samarkand, Bukhara, Tashkent city (Irgashev 1958; Safarov, 2018; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    Family: Mesocestoididae Fuhrmann, 1907

    Genus: Mesocestoides Vaillant, 1863

16. Mesocestoides lineatus (Goeze, 1782)

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, F. chaus, F. lybica, F. catus, L. lynx, M. foina, M. meles, M. vison, M. nivalis, L. lutra.

    Regions: all regions Uzbekistan (Irgashev, 1958; Delyanova 1958; Matchanov 1959; Sadikov 1967; Safarov et al. 2018; 2022, 2023; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—while human infections are exceedingly rare, they occur globally, with most clinical cases reported in Asia (such as Japan, Korea and China).

    Family: Taeniidae Ludwig, 1886

    Genus: Echinococcus Rudolphi, 1801

17. Echinococcus granulosus (Batsch, 1786)

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, F. catus, L. lynx.

    Regions: all regions Uzbekistan (Matchanov 1959, 1968; Irgashev 1956; 1958; Delyanova 1958; Safarov et al. 2018, 2022, 2023; Safarov 2024; Arziev 2019; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—a highly significant zoonotic tapeworm. It causes cystic echinococcosis (hydatid disease), a serious parasitic infection. Humans contract the disease accidentally when they ingest microscopic parasite eggs passed in the feces of infected animals.

18. Echinococcus multilocularis (Leuckart, 1863)

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, F. lybica.

    Regions: all regions Uzbekistan (Sadikov 1967; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—a zoonotic tapeworm found primarily in the Northern Hemisphere. It causes Alveolar Echinococcosis (AE), a severe, tumor‐like parasitic disease in humans. Humans are accidental hosts who contract the infection by ingesting microscopic parasite eggs from the environment, leading to invasive cysts in the liver.

    Genus: Hydatigera Lamarck, 1816

19. Hydatigera krepkogorski Schulz & Landa, 1934

    Hosts: V. vulpes, F. chaus.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Syrdarya, Jizzakh, Samarkand, Bukhara, Khorezm, Surkhandarya, valley regions Uzbekistan (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

20. Hydatigera taeniaeformis (Batsch, 1786)

    Hosts: C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, F. chaus, F. catus, L. lynx, M. foina, L. lutra.

    Regions: all regions Uzbekistan (Petrov 1926; Irgashev 1956; Delyanova 1958; Matchanov 1959; Sadykov 1967; Matchanov, 1968; Safarov et al. 2018; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov et al., 2022, Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—very minor medical significance. While humans can occasionally serve as an accidental host for the larval stage, the parasite typically completes its lifecycle between cats (definitive host) and rodents (intermediate host).

    Genus: Taenia Linnaeus, 1758

21. Taenia macrocystis (Diesing, 1850)

    Hosts: C. familiaris, V. vulpes, F. chaus, F. lybica, F. catus.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, Kashkadarya, Surkhandarya, Syrdarya, valley areas in Uzbekistan (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov et al., 2023; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

22. Taenia pisiformis (Bloch, 1780)

    Hosts: C. familiaris, V. vulpes, F. lybica, F. catus, L. lynx, M. vison.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, Kashkadarya, Surkhandarya, Syrdarya regions, valley areas in Uzbekistan (Delyanova 1958; Matchanov 1959; Safarov et al. 2018; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov et al., 2022, 2023; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

23. Taenia polyacantha Leuckart, 1856

    Hosts: C. lupus, V. corsac, V. vulpes.

    Regions: Syrdarya, valley areas in Uzbekistan (Koshchanov, 1971, Safarov 2024).

    *Zoonotic—but its zoonotic potential is extremely rare.

24. Taenia hydatigena Pallas, 1766

    Hosts: C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, F. chaus, F. catus, L. lynx, M. foina, L. lutra.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, Kashkadarya, Surkhandarya, Syrdarya regions, valley areas in Uzbekistan (Petrov 1926; Irgashev 1956; Delyanova 1958; Matchanov 1959; Sadykov 1967; Matchanov, 1968; Safarov et al. 2018; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov et al., 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

25. Taenia laticollis Rudolphi, 1819

    Hosts: F. catus, L. lynx.

    Regions: Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, Kashkadarya, Surkhandarya, Syrdarya, valley areas in Uzbekistan (Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

26. Taenia multiceps Leske, 1780

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, Kashkadarya, Surkhandarya, Syrdarya regions, valley areas Uzbekistan (Safarov et al. 2018; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—humans can act as accidental intermediate hosts, contracting a serious, potentially fatal condition called coenuriasis.

27. Taenia ovis (Cobbold, 1869)

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, Kashkadarya, Surkhandarya, Syrdarya regions, valley areas in Uzbekistan (Delyanova 1958; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

28. Taenia crassiceps (Zeder, 1800)

    Hosts: V. corsac, F. catus, M. foina, M. meles, M. nivalis, L. lutra.

    Regions: Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, Kashkadarya, Surkhandarya, Syrdarya, valley areas in Uzbekistan (Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

    *Zoonotic—when humans are infected, the larvae typically lodge in specific tissues, forming cyst‐like structures.

29. Taenia martis (Zeder, 1803)

    Hosts: M. foina, M. vison, M. meles, L. lutra.

    Regions: Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, Kashkadarya, Surkhandarya, Syrdarya, valley areas in Uzbekistan (Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

    *Zoonotic—while humans are only accidental ‘aberrant’ hosts, spillover infections can occur, leading to a condition called cysticercosis.

30. Taenia serialis (Gervais, 1847)

    Hosts: C. familiaris.

    Regions: Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, Kashkadarya, Surkhandarya, Syrdarya, valley areas in Uzbekistan (Safarov et al. Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

    *Zoonotic—human infection by the larval stage of T. serialis causes a rare but serious condition known as coenurosis.In humans, these cysts typically develop in subcutaneous tissues, muscles, the eyes or the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord).

31. Versteria mustelae (Gmelin, 1790)

    Hosts: M. foina, M. nivalis, L. lutra.

    Regions: Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, Kashkadarya, Surkhandarya, Syrdarya, valley areas in Uzbekistan (Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

    *Zoonotic—it is recognized as a rare but highly dangerous zoonotic pathogen. Is mostly found in Europe and the Palearctic, a distinct and closely related ‘zoonotic lineage’ of Versteria has emerged in North America.

    Order: Diphyllobothriidea Kuchta et al., 2008

    Family: Diphyllobothriidae Lühe, 1910

    Genus: Dibothriocephalus Lühe, 1899

32. Dibothriocephalus latus (Linnaeus, 1758) Lühe, 1899

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. vulpes, M. foina, M. meles.

    Regions: all regions in Uzbekistan (Delyanova 1958; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

    *Zoonotic—which is transmitted to humans through the consumption of raw, undercooked or inadequately prepared freshwater fish.

    Genus: Spirometra Faust, Campbell & Kellogg, 1929

33. Spirometra erinaceieuropaei (Rudolphi, 1819) Faust, Campbell & Kellogg, 1929

    Hosts: in canines (V. vulpes) and felines (F. chaus, F. lybica, L. lynx)—definitive hosts—in the intestine, in additional hosts—mustelids (M. meles and M. foina)—in the muscles, which corresponds to literature data.

    Regions: all regions in Uzbekistan (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—it causes a severe and potentially debilitating infection known as sparganosis, which is contracted when humans accidentally ingest the parasite's larvae (plerocercoids).

    Phylum Nematoda Cobb, 1932

    Class: Chromadorea Inglis, 1983

    Order: Rhabditida Chitwood, 1933

    Family: Ancylostomatidae Looss, 1905 (Looss, 1911)

    Genus: Ancylostoma Dubini, 1843

34. Ancylostoma caninum (Ercolani, 1859)

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, F. chaus, F. catus, L. lynx, M. meles.

    Regions: Uzbekistan (Matchanov 1959, 1968; Sadikov 1967; Irgashev 1956; 1958; Delyanova 1958; Safarov et al. 2018; 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—transmitted to humans when infective larvae in contaminated soil penetrate the skin or are accidentally ingested. It primarily causes a localized, intensely itchy skin rash, though severe internal infections can occasionally occur.

35. Ancylostoma tubaeforme (Zeder, 1800)

    Hosts: L. lynx.

    Regions: Uzbekistan (Matchanov 1959, 1968; Sadikov 1967; Irgashev 1956; 1958; Delyanova 1958; Safarov et al. 2018, 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—is not considered a significant zoonotic risk.

    Genus: Uncinaria Froelich, 1789

36. Uncinaria stenocephala (Railliet, 1884)

    Hosts: C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, F. lybica, F. catus, L. lynx, M. foina, M. meles, M. vison, M. nivalis, L. lutra.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Samarkand, Tashkent city (Petrov 1926; Matchanov 1959, 1968; Sadikov 1967; Irgashev 1956; 1958; Delyanova 1958; Taryannikov 1983; Safarov et al. 2018, 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—its zoonotic impact is relatively mild.Human infection occurs when infective larvae from contaminated soil penetrate the skin (usually through bare feet).

    Family: Metastrongylidae Molin, 1861

    Genus: Crenosoma Molin, 1861

37. Crenosoma vulpis (Dujardin, 1844)

    Hosts: C. familiaris, V. vulpes, M. foina, M. meles, L. lutra.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, Khorezm, Navoi (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Mihalca, et al. 2022; Safarov, Akramova, et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov, Nasreen, et al. 2023, Safarov, Abdinabiev, et al. 2023, Safarov, Akramova, Saidova, et al. 2023; Safarov, Akramova, Turgunov, et al. 2023; Safarov and Kakharov 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

38. Crenosoma petrowi Morosov, 1939

    Hosts: M. vison.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Samarkand, Bukhara, Khorezm, Navoi (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Mihalca, et al. 2022; Safarov, Akramova, et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023, Safarov, Nasreen, et al. 2023, Safarov, Abdinabiev, et al. 2023, Safarov, Akramova, Saidova, et al. 2023; Safarov, Akramova, Turgunov, et al. 2023,g; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    Genus: Filaroides Van‐Beneden, 1858

39. Oslerus osleri (Cobbold, 1879)

    Hosts: C. familiaris, M. vison.

    Regions: Central, North‐Eastern, North‐Western regions (Matchanov 1959; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023, Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

    Order: Dioctophymatida Ryzhikov & Sonin, 1981

    Family: Dioctophymatidae Railliet, 1915

    Genus: Dioctophyme Collet‐Meygret, 1802

40. Dioctophyme renale (Goeze, 1782) Collet‐Meygret, 1802

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, M. foina, M. vison, L. lutra.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Khorezm, Samarkand, Syrdarya, Tashkent city (Irgashev 1956, 1958; Matchanov 1959; Taryannikov 1983; Safarov et al. 2018; 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—is a zoonotic parasite that can infect humans, though human cases are extremely rare. People act as accidental hosts by ingesting the infective larvae through raw or undercooked fish and frogs, or by drinking contaminated water containing infected aquatic worms.

    Order: Trichocephalida Spasski, 1954

    Family: Capillariidae Railliet, 1915

    Genus: Pearsonema Freitas and Mendonça in 1960

41. Pearsonema plica (Rudolphi, 1819)

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. vulpes, L. lynx, M. foina, M. meles, M. vison, L. lutra.

    Regions: Khorezm, Namangan, Andijan, Tashkent, Syrdarya, Jizzakh, Samarkand, Navoi, Tashkent city (Safarov et al. 2018, 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

42. Pearsonemamucronata (Molin, 1858)

    Hosts: M. foina, L. lutra.

    Regions: Khorezm, Namangan, Tashkent, Syrdarya, Jizzakh, Samarkand, Navoi, Tashkent city (Safarov et al. 2018, 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

    Genus: Capillaria Zeder, 1800

43. Capillaria putorii Zeder, 1800

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, V. vulpes, F. catus, L. lynx, M. foina, M. meles, M. vison, M. nivalis, L. lutra.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Khorezm, Namangan, Andijan, Tashkent, Syrdarya, Jizzakh, Samarkand, Navoi (Safarov et al. 2018, 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    Genus: Eucoleus Dujardin, 1845

44. Eucoleus aerophilus (Creplin, 1839)

    Hosts: C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, F. chaus, L. lynx, M. foina, M. meles, M. vison, L. lutra.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Khorezm, Bukhara, Navoi, Tashkent (Irgashev 1956; 1958; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—It can occasionally infect humans, causing a respiratory condition known as pulmonary capillariosis. Human infections are rare, with only about a dozen documented cases globally.

    Family: Trichuridae Ransom, 1911 (Railliet, 1915)

    Genus: Trichuris Roederer, 1761

45. Trichuris vulpis (Froelich, 1789)

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. vulpes.

    Regions: all regions in Uzbekistan (Safarov et al. 2018; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—is rarely zoonotic. While dogs are the primary host, humans can occasionally contract the infection, usually children, through the accidental ingestion of infective eggs from contaminated soil.

    Family: Trichinellidae Ward, 1907

    Genus: Trichinella Railliet, 1895

46. Trichinella britovi Pozio, la‐Rosa, Murrell & Lichtenfels, 1992

    Hosts: V. vulpes.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan (Kairov 1971; Shaikenov and Boev 1983; Uakhit et al. 2023).

    *Zoonotic—humans contract the infection by consuming raw or undercooked meatmost commonly from wild carnivores, sylvatic (wild) pigs or domestic animalscontaining encysted infective larvae.

    Order: Panagrolaimida Hodda, 2007

    Family: Strongyloididae Chitwood & McIntosh, 1934

    Genus: Strongyloides Grassi, 1879

47. Strongyloides stercoralis (Bavay, 1876)

    Hosts: C. familiaris.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Khorezm, Samarkand, Syrdarya, Surkhandarya, Tashkent city (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Mihalca, et al. 2022; Safarov, Akramova, et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—it spreads when infective larvae in contaminated soil penetrate the host's skin. In humans, it can cause severe, life‐threatening hyperinfection if immunity is compromised.

48. Strongyloidesvulpis Petrov, 1940

    Hosts: C. aureus, V. vulpes, M. vison.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Khorezm, Samarkand, Syrdarya, Surkhandarya, Tashkent city (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Mihalca, et al. 2022; Safarov, Akramova, et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

49. Strongyloides martis Petrov, 1940

    Hosts: M. nivalis, L. lutra, V. peregusna.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Tashkent, Khorezm, Samarkand, Syrdarya, Surkhandarya, Tashkent city (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Mihalca, et al. 2022; Safarov, Akramova, et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    Order: Spirurida Railliet, 1915

    Family: Ascarididae Baird, 1853

    Genus: Toxascaris Leiper, 1907

50. Toxascaris leonina (Linstow, 1902) Leiper, 1907

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, F. chaus, F. lybica, F. catus, L. lynx.

    Regions: all regions in Uzbekistan (Petrov 1926; Matchanov 1959, 1968; Sadikov 1967; Irgashev 1956; 1958; Delyanova 1958; Taryannikov 1983; Safarov et al. 2018; 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Khakberdiev et al. 2021; Turgunov 2022; Shakarboevet al. Shakarboev et al. 2023; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023; Safarov et al. 2025).

    Genus: Toxocara Stiles & Hassall, 1905

51. Toxocara canis (Werner, 1782) Stiles, 1905

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes

    Regions: all regions in Uzbekistan (Petrov 1926; Matchanov 1959, 1968; Sadikov 1967; Irgashev 1956; 1958; Delyanova 1958; Taryannikov 1983; Safarov et al. 2018, 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Khakberdiev et al. 2021; Turgunov 2022; Shakarboev et al. 2023; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023; Safarov et al. 2025).

    *Zoonotic—it is a significant global public health concern because humans can accidentally ingest its infective eggs, leading to a disease known as toxocariasis.

52. Toxocara cati (Schrank, 1788)

    Hosts: F. lybica, L. lynx, F. chaus, F. catus.

    Regions: all regions in Uzbekistan (Petrov 1926; Matchanov 1959, 1968; Sadikov 1967; Irgashev 1956; 1958; Delyanova 1958; Taryannikov 1983; Safarov et al. 2018; 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Khakberdiev et al. 2021; Turgunov 2022; Shakarboev et al. 2023; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023; Safarov et al. 2025).

    *Zoonotic—humans contract the infection by accidentally ingesting infective Toxocara eggs from soil, sand or surfaces contaminated with infected cat feces.

    Family: Dracunculidae Stiles, 1907 (Leiper, 1912)

    Genus: Dracunculus Reichard, 1759

53. Dracunculus medinensis (Linnaeus, 1758)

    Hosts: C. familiaris.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan (Murtazaev, 1964; 1965; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—Dracunculiasis was once endemic in 20 countries but it is now only reported from a few African countries. In 2022 this included a total of 13 cases in Chad, Ethiopia, South Sudan and the Central African Republic. People of all ages are susceptible to infection (https://www.who.int).

    Family: Filariidae Weinland, 1858 (Cobbold, 1879)

    Genus: Filaria Mueller, 1787

54. Filaria martis Gmelin, 1791

    Hosts: M. foina, M. meles, M. vison, M. nivalis, L. lutra.

    Regions: Central, North‐Eastern, North‐Western regions (Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

    Family: Gnathostomatidae Railliet, 1895

    Genus: Gnathostoma Owen, 1836

55. Gnathostoma spinigerum Owen, 1836

    Hosts: F. chaus.

    Regions: Khorezm and Karakalpakstan (Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

    *Zoonotic—it is transmitted to humanswho serve as accidental hostswhen they consume raw or undercooked fish, frogs, snakes or poultry containing the infectious third‐stage larvae.

    Family: Gongylonematidae Sobolev, 1949

    Genus: Gongylonema Molin, 1857

56. Gongylonema pulchrum Molin, 1857

    Hosts: C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. vulpes

    Regions: all regions in Uzbekistan (Delyanova 1958; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—humans typically become infected by accidentally ingesting an infected insect (e.g., in contaminated raw drinking water or unwashed fresh vegetables).In humans, the worm migrates to the upper gastrointestinal tract, frequently embedding itself in the mucous membranes of the lips, tongue, gums and cheeks.

    Family: Onchocercidae Leiper, 1911

    Genus: Dirofilaria Railliet & Henry, 1911

57. Dirofilaria immitis (Leidy, 1856)

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. vulpes, F. chaus, F. catus.

    Regions: Tashkent, Samarkand, Surkhandarya, Karakalpakstan, Tashkent city (Shleikher 1949; Taryannikov 1983; Safarov et al. 2018, 2020, 2021, 2022, 2023; Norkobilov et al. 2020; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023; Abdunabiev, 2024).

    *Zoonotic—is a zoonotic parasite that can be transmitted from animals to humans via mosquito bites. While humans are accidental, ‘dead‐end’ hosts where the worms rarely mature, infections are an emerging global concern.

58. Dirofilaria repens Railliet & Henry, 1911

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. vulpes, F. chaus, F. catus.

    Regions: Tashkent, Samarkand, Surkhandarya, Karakalpakstan, Tashkent city (Shleikher 1949; Matchanov 1959; Taryannikov 1983; Safarov et al. 2018, 2020; Safarov et al. 2021, 2022, 2023; Safarov 2024; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023; Abdunabiev, 2024).

    *Zoonotic—is defined as a mosquito‐borne parasite that primarily infects dogs and can cause zoonotic infections in humans.

    Family: PhysalopteridaeRailliet, 1893 (Leiper, 1908)

    Genus: Physaloptera Rudolphi, 1819

59. Physaloptera praeputialis Linstow, 1889

    Hosts: C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, F. catus.

    Regions: Tashkent, Samarkand, Karakalpakstan, Tashkent city (Irgashev 1956, 1958; Delyanova 1958; Safarov et al. 2018, 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

60. Physaloptera sibirica Petrow & Gorbunov, 1931

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, F. chaus, F. lybica, F. catus.

    Regions: Tashkent, Samarkand, Karakalpakstan, Tashkent city (Irgashev 1956, 1958; Delyanova 1958; Safarov et al. 2018, 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    Family: Pneumospiruridae Wu & Hu, 1938

    Genus: Metathelazia Skinker, 1931

61. Metathelazia capsulata Gerichter, 1948.

    Hosts: M. meles.

    Regions: all regions in Uzbekistan (Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    Family: Rictulariidae Hall, 1916 (Railliet, 1916)

    Genus: Pterygodermatites Wedl, 1861

62. Pterygodermatites affinis (Jägerskiöld, 1904)

    Hosts: C. familiaris, V. corsac, F. lybica, F. catus.

    Regions: Central, North‐Eastern, North‐Western regions (Irgashev 1956; Delyanova 1958; Matchanov 1959; Safarov et al. 2018; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

63. Pterygodermatites cahirensis (Jägerskiöld, 1904)

    Hosts: C. familiaris, F. chaus.

    Regions: Central, North‐Eastern, North‐Western regions (Irgashev 1956; Delyanova 1958; Matchanov 1959; Safarov et al. 2018; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    Family: Spiruridae Oerleg, 1885

    Genus: Spirura Blanchard, 1849

64. Spirura rytipleurites (Deslongchamps, 1824)

    Hosts: V. vulpes, F. catus.

    Regions: Central, North‐West regions (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    Family: Spirocercidae Chitwood & Wehr, 1932 (Chabaud, 1975)

    Genus: Cylicospirura Vevers, 1922

65. Cylicospirura subaequalis (Molin, 1860)

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. vulpes, M. meles

    Regions: Karakalpakstan and Central regions (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov et al. 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

66. Cylicospirura lyncis (Matschulsky, 1952)

    Hosts: L. lynx.

    Regions: Southern region (Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

    Genus: Spirocerca Railliet & Henry, 1917

67. Spirocerca arctica Petrow, 1927

    Hosts: C. familiaris, V. corsac

    Regions: all regions in Uzbekistan (Irgashev 1956, 1958; Delyanova 1958; Matchanov 1959; Safarov et al. 2018, 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

68. Spirocerca lupi (Rudolphi, 1809)

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes.

    Regions: all regions (Irgashev 1956, 1958; Delyanova 1958; Matchanov 1959; Safarov et al. 2018, 2022; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    Genus: Vigisospirura Petrow & Potekhina, 1953

69. Vigisospirura potekhini (Petrov & Potekhina, 1953)

    Hosts: F. chaus, F. lybica, M. meles.

    Regions: Khorezm region and Karakalpakstan (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    Phylum Acanthocephala Rudolphi, 1809

    Class: Archiacanthocephala Meyer, 1931

    Order: Gigantorhynchida Southwell & Macfie, 1925

    Family: Giganthorhynchidae Hamann, 1892

    Genus: Mediorhynchus Van Cleave, 1916

70. Mediorhynchus micracanthus (Rudolphi, 1819)

    Hosts: V. vulpes

    Regions: Uzbekistan (Ryzhikov and Dizer, 1954).

    Order: Oligacanthorhynchida Petrotchenko, 1956

    Order: Moniliformida Schmidt, 1972

    Family: Moniliformidae Van Cleave, 1924

    Genus: Moniliformis Travassos, 1915

71. Moniliformis moniliformis (Bremser, 1811)

    Hosts: C. lupus, V. corsac, M. meles.

    Regions: Karakalpakstan, Khorezm, Samarkand, Kashkadarya (Berdibev 2021; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—is a zoonotic parasite (a thorny‐headed worm) that can infect humans, though human cases are rare worldwide.

    Family: Oligacanthorhynchidae Southwell et Macfie, 1924

    Genus: Macracanthorhynchus Travassos, 1917

72. Macracanthorhynchus catulinus Kostylew, 1927

    Hosts: C. lupus, C. aureus, C. familiaris, V. corsac, V. vulpes, F. chaus, M. foina, M. meles, M. nivalis

    Regions: all regions in Uzbekistan (Rijikov, 1954; Delyanova 1958; Matchanov 1959; Safarov et al. 2018; Berdibev, 2021; Safarov et al. Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

73. Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus (Pallas, 1781).

    Hosts: C. familiaris.

    Regions: Uzbekistan (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024; Shakarboev and Berdibaev 2023).

    *Zoonotic—human transmission happens through the accidental ingestion of infected intermediate hosts (such as beetles or grubs) or by eating raw/undercooked wild boar meat.

    Class: Palaeacanthocephala Meyer, 1931

    Order: Polymorphida Petrotchenko, 1956

    Family: Polymorphidae Meger, 1931

    Genus: Corynosoma Lühe, 1904

74. Corynosoma strumosum (Rudolphi, 1802)

    Hosts: M. foina.

    Regions: North‐Eastern region (Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov 2024).

    *Zoonotic—it belongs to the thorny‐headed worms (Acanthocephala) and can be transmitted to humans who consume raw or undercooked infected marine fish. However, it is a relatively rare and mild zoonosis compared to Anisakis infections.

4. Discussion

4.1. Host Coverage and Geographical Gaps

This review provides the first comprehensive synthesis of helminth parasites recorded in wild and domestic carnivorous mammals in Uzbekistan, documenting a total of 74 species. These parasites have been reported from members of the Canidae, Felidae and Mustelidae families (Table 1). However, the available data reveal a pronounced imbalance in research effort among host species. Domestic dogs, jackals and red foxes account for the majority of studies, with 28, 16 and 9 publications, respectively, whereas several carnivorous species remain poorly investigated or completely unstudied. This uneven coverage limits a comprehensive understanding of helminth biodiversity and host–parasite associations across the entire carnivore community of Uzbekistan.

Historically, knowledge of helminths infecting carnivorous mammals in Uzbekistan was based on the pioneering work of Petrov (1926); Irgashev (1956); Delyanova (1958); Matchanov (1959); Muminov (1963; 1976); Sadykov (1967) and Taryannikov (1983). Until 2018, only six (25.0%) carnivorous mammal species had been examined for helminth infections. More recent investigations have substantially expanded this knowledge base, increasing the number of studied species to 15 (62.5%) by 2024 (A. S. Berdibaev 2021; Safarov, Khan, et al. 2023; Safarov, Akramova, Turgunov, et al. 2023). This progress reflects growing recognition of the ecological and epidemiological importance of parasite diversity in carnivorous mammals. Despite these advances, major knowledge gaps remain. In particular, no comprehensive information is currently available for members of the Ursidae and Hyaenidae families, which together comprise nine (37.5%) carnivorous mammal species occurring in Uzbekistan. These poorly studied hosts may harbour unique parasite assemblages with potential implications for wildlife conservation, ecosystem functioning and zoonotic disease transmission. In addition to taxonomic gaps, parasite records remain geographically uneven. Most available data originate from a limited number of surveyed regions, suggesting that the observed distribution patterns may partly reflect sampling intensity rather than the true distribution of helminth species. Therefore, future research should prioritize systematic and geographically representative surveys, including the examination of opportunistically collected carcasses (e.g., road‐killed or naturally deceased animals), through collaboration between wildlife authorities and parasitological research institutions. Such efforts would substantially improve our understanding of helminth diversity, host range and geographic distribution in Uzbekistan.

4.2. Regional Comparison With Neighbouring Countries

Uzbekistan shares borders with Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan and Turkmenistan, making regional comparisons important for understanding the diversity and distribution of helminths infecting carnivorous mammals in Central Asia. However, analysis of the available literature indicates that comprehensive inventories of helminth fauna remain scarce throughout the region. Most studies have focused on a single host species or a limited group of carnivores rather than providing broad assessments of parasite diversity (Ziadinov et al. 2010; Abdybekova and Torgerson 2012; Lyudmila et al. 2020; Akibekov et al. 2023). Kazakhstan represents the best‐studied neighbouring country. Lyudmila et al. (2020) reported 11 helminth taxa infecting wolves, red foxes and corsac foxes, while Abdybekova (2014) identified seven helminth taxa in corsac foxes and Abdybekova and Torgerson (2012) reported nine taxa in wolves. Additional studies documented parasite species not yet recorded in Uzbekistan, including Taenia krabbei and Trichinella nativa in wolves (Uakhit et al. 2022). Furthermore, Berkinbay et al. (2024) identified 17 helminth taxa in brown bears (Ursus arctos), a host species whose helminth fauna remains unstudied in Uzbekistan.

In Kyrgyzstan, available investigations have primarily focused on Echinococcus granulosus infections in dogs (Abdybekova et al. 2015). Information from Turkmenistan is largely derived from the governmental report ‘Eradication of Dracunculiasis in Turkmenistan’, which documented 140 helminth species in wild animals, including 52 species reported from carnivores and 19 species infecting humans. The same report highlighted the historical importance of Dracunculus medinensis infections in both dogs and humans (Berdyeva 1998). In contrast, very limited information is available regarding helminths of carnivorous mammals in Tajikistan and Afghanistan. This available evidence suggests that knowledge of helminth diversity in carnivorous mammals remains fragmented across Central Asia. Consequently, the checklist presented here not only updates the situation in Uzbekistan but also provides an important regional reference framework for future comparative and transboundary studies on parasite biodiversity, wildlife health and zoonotic disease emergence.

4.3. Taxonomic Limitations and the Need for Molecular Tools

One of the major challenges identified during this review concerns the taxonomic inconsistencies present in the historical literature. Several helminth species have been reported under outdated names or synonymized taxa, creating confusion and complicating comparisons among studies. For example, E. multilocularis was referred to as Alveococcus multilocularis in some earlier publications (Sadykov 1967; A. S. Berdibaev 2021). Similarly, T. multiceps and T. skrjabini were historically reported as M. multiceps and M. skrjabini, respectively (Irgashev 1956; Delyanova 1958; Matchanov 1959; Safarov et al. 2018; A. S. Berdibaev 2021). To address these inconsistencies, all parasite names reported in the reviewed literature were revised and standardized according to currently accepted taxonomic nomenclature.

Another important limitation is that most helminth records from Uzbekistan were established exclusively through morphological identification. Although morphology remains an essential diagnostic tool, reliance on morphological characters alone may lead to misidentifications and may fail to detect cryptic diversity. This issue is particularly relevant in groups that have undergone substantial taxonomic revision in recent years. For example, revision of the genus Taenia led to the resurrection and recognition of the genera Hydatigera and Versteria (Nakao et al. 2013). Likewise, the name E. granulosus is currently restricted to E. granulosus sensu stricto, whereas other members of the E. granulosus sensu lato complex require accurate molecular discrimination (Thompson 2020).

The integration of molecular methods into future surveys is therefore strongly recommended. Combining morphological and molecular approaches would improve species delimitation and facilitate the identification of morphologically similar or cryptic taxa, including members of the E. granulosus sensu lato complex (Thompson 2017), Spirocerca vulpes (Rojas et al. 2018), H. taeniaeformis sensu lato (Lavikainen et al. 2016) and Gongylonema nepalensis (Setsuda et al. 2020). Such integrative approaches would significantly enhance the reliability of parasite inventories and improve our understanding of host–parasite relationships in Central Asian ecosystems.

Recent advances in molecular ecology also offer new opportunities for non‐invasive wildlife parasitology. Molecular analysis of faecal samples has become an increasingly valuable tool for parasite detection and host assignment, allowing the investigation of parasite communities without capturing or disturbing wild animals. This approach has demonstrated high accuracy for host species identification and represents a promising avenue for future studies on wild and protected carnivores in Uzbekistan (Rojas et al. 2024).

4.4. Zoonotic Significance and One Health Relevance

Among the 74 helminth species recorded, 37 (50.0%) were retained as having zoonotic relevance after reassessment, with several species, including E. granulosus, Dipylidium caninum, Toxocara canis and Dirofilaria repens, being of major epidemiological importance (Sazmand et al. 2019; Sazmand et al. 2020; Hosseini et al. 2022; Safarov et al. 2022). However, the public health significance of these species is not equivalent. Some parasites, such as E. granulosus, E. multilocularis, T. canis, T. cati, D. repens and D. caninum, represent well‐established zoonoses, whereas others should be regarded as occasional or accidental zoonotic infections because human cases are rare, sporadic or dependent on specific exposure pathways. This distinction is important to avoid overestimating the public health impact of all recorded helminth species. The high proportion of zoonotic helminths identified in carnivorous mammals highlights the close links between wildlife health, domestic animal health and human health. Recent reports of human infections caused by the zoonotic filarioid D. repens in Uzbekistan further emphasize the need for continuous surveillance and preventive measures (Safarov, Ionică, et al. 2023). Similarly, although echinococcosis agents have been detected in a broad range of definitive and intermediate hosts, reliable epidemiological information on human echinococcosis remains limited or insufficiently accessible. This lack of accurate data may contribute to underestimation of the public health burden associated with these parasites.

The growing interface between humans, domestic animals and wildlife in Central Asia increases opportunities for parasite transmission and reinforces the relevance of a One Health framework. Because many of the helminths identified in carnivorous mammals are also capable of infecting humans, integrated surveillance programs should involve veterinarians, wildlife biologists, parasitologists and public health authorities. Such collaboration would facilitate early detection of emerging zoonotic threats and improve understanding of transmission pathways between wildlife reservoirs, domestic animals and human populations. Public awareness also represents a critical component of helminth control. Educational programs promoting hygiene measures, responsible pet ownership, regular veterinary care and appropriate deworming practices could substantially reduce transmission risks. In parallel, surveillance programs targeting both domestic and wild carnivores should be strengthened to monitor changes in parasite distribution and prevalence. Integrating these findings into public health policies would contribute to more effective prevention and control strategies for zoonotic helminth infections in Uzbekistan and neighbouring regions.

5. Conclusion

This review provides the first comprehensive and taxonomically updated synthesis of helminth parasites recorded in carnivorous mammals in Uzbekistan, documenting 74 species across the Canidae, Felidae and Mustelidae families. The findings highlight substantial progress in parasitological research over recent decades while also revealing important knowledge gaps regarding understudied host species, geographic coverage, parasite taxonomy and transmission ecology. A considerable proportion of the recorded helminths possess zoonotic relevance, emphasizing the importance of integrated surveillance at the wildlife–domestic animal–human interface. At the same time, helminths should be recognized not only as agents of disease but also as essential components of ecosystem biodiversity and functioning. Future investigations should prioritize geographically representative sampling, the inclusion of poorly studied carnivore taxa, and the integration of molecular and non‐invasive diagnostic approaches to improve taxonomic resolution and parasite detection. Strengthening multidisciplinary collaborations within a One Health framework will be critical for advancing our understanding of helminth diversity, assessing zoonotic risks, supporting wildlife conservation and improving public health preparedness in Uzbekistan and across Central Asia.

Author Contributions

Alisher Safarov: conceptualization, writing – original draft. Sunnat Okkiyev: analysis, visualization, investigation. Angela Monica Ionică: writing – review and editing. Mourad Ben Said: writing – review and editing.

Funding

The authors have nothing to report.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.