Helping financially under‐resourced unmarried mothers move forward and flourish: Feasibility findings from an innovative coaching‐centered place‐based initiative

Abstract

Longer‐duration, holistic, cohort‐based, coach‐led interventions may be particularly effective in promoting both economic health and emotional well‐being among unmarried mothers living in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods. Aligning with the 1999 Centers for Disease Control (CDC) framework for program evaluation, this study presents a non‐random pragmatic feasibility trial of Moms Moving Forward (MMF), a 12‐month, community‐centered, place‐based initiative. MMF aims to improve financial stability and maternal mental health by building life skills and strengthening participants' sense of community and spirituality through personalized coaching, targeted workshops with local partners, and sisterhood‐building activities. One hundred mothers across six cohorts enrolled in MMF over 3 years, of whom 72 completed the program. Participants provided pre‐ and post‐self‐report measures of demographics, financial health (credit scores, wages), mental health (anxiety, depression, stress, self‐esteem), and desired and obtained life skills. A holistic indicator of progress was captured using the 2016 EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency®, with scores self‐determined alongside life coaches. Results indicated improvements in credit scores, wages, and advancement across all Bridge domains, alongside reductions in depression, anxiety, and stress. Participants reported increased life skills and high program acceptability. Continued evaluation using rigorous designs will be critical to assess efficacy and support future scaling.

Highlights

• Highlights a 12‐month, place‐based, coaching‐centered, sisterhood program: Mom's Moving Forward.

• Academic‐community partnership formed to determine feasibility and enhance program effectiveness.

• Mom's economic indicators improved; stress, anxiety, and depression lowered significantly.

• Participants advanced up all domains of the 2016 EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency®.

• 72% completion rate despite COVID‐19 start; strong satisfaction and referral intent.

• Results support feasibility of condensed, multi‐target, place‐based intervention for single mothers.

In the United States, nearly 25% of children under 18 live with just one parent, the highest percentage in the world (Pew Research Center, 2019). Single parenting creates significant economic challenges, as evidenced by the stark contrast in poverty rates among family structures. For example, in 2021, 30% of single parents lived below the poverty line, in contrast to six percent of those in two‐parent households. The economic impact experienced by single parenthood is substantial as approximately 19.4 million parents in the United States are raising children without a partner, 15.4 million of whom are single or unmarried mothers (Lee & Allen, 2022; US Census, 2022).

Furthermore, low‐income unmarried mothers facing financial uncertainty possess a heightened risk for adverse physical and psychological health effects (White et al., 2015). For example, White et al. (2015) investigated the role of financial stress on the physical well‐being of low‐income unmarried mothers participating in the Financial Success Program; greater financial stress was a risk factor for maternal cardiovascular disease. Mothers who are low‐income and have poor social support have an increased likelihood of developing depression and anxiety (McLeish & Redshaw, 2017; McLoyd, 1990; Thompson et al., 2022). Individuals experiencing poverty are exposed to an increased number of related acute and chronic stressors, which can also impact their emotional and mental health (McLoyd, 1990), suggesting that the existence of limited economic mobility and financial instability has widespread correlates and consequences for those experiencing it (Islam & Jaffee, 2024).

Economic stress within the home can also strain parent‐child relationships (McLoyd, 1990). Financial stress alone has been indirectly linked to strained parent‐child relationships due to the influence it has on parental mental well‐being (Taylor et al., 1997). Financial uncertainty and poverty can also impact children's long‐term development (Thompson et al., 2022). Children growing up in poverty are more likely to experience developmental delays, chronic illness, and toxic stress, all of which can impact educational attainment and overall well‐being (Eamon, 2001). Economic constraints can also limit a family's access to healthcare and other essential services, thus exacerbating existing health and wellness inequalities. Yet, while there are associations among single parenthood, poverty, and childhood difficulties, the relationships are complex (e.g., Collins et al., 2018; Hibbs et al., 2023). As such, early, broad‐based, pragmatic, and effective intervention has been shown to be central to improving family health trajectories (Willson & Shuey, 2016) as well as increasing economic mobility across generations.

In response, emerging intervention efforts have been designed to support mothers affected by systemic inequalities to improve their lives (e.g., Mom Power, Muzik et al., 2015) and/or to facilitate families' cross‐generational economic mobility (e.g., Share Our Strength, 2025). These innovative interventions are experimenting with how best to meet key goals, varying in core content, targets of change, length of programming, eligibility criteria (i.e., economically vulnerable, unmarried mothers only, place‐based, family‐focused, child‐centered), modality of delivery, spread (i.e., neighborhood, city, school, multi‐state), and use of cash incentives and motivators (e.g., Anderson et al., 2018; Results for America, 2025). Given the financial and emotional implications of being an unmarried mother living in an historically low‐resource urban neighborhood, targeted multi‐level interventions are necessary. These interventions can help families build upon their strengths, capture opportunities, and avoid negative consequences. Equally important is the evaluation of program acceptability and initial effectiveness using iterative, co‐created, evaluation frameworks (Leask et al., 2019).

The resources available often influence program design, implementation, and evaluation decisions. There are inevitable compromises in cost efficiency and resource allocation that directly influence short‐ and long‐term participant engagement and program feasibility as well as economic mobility and participant wellness outcomes. Nonetheless, there is growing evidence, using different metrics, that community‐embedded and/or place‐based interventions can be impactful. Many existing interventions emphasize effects on early childhood development (Colen et al., 2006; Duncan et al., 2014; Homer et al., 2022; Tomopoulos et al., 2022). Others consider changes in mothers' or children's physical or mental well‐being (e.g., Monteiro et al., 2020; Muzik et al., 2015) or seek to alter high‐risk health trajectories (i.e., Willson & Shuey, 2016). Still others assess changes in assets, human capital development, employment status, or income to needs ratios (Zhan, 2006). Evidence‐based and place‐based programming addressing a broad range of client concerns in conjunction with client feedback remains a need (Murphy, 2024). It is also essential to build partnerships among program implementers, program evaluators, and those utilizing the intervention, so that participant data can be used effectively to drive program development and ensure community fit. This study reflects one such effort.

COMMUNITY BACKGROUND

Economic mobility in Charlotte, North Carolina

In 2024, Charlotte, NC, was named one of the “best” US cities in which to live (US News & World Report, n.d.). Raters noted that the city has a lower crime rate than equally sized US cities and that there is a steady stream of new residents (US News & World Report, n.d.). Others, however, have noticed that this growth has come at a cost to longtime residents, particularly those living in certain areas of the city (Leading on Opportunity Task Force, 2017). Chetty and Hendren (2015) determined that Charlotte ranked the lowest in economic mobility among the fifty largest US cities. There is also gentrification taking place in many of Charlotte's historically marginalized neighborhoods. Perhaps as a result, the city has faced challenges, including multiple racially charged incidents, higher than anticipated levels of gun violence, and rapidly rising home prices, limiting access to home ownership (Brown & Holder, 2023; Ersoff et al., 2022; Lacour, 2019; Tanner, 2022; Watson, 2022). A lack of access to opportunities and stagnant economic mobility has had a disproportionate impact on the city's most vulnerable residents: financially under‐resourced unmarried mothers and their children.

In addition to the 2015 Chetty and Hendren findings of poor economic mobility, city‐wide action was further galvanized by public outcries to address systemic inequalities and reduce police violence against black men (Chetty & Hendren, 2015). Charlotte stakeholders responded with intention and care. For example, the Opportunity Task Force, a group of 20 community members, spent 18 months across 2015 and 2016 studying drivers of intergenerational poverty on Charlotte‐Mecklenburg's population (Leading on Opportunity Task Force, 2017). The task force created a report, intended to be a living document, to align and synergize public and private organizations working to break the cycles of poverty and increase economic mobility for all. While highlighting many contributing factors, the report focused on three interrelated determinants the task force believed would have the greatest impact on individual opportunity trajectories: (1) early care and education, (2) college and career readiness, and (3) family stability. The report also highlighted two underlying threads influencing these determinants: segregation and lack of social capital. In fact, the task force argued:

While it is difficult to quantify and measure, increasing social capital and access to life navigators could be one of the most impactful strategies and should be interwoven into all of the other determinants.

(Leading on Opportunity Task Force, 2017)

The report also stressed that people's relationships and networks are the cornerstones of the work moving forward. In response to these historical and ongoing challenges and local calls to action, various organizations and stakeholders across Charlotte took up the mandate to design, support, and implement initiatives to address systemic inequalities, reduce gun violence, foster safer environments, and improve economic mobility. The Moms Moving Forward program is a place‐based outgrowth of this mandate.

Facilitating placed‐based opportunities: Freedom Communities and the Moms Moving Forward program

Freedom Communities is an overarching place‐based initiative (PBI) established in 2017. PBIs are comprehensive efforts to strengthen a specific geographic zone or a neighborhood's physical, social, structural, and economic conditions while supporting families' and communities' ability to address collective challenges (Rood & McGroder, 2017). The mission of Freedom Communities is to facilitate economic mobility, promote self‐sufficiency, and increase health and well‐being among residents living in Charlotte's Freedom Drive/Wilkinson Boulevard corridor. As part of its overarching approach, Freedom Communities specifically chose to create a customized and holistic program to support unmarried mothers, one of the most vulnerable populations living within this economically disadvantaged neighborhood. In 2019, most households in the targeted neighborhood were headed by unmarried mothers (Statistical Atlas, n.d.); the majority of whom self‐identify as Black. For these mothers, the struggle is real as they face barriers to financial, emotional, social, and physical support and mobility (Graham, 2017; Lawson Clark, 2017; Lu et al., 2020; Smith‐Ruiz et al., 2025).

Moms Moving Forward (MMF) is embedded into Freedom Communities and was designed to address these challenges and improve the economic and holistic health of mothers across the neighborhood (Freedom Communities, 2018). MMF was developed with awareness of the Career Family Opportunity Program (Prottas & Gaiser, 2016) and with knowledge of emerging cash incentive programs such as Up Together. The Career Family Opportunity program was a manifestation of the Economic Mobility Pathways' five‐year theory of change model, which has been consistently measured via the EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency, (2016). EMPath, a Boston‐based nonprofit organization, created this change model from a decade of research on improving economic mobility among under‐resourced Massachusetts residents. With an emphasis on individualized coaching, participant‐led goal setting, and deliberate recognition of participants' accomplishments, their five‐by‐five 2016 EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency® matrix explicates a five‐step pathway to self‐sufficiency across five distinct domains. These domains consist of employment and career management; education and training; financial management; family stability; and health and well‐being. Through the EMPath Economic Mobility Exchange™, this coaching approach is used by a diverse set of members (nonprofits, schools, human service programs, govt. agencies etc.) representing over 120 organizations, 30 US states, and 5 countries (EMPath_Impact_Report_2018, 2018).

According to the Mobility Mentoring approach, each “step up the bridge” leads an individual to a life of greater economic independence and holistic thriving. Individuals at the top of the Bridge® live in stable housing, experience a network of support including close family relationships, have no debt, evidence better health outcomes (physically and psychologically), achieve higher educational attainment, and exhibit increased savings and earnings (EMPath_Impact_Report_2018, 2018). While the original Career Family Opportunity Program has undergone multiple iterations, it traditionally includes weekly or monthly meetings where participants can learn and network with one another. In addition to these community‐building meetings, participants collaborate with designated life coaches to build personalized accountability (Babcock, 2012) to ensure that participants efficiently and effectively meet their individualized goals throughout the 5‐year program (EMPath_Impact_Report_2018, 2018).

Due to funding and logistical constraints, Freedom Communities decided to deliver the MMF program in a condensed, but intensive, 12‐month format that was predicated on EMPath's 5‐year theory of change model (EMPath_Impact_Report_2018, 2018). As such, the 2016 Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency® was retained as both a coaching tool and a holistic participant‐change measure for this initial feasibility and acceptability study. A substantial remodeling of the EMPath program was required to deliver MMF in 12 months. However, consistent with the EMPath model, MMF retained two main program aims for participants: (1) greater potential for economic mobility because of increased financial health and stability; (2) increased holistic health for mothers. The MMF program also retained the key change activities underlying the EMPath program: regular group meetings/workshops to learn skills and build community; weekly individualized coaching sessions targeting participant‐specific goals; deliberate celebration of achievements; and the building of sisterhood bonds among participants through a group identity model. Specifically, MMF mothers are accepted into a small cohort of approximately 15–18 mothers. Then, through a series of monthly cohort‐wide workshops and events, as well as through a supportive one‐on‐one relationship with an MMF life coach, mothers are guided to build savings, reduce debt, and increase their credit scores, attain a higher educational degree or additional certificates to aid occupational advancement, and secure stable housing (Freedom Communities, 2018). The MMF coach also encourages skill development, goal setting, and personal accountability while providing mothers with individualized support to improve their overall well‐being. As part of the sisterhood component, MMF also facilitates the development of a peer network of support and guidance. To that end, MMF provides several group‐oriented relationship‐building opportunities, such as monthly workshops, group outings, and cohort‐specific retreats. Mothers receive a cash incentive for attending these activities, which they use to build financial health. Ultimately, the hope is to foster a bond of sisterhood that will facilitate program progress while cementing sustainable program success.

Of note, the MMF program in Charlotte launched in the summer of 2020, during the height of the COVID‐19 pandemic. These circumstances immediately necessitated several additional programmatic changes (i.e., multiple workshops moved online). It also required administrators, staff, and participants to demonstrate flexibility. However, program‐related data collection occurred throughout the pandemic to determine the initial feasibility and acceptability of MMF while providing early information about return on investment for investors. These data form the basis of this study.

Study design and hypotheses

Implementation scientists have offered us a variety of conceptual frameworks from which to evaluate emerging programs (e.g., Carroll et al., 2007; Centers for Disease Control, 1999; Leask et al., 2019; Longworth et al., 2024). Aligned with the 1999 CDC evaluation framework, the current feasibility study obtained indicator data as part of routine program delivery. Mothers were encouraged but not required to provide pre‐ and post‐programmatic data while attending program functions. Furthermore, given the nascent nature of the program, an academic‐community, research‐practice partnership which adopted a “plan, do, study, act” iterative model was embraced, such that data were used to drive program development across time (Leask et al., 2019). Two primary indicators were co‐identified: (1) greater economic mobility/financial health; (2) enhanced maternal well‐being. For this initial feasibility study, one potential mechanism of change was also identified: mother's perceptions of increased skills across a variety of domains targeted in program activities, coaching sessions, and group workshops (see Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Conceptual model of the Moms Moving Forward program. Bolded text indicates the specific components of focus in this paper.

To complete this initial feasibility study, longitudinal data were collected from the first 100 unmarried mothers who were accepted into the program. These participants comprised six different year‐long cohorts of the Moms Moving Forward (MMF) program. Generally, two cohorts were launched each year. These data reflect the program delivered from 2020 to 2023. We utilized a within‐participant, pre‐post longitudinal design that centered assessment of the two primary outcomes. First, we considered changes in financial health and economic mobility. Key participant economic indicators were operationally defined as improved credit scores, reduced debt, and increased income/wages at the program's end. Second, we tracked pre‐post MMF changes in mothers' holistic health and well‐being. Specifically, we assessed reductions in symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress and increases in self‐esteem.

EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency (2016) scores were also collected pre‐ and post‐MMF to assess changes along the five broad domains identified in the original theory of change model (i.e., employment and career management; education and training; financial management; family stability; and health and well‐being). Finally, one potential mechanism of change was explored via an assessment of mothers' perceptions of their level of life skills (pre and post). These life skills were targeted by MMF coaches and through a series of specific group workshops; all were identified as important by both program‐specific and community stakeholders. Finally, participants' impressions of the program's acceptability and their program satisfaction were assessed. This study builds upon data gathered from the inspirational program (EMPath_Impact_Report_2018, 2018) and furthers the implementation‐science behind co‐created evaluation and intervention decision‐making (Leask et al., 2019).

In line with Leask et al.'s (2019) principles and recommendations, the following hypotheses were delineated collaboratively as the community‐academic, research‐practice MMF team was built. Specifically, we addressed fundamental program questions, and we also considered the rate of program completion/attrition, given the 12‐month investment by participants and the effort/costs associated with program delivery.

• 1.What is the rate of MMF program completion, as designated by continued participation and graduation at 12 months? Do program completers differ from non‐completers in terms of their demographics, initial financial status indices, or in their self‐reported mental health at the start of the program?
• 2.Do program completers advance along the five EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency® domains as predicted and as obtained in the longer program from which MMF was derived?
• 3.Do participants enhance their economic position and financial health as would be expected given this is one of the primary indicators of program success (i.e., increasing credit scores, obtaining higher wage jobs, accruing greater savings, and reducing debt)?
• 4.Among program completers, do they have greater self‐reported holistic health at the end of the program as compared to pre‐program?
• 5.Among program completers, do they perceive themselves as gaining skills in the areas of program focus as expected as compared to their self‐evaluation at the program onset?
• 6.Among program completers, how satisfied are they with the MMF program and would they be willing to refer other mothers from the neighborhood to this experience? These data are expected to inform us regarding perceptions of program satisfaction and acceptability.

METHOD

Program description

As described above, MMF utilized a life coach‐centered, cohort‐based model that maximized a series of one‐on‐one weekly coaching sessions, alongside monthly group workshops and cohort‐wide events to foster sisterhood and community and to showcase the resources available from local partners. The life coach‐mother relationship was a core program component enabling personalized goal‐setting, weekly support, and accountability. The MMF program, nested under the umbrella of the larger Freedom Communities' Place‐Based Initiative, was able to support additional crucial facilitators for program participation through providing childcare, hosting celebratory events, and offering monthly financial incentives for completing various programmatic activities (e.g., workshops, field trips, retreats). Mothers could earn up to $200.00 per month for participating in all MMF activities. Simultaneously, the academic‐community, program‐practice, MMF partnership (Ersoff et al., 2026; Watson et al., 2023) was formed to determine feasibility, acceptability, and initial effectiveness with the first six cohorts of women who completed MMF.

Participant recruitment and eligibility criteria

To ensure MMF was reaching the priority population of the over‐arching place‐based initiative, Freedom Communities, certain criteria were required for participants to be eligible. As referenced in Figure 1, participants were recruited based on the following criteria; (1) unmarried mother, (2) residing in the Freedom/Wilkinson Corridor, (3) school aged children were attending a priority school (Bright Future Learning Center, Allenbrook Elementary, Ashley Park K‐8, Thomasboro Academy, Movement Charter (West Campus), Niner University Elementary, or Westerly Hills Academy), (4) mothers had at least one child under the age of 10, (5) were employed for 90 days, (6) had obtained high school diploma or GED, (7) had no felonies or evictions within the last 3 years, and (8) were at least 23 years of age (Freedom Communities, 2018). Potential program participants were required to fill out an application form and have direct communication with MMF staff before being accepted into the next available cohort. MMF staff ultimately determined if potential applicants were a good match for the program or likely needed a different type of support at the outset. Program staff quickly experienced that a mother's lack of employment status, absence of a high school diploma/GED, and/or history of evictions should not be automatic rule‐outs for program participation.

Each cohort started with 15–18 mothers. Participants who committed to regular attendance and who engaged in responsive communication were prioritized due to the intensive nature of the condensed program model. Program participants attended weekly one‐on‐one coaching sessions, monthly group workshops, and retreats to receive cash incentives and remain in the program. For the first six cohorts, attendance at any type of MMF activity and regular communication with the designated life coach throughout the year was sufficient for graduation.

To recruit participants, Freedom Communities advertised the intervention on their website, through schools, via other community agencies and partners, and from personal recommendations or referrals from previous program participants. Cash incentives and stipend amounts were advertised, and participants were told that the program emphasized skill acquisition, sisterhood building, and increased financial knowledge as well as facilitated access to resources. Program activities were typically held in a centrally located building, which was previously a church. This building has an attached daycare facility.

Program implementation

This sample includes the first 100 unmarried mothers who were accepted into and enrolled in one of the first six MMF cohorts. This sample size was chosen to have the requisite power to reveal moderate to large effects in a longitudinal pre‐post intervention within‐participant design. Each of the six cohorts experienced a version of the 12‐month program with a unique cohort‐specific life coach. The specific content of workshops and the workshop leaders varied; however, the skills addressed within the workshops remained stable. The first cohort began in July 2020, with additional cohorts launched every few months. Cohort Six began their year‐long program in June of 2022 and finished MMF in 2023.

The academic‐community, research‐practice, MMF partnership team met bi‐weekly throughout the project. In an iterative process, life coaches, staff, and MMF administrators named the essential indicators of program success and key mechanisms of change (see Figure 1). Research team members then located additional brief but psychometrically sound instruments, beyond the EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency (2016), to assess key constructs. MMF staff and coaches also developed and described the planned workshops and skills that were being targeted across the year. Self‐report questions were then generated to assess the skills targeted via MMF coaching sessions and/or workshops. Although not used in this study's analyses, the research‐practice partnership members also conducted structured, in‐depth individual interviews with program participants after completion of the 12‐month program.

MMF program staff collected all utilized data for these analyses; responses were de‐identified by the program staff prior to sharing with the research component of the partnership as specified in our institution‐approved IRB protocol. Mothers were informed that their data, de‐identified and in aggregate, were being used to understand, evaluate, and improve the program. Mothers were given program time to complete the surveys; however, participants could skip answering any question that they chose to, or they could choose not to participate in the assessments without penalty.

Data collection procedure

Three types of data collection strategies were utilized by the program. First, all mothers accepted into a MMF cohort were asked to complete the pre‐program survey during one of their first in‐person coaching sessions. Surveys were administered using self‐report paper and pencil questionnaires. Twelve months later, all mothers completing the program received essentially the same packet of measures in a post‐program survey. This packet was also administered in person using paper and pencil questionnaires; however, administration often occurred in a group setting. As described below, both pre and post survey packets asked participants to self‐report on their financial health (primary indicator), their holistic health and well‐being (primary indicator), and their perceptions of their current level of skill across MMF program‐specific areas (one potential mechanism of change, see Figure 1). Finally, the post‐MMF packet contained three additional questions to ascertain mothers' perceptions of the feasibility, satisfaction with, and effectiveness of the MMF program.

Second, MMF program staff electronically verified each participating mother's credit scores at least twice (i.e., the start and the end of MMF) to have an external measure of change in economic mobility as well to facilitate targeted coaching sessions. Third, as noted above, all MMF participants had a designated life coach with whom they consulted weekly to facilitate progress toward their personalized goals, to receive support and encouragement, and to address barriers to change. At least twice (MMF start and end), the individualized coaching meeting was used to determine which step of the 2016 EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency® (i.e., five steps for each of five domains, some domains with two indices) most closely described participants' current situation.

MEASURES AND MATERIALS

Holistic outcome measure

The 2016 EMPath bridge to self‐sufficiency measure

The original EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency®, developed and copyrighted by EMPath (2016), is a visual coaching and evaluation tool that has been used previously but has not undergone formal psychometric validation (Anderson et al., 2018; EMPath_Impact_Report_2018, 2018). There are five key domains assessed; each represents a metaphorical pillar on the bridge (i.e., employment and career management; education and training; financial management; family stability; and health and well‐being). Each domain has five steps which represent participants' progress toward achieving each of the five pillars of self‐sufficiency; some domains have two components (i.e., financial management is measured through increased savings and reduced debt). Participant pre‐ and post‐program Bridge® scores on each domain were compared in the current study.

Financial health and economic mobility: Primary indicator

Initially, mothers were asked to self‐report their credit score (Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, 2019). However, it was quickly determined that many participants did not know this information or how to access it. Thus, starting in Cohort Two, coaches worked with MMF participants to complete a soft credit inquiry, so they could collaboratively view mother's credit scores. Coaches utilized a reputable credit report viewing service that allowed score viewing without harming a participant's credit rating. These credit checks were completed twice (pre‐ and post‐MMF). Additionally, MMF participants self‐reported the amount of money they currently owed as well as the amount of money they had in savings at the start and at the end of the MMF program.

Mothers' holistic health: Primary indicator

Anxious and depressive symptoms

The PHQ‐4 is an ultra‐brief screening scale for symptoms of anxiety (2 items) and depression (2 items) (Spitzer et al. 1999). All items are scored from 0 (“not at all”) to 3 (“nearly every day”), with higher scores indicating greater symptom severity (Kroenke et al., 2003). Cut‐off scores for concern have been set at 3 for both the 2‐item depression screener and the 2‐item anxiety screener; however, recent work indicates that a cut score of 2 on these measures may have greater sensitivity (Levis et al., 2020). In the current sample, the reliability coefficient for the PHQ 4‐item measure at first administration (pre‐program) was strong, coefficient α = .85. The coefficient α for these four items at the post‐assessment was also excellent, α = .90.

Overall stress levels

One item was used to assess participants' overall level of stress. The face‐valid item was “When you consider your life right now (health, job, finances, transportation, parenting), how stressed are you?.” Scores on this item could range from 0 to 10, with zero indicating “no stress at all,” 2 = “minimal stress,” 5 = “moderate stress,” 8 = very much stress,” and 10 reflecting “the most stress I've ever felt.” This one‐item measure is a variation of one‐item stress scales that have been used successfully in previous research and have been shown to have convergent validity with longer stress scales (Impact of stress, 2013; Thian et al., 2015). Scores were obtained both pre‐ and post‐MMF participation.

Self‐Esteem

Rosenberg's 10‐ item self‐esteem scale (Rosenberg, 1979) was administered pre‐ and post‐program. Five of the 10 items are reverse‐scored so that higher scores indicate greater self‐esteem. Previous work with this measure indicates that it has good psychometric properties (Robins et al., 2001; Rosenberg, 1979). Similarly, in the current sample, the coefficient alpha for this scale at first administration was good (α = .85); it was also good (α = .86) at the post‐program assessment.

Potential change mechanisms

MMF‐related skills

At the outset of the program, MMF participants rated their skill level on nine domains that were focused on throughout the MMF program (goal setting; budgeting; career readiness; parenting; mental health; resilience; healthy relationships; resolving conflicts; and coparenting). These face‐valid items were co‐created by the researcher‐practice partnership team. Scores could range from 1 (no skill at all) to 10 (extremely skilled). Mothers who completed MMF rated themselves on these same skills at program completion.

Program satisfaction and perceived efficacy

Three program‐related questions were only included in the MMF post‐program evaluation packet. Participants were asked to rate their satisfaction with the program (indifferent/no; mostly/yes; very/yes definitely). Using the same 3‐response scale, they also reported how much the MMF program helped them and whether they would recommend the MMF program to a friend.

Contextual factors

Of note, data collection strategies differed somewhat among cohorts although all data collection occurred as a routine but optional part of program participation. As an example of variation, the MMF cohort coach was responsible for obtaining post‐program survey data from participants in Cohort One. Given the low return rate (n = 1 Cohort One mother completed the post‐survey after completing MMF), a decision was made to collect the post‐data survey in conjunction with a regularly scheduled MMF group meeting for the remaining cohorts. This increased post‐program data collection rates substantially. However, obtaining complete data points (i.e., fully answered pre‐ and post‐program surveys, complete pre‐ and post‐program 2016 EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency® scores) remained a challenge as has been noted in other community‐based feasibility and effectiveness research (e.g., Muzik et al., 2015). Thus, n's vary substantially across analyses.

Statistical analyses

Data were entered into Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 18.0 for analysis. Once the data were cleaned, a series of between‐group (completers vs. non‐completer) analyses were conducted to compare program completers to non‐completers on potential drop‐out factors. These analyses were all conducted with pre‐program data as post‐data were not available for mothers who dropped out of the program. Next, pre‐and post‐scores were compared, using data only from MMF program completers. These analyses were completed via Within Subject ANOVA's with time (pre‐post) as the within‐subject factor. Missing data remained missing; thus, the n's for each analysis vary slightly. IRB approval was obtained for this study from the primary author's institution, and ethical procedures were followed throughout.

RESULTS

Across the first six cohorts, 100 moms were accepted and enrolled into the MMF program. Most of these mothers fully completed the program application, which contained basic demographic and financial information. However, of these initial 100, only 80 moms provided information on the intake questionnaire packet (pre‐program), which assessed demographic information, financial and saving status, mental health status, and self‐esteem, and perceptions of skills. Twenty‐eight of the 100 moms did not complete the year‐long program, yielding an overall MMF program completion rate of 72%. However, full pre‐ and post‐data were obtained on only 74% of the program completers (n = 53 moms).

Participant characteristics

Most participants self‐identified as Black (94%) and relatively young (mean age = 29.5 years with an average of 2.45 children as shown in Table 1). Consistent with eligibility criteria, most participants self‐reported being employed at program onset (86%). However, participants began the program with varying earning rates. For example, yearly earnings ranged from $5000 to $52,000. On average, participants earned $22,713 a year ‐ which is almost $7000 below the federal poverty line for a family of four (Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, 2023).

Table 1.

Self‐reported demographics and initial characteristics of the total sample, as well as a comparison of program completers versus program non‐completers.

Demographic variable	N for this analysis	Sample mean	Program completers, N = 72	Program non‐completers, N = 28	Test value	p
Age in years	50	29.5	30.00	28.15	F = 1.15	.99
# of children	98	2.43	2.31	2.74	F = 1.93	.17
Hourly wage at intake	82	14.44	14.64	12.95	F < 1	.48
Pre credit score	84	559.5	557.9	567.3	F < 1	.57
Pre PHQ2 depression	67	1.85 (0–6)	1.92	1.68	F < 1	.61
Pre PHQ2 anxiety	67	2.78 (0–6)	2.81	2.68	F < 1	.81
Pre stress	59	5.90 (0–10)	6.09	5.38	F < 1	.36
Pre self‐esteem	67	31.61	31.69	31.42	F < 1	.87

Note: N's vary across analyses due to missing data.

Many moms reported having debt. On average, participants who answered this question (n = 44) reported $8990 in debt at program onset. Additionally, 50% of participants indicated that they did not have a savings account at the start of the MMF program. According to self‐report (n = 91 responses), participants averaged $370 in savings at pre‐program data collection (range $0 to $9000.00). This is well underneath the recommended guidelines for US citizens, which suggest saving 10% to 15% of a person's pre‐tax salary (Fidelity, n.d.).

At the outset of the program, the average credit score for MMF women was 559.5 (range 385 to 693). As context, a credit score of 550 is considered deep subprime, according to the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (2019). Likewise, the Fair Isaac Corporation (FICO), a widely used credit scoring method, categorizes credit scores of 579 or lower as poor (The Fair Isaac Corporation, 2025).

Finally, many participants (n = 68) started the program with some level of depression or anxiety. Using a cut‐score of 3 and above on the PHQ‐2 to determine screening positive for depressive symptoms, 26.5% of the sample screened positive for concerning levels of depressive symptoms at the onset of MMF (sample mean = 1.85). Using the same cut score of 3 or higher for anxious symptoms on the PHQ‐2, 48.5% of participants screened positive for concerning symptoms of anxiety (mean = 2.78).

As shown in Table 1, participants also reported significant overall levels of stress. The mean stress score at the onset of the program was 5.9 (n = 59 responses), with a rating of 5 indicating moderate stress. However, the modal response to this question was an 8 (25% of the sample), indicating that many women endorsed feeling “very much” stress. Importantly, a different subgroup (8.5% of respondents) endorsed a 10, which corresponds to the “the most stress I have ever felt.”

Do program completers differ from non‐completers in terms of demographics, financial status indices, or in their self‐reported health?

In this early stage, program completion was defined as continued participation in the program in any fashion up until the 12‐month MMF graduation ceremony; dose of exposure to program content varied. Program completers did not significantly differ from non‐completers on any tested pre‐variable: demographic (age, number of children), economic (hourly wage, starting credit score) or their pre‐MMF health (symptoms of depression, anxiety, stress, self‐esteem).

Do participants enhance their economic position and financial health as would be expected given this is one of the primary indicators of program success (i.e., increasing credit scores, obtaining higher wage jobs, accruing greater savings, and reducing debt)?

As shown in Table 2, mothers participating in MMF experienced significant increases in their credit scores (Mean of 556 pre‐program rising to a Mean of 601 at post‐program), with a moderate effect size, t (1,58) = 28.21, p < .001. Wages also significantly increased on average, also with a moderate effect size, t (1,38) = 10.64, p = .002. At the start of the MMF program, the average wage was $13.98; hourly wages rose to $15.84 at MMF program completion.

Table 2.

Structural changes for program completers from pre to post: using the bridge to Self‐Sufficiency® measures of employment/career, education/career training, financial management, family functioning, and personal health and well‐being.

	Variable	Time 1, M (SD)	Time 2, M (SD)	N	t	p	η 2	Cohen's d
	Credit score	555.8 (59.5)	600.6 (59.9)	59	28.21	<.001	0.33	0.69*
	Hourly Wage	13.98 (2.87)	15.84 (3.93)	39	10.64	.002	0.22	0.52*
EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency@2016
Employment/career	Wages	2.13 (0.67)	2.46 (0.77)	72	14.20	<.001	0.17	0.45
Education	Educate	2.17 (1.02)	2.69 (1.23)	72	26.40	<.001	0.27	0.60*
Finances	Savings	1.79 (0.98)	2.80 (1.19)	71	39.62	<.001	0.36	0.73*
Finances	Debt	2.52 (1.34)	3.47 (1.07)	71	28.05	<.001	0.29	0.62*
Family stability	Family Housing	2.70 (1.57)	3.56 (1.32)	71	15.00	<.001	0.18	0.46
Family stability	Family Stability	3.52 (1.06)	4.06 (1.06)	68	12.63	<.001	0.16	0.43
Personal wellbeing	Physical/mental health	3.41 (1.05)	4.12 (0.92)	68	26.42	<.001	0.28	0.61*
Personal wellbeing	Wellness with network	3.35 (0.98)	4.07 (0.84)	72	33.15	<.001	0.32	0.66*

Note: changes with a moderate effect size are denoted with an *.

Significant economic changes were also documented via the 2016 EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency®. All mobility‐related domains had statistically significant pre‐ to post‐program changes. Effect sizes for these gains ranged from the high end of moderate (for increased savings) to moderate (for reduced debt and increased education/training). Significant but small effects were obtained for gains in wages and obtaining more stable family housing from the start to the end of the MMF program.

Among program completers, do they have greater self‐reported health at the end of the program as compared to pre‐program?

As presented in Table 3, MMF moms rated themselves as having significantly fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety at program completion (F (1,37) = 7.25, p = .011 and F (1,37) = 11.31, p = .002) with small and moderate effect sizes, respectively. They also rated their lives as significantly less stressful (m = 6.33 at time one, falling to m = 4.70 at time two), F (1,32) = 10.81, p = .002. This drop has a moderate effect size. No significant changes in self‐esteem occurred. In fact, the mean self‐esteem rating was non‐significantly higher at program onset (m = 31.26) compared to program completion, indicating a drop in reported self‐esteem across time (m = 29.66), F (1,37) = 2.58, p = .12. Significant psychological and physical health changes were also documented via the 2016 EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency®. Effect sizes for these gains were moderate for both greater physical and mental health.

Table 3.

Self‐reported health and well‐being and perceived skill changes from program start to program completion among program completers with pre and post data.

Variable	Time 1: Program start M (SD)	Time 2: Program completion M (SD)	N	Test value F/t =	p	Partial η 2	Cohen's d
Depressive symptoms PHQ‐2	2.05 (1.71)	1.32 (1.73)	38	7.25	.011	0.16	0.44
Anxiety symptoms PHQ‐2	2.89 (2.08)	1.82 (1.89)	38	11.31	.002	0.23	0.55*
Overall stress level	6.33 (2.57)	4.70 (2.70)	33	10.81	.002	0.25	0.57*
Self‐esteem	31.26 (6.15)	29.66 (6.68)	38	2.58	.12	0.07	0.26
Goal setting skill	6.11 (2.94)	8.23 (1.43)	44	23.85	<.001	0.36	0.88**
Budgeting skill	5.06 (3.02)	6.88 (2.39)	33	7.23	.011	0.18	0.67*
Career readiness skill	6.59 (3.27)	8.15 (1.89)	46	7.51	.009	0.14	0.59*
Parenting skills	8.04 (2.80)	8.71 (1.49)	45	2.47	.123	0.05	0.29
Mental health skills	5.52 (3.23)	7.43 (2.42)	46	9.27	.004	0.17	0.67*
Resilience skills	5.07 (3.02)	7.89 (2.16)	45	22.19	<.001	0.34	1.08**
Healthy relationship skills	5.60 (3.37)	8.23 (1.90)	43	20.93	<.001	0.33	0.96**
Resolving conflict skills	5.65 (3.18)	8.35(2.11)	43	25.72	<.001	0.38	0.99**
Coparenting skill	5.91 (3.62)	6.51(3.54)	41	0.59	.445	0.02	0.17

Note: These analyses were limited to MMF participants with completed pre‐ and post‐survey data. N's vary across analyses due to missing data. Cohen's d effect sizes of 0.2 are considered small, 0.5 are considered moderate, and 0.8 are considered large. Changes with a moderate effect size have one star; large effect sizes have two stars.

^*Changes with a moderate effect size.

^**Changes with large effect sizes.

Among program completers, do they perceive themselves as gaining skills in the areas of program focus as expected as compared to their self‐evaluation at the program onset?

Given that one component of the MMF program is skill‐building and celebrating skill‐based accomplishments, pre‐post changes in perceived skills were identified as potential program change mechanisms. As shown in Table 3, seven of the nine measured skills were rated by the moms as more developed at the end of the program as compared to their self‐ratings at program onset. Moms who finished the program and who completed the post‐survey, indicated that they were significantly more skilled at goal setting, resolving conflicts, exhibiting resilience, and establishing healthy relationships as compared to their own pre‐program ratings (all p's < .001 with large effect sizes). These are key targets of the MMF program. They also perceived themselves as having significantly more skills at managing their mental health, budgeting, and being career‐ready, with moderate effect sizes. No significant changes in perceived skills in parenting or co‐parenting were reported from pre‐ to post‐MMF.

Among program completers, how highly do they rate the program, and would they be willing to refer other mothers from the neighborhood to this experience?

Finally, as shown in Table 4, 50 women rated their satisfaction with and the acceptability of the MMF program at the end of their experience. These participants reported generally being satisfied (72% responded Very or Definitely Satisfied with another 14% endorsing Mostly Satisfied with the program). However, at the conclusion of the program, 14% of the mothers indicated that they were either unsatisfied with or indifferent about their year‐long MMF experience. On a separate question, only one respondent indicated that the program was not helpful; all the remaining participants endorsed a response that the program was mostly, very, or definitely helpful. Importantly, given that this place‐based program functions within a set geographical area, all participants indicated a willingness to recommend this program to others in the community, with 78% choosing a yes/definitely response.

Table 4.

Feasibility: Mom's perceptions of the MMF program at the conclusion of the program.

Variables	Indifferent/no	Mostly/yes	Very/yes definitely	N
How satisfied	7 (14%)	7 (14%)	36 (72%)	50
How much it helped	1 (2%)	19 (38%)	30 (60%)	50
Would you recommend?	0 (0%)	11 (22%)	39 (78%)	50

Note: These questions were only asked on the post‐program survey.

DISCUSSION

Given the documented impact an unmarried mother's personal health and financial security has on the well‐being of her children and the overall family unit (Stack & Meredith, 2017), community‐based programs have been developed to support unmarried mothers and their families through increasing economic mobility and family member well‐being. It is important to gather empirical data documenting program feasibility and acceptability as well as program success in facilitating cross‐generational economic mobility and/or improving children's and/or mother's well‐being (e.g., Homer et al., 2022; Lee & Sun, 2020; Muzik et al., 2015). Furthermore, program developers and implementation scientists have been experimenting with what constitutes best practice, testing the feasibility and effectiveness of programs that vary in core content, targets of change, length, eligibility criteria, modality, and use of cash incentives. A practical reality remains that the resources available for implementation influence program design. In competing‐resource environments, programs need to be efficient, acceptable, and effective (Nathan et al., 2000), ideally impacting multiple domains and facilitating cross‐generational change.

As described in the methods, MMF was modeled after a 5‐year program delivered in Boston, Massachusetts. Due to funding and logistical constraints, Freedom Communities decided to deliver the MMF program in a condensed, but intensive, 12‐month format that was predicated on the Boston program's 5‐year theory of change model. However, a substantial remodeling of the EMPath program was required to deliver MMF in 12 months. Within this time constrained context, it was important to understand if and how the MMF intervention impacted participants. To this end, co‐created programmatic questions were addressed in this initial pragmatic feasibility study (Leask et al., 2019). Results indicate that mothers recruited to participate in MMF generally started the program facing economic and personal difficulties while simultaneously viewing themselves with moderately high levels of self‐esteem and strong parenting skills. For example, their average credit score was 559.5 at baseline, which indicates that many MMF participants struggled with credit‐related issues such as late payments, collections, or high credit utilization rates. Participants also reported a high debt‐to‐savings ratio.

Likewise, many MMF‐enrolled mothers had significant levels of pre‐intervention anxiety and stress; almost half screened positive for concerning symptoms of anxiety, and one‐quarter screened positive for concerning symptoms of depression. However, perceived strengths were also apparent. For example, the mean self‐rating on parenting at the program onset was 8.01 on a scale of 1 to 10. There are multiple ways to interpret these positive self‐assessed parenting skill scores. For example, mothers might generally view their parenting as one of their strengths. Alternatively, due to the early timing of the pretest and the program's focus on moms who are seeking to move forward and flourish, mothers may not yet trust staff enough to disclose parenting vulnerability. Specifically, they might have wanted to assess their parenting highly to counteract fear of potential historical and institutional biases related to child‐rearing or because of fears of being reported to a child protection service (Hayes & Casstevens, 2017). Further work is needed to elucidate these findings.

Next, it is important to note that 72% of mothers who participated in one of the first six cohorts of the year‐long program completed MMF 12 months later. Efforts were made to determine predictors of program completion; however, initial analyses demonstrated no significant differences between program completers and non‐completers in terms of demographics, initial financial status indices, or self‐reported health at program onset. Furthermore, while this rate of program retention is typical for a 12 month community intervention, (e.g., an average rate of completion for parenting programs that varied in duration and modality was 72.8% with a range of 13% to 92%; Moreland & McRae‐Clark, 2018), additional work is needed to determine which women are at risk for dropping out, and when and why drop‐out is most likely to occur. There is also likely to be variation in the quality and extent of participation among these MMF program participants which may be related to both program outcomes and retention. Further study of these variations will be needed to increase intervention effectiveness and efficiency. Moreover, given that MMF is part of a larger place‐based initiative, that is situated in a rapidly gentrifying neighborhood, measurement of place attachment and belonging might be warranted and may provide further insight into sustained program involvement (Christakopoulou et al., 2001).

A strength of this study is that multiple types of data were collected to determine the extent to which program completers advanced along the EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency (2016) while fortifying their financial position (i.e., credit scores, savings, and debt amounts) and personal wellness. Economic change and financial health were identified as primary indicators of program effectiveness as this program grew out of Chetty and Hendren's, (2015) findings of the lack of economic mobility for children born in poverty in Charlotte, NC. Greater maternal well‐being was also targeted for change as maternal health was expected to facilitate program goals as well as increasing parenting effectiveness.

Within‐subject longitudinal analyses indicate that program completers significantly increased their credit scores over time and experienced an increase in their hourly wage. All eight scores on the EMPath Bridge to Self‐Sufficiency (2016) significantly increased across the 12 months, with the largest changes shown for increased savings, decreased debt, improved education and training, achieving a better network of support, and feeling greater personal mental and physical wellness. All effect sizes were moderate in strength, suggesting that these changes were meaningful. Similar changes documented across different measurement strategies also strengthen the validity of these results.

Pre‐post program changes with small effect sizes included better family stability, more secure family housing, and increased job wages. While these results bolster the argument that an intensive 1‐year program can promote wellness across multiple domains (i.e., financial, psychological, social); housing and wages, critical to maintaining long‐term economic stability and generational change, may be more difficult to impact quickly. Nonetheless, while not fully comparable, the original Boston EMPath program reported a mean wage increase of $8,000 per participant after 5 years (EMPath_Impact_Report_2018, 2018). Whereas, at the start of the MMF program, the average wage was $13.98 per hour ($29,078/year). Hourly wages rose to $15.84 ($32,947/year) at MMF program completion. Thus, in 1 year, the MMF program was associated with about 50% of the average wage increases reportedly obtained in the 5‐year program. Of course, it is critical to note that post‐data was only obtained from program completers, who are most likely to have benefited from MMF. Our use of a non‐random pragmatic feasibility study design, which took place within a place‐based community organization, precluded use of a waitlist control or comparison group. Thus, these gains could have been attributed to outside factors or to participant selection or retention biases.

Similarly, direct assessment of mothers' psychological health showed improvement across MMF, with fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety and lower self‐reported stress by the program's end. These findings are critical as mothers experiencing symptoms of depression, anxiety, or high stress, are less likely to parent effectively (Goodman & Garber, 2017); they may also have increased difficulty attaining and sustaining program changes. Importantly, the need for mother‐centered support that fosters wellness, builds connections, and encourages learning and help‐seeking is aligned with other resilience‐enhancing initiatives and trauma‐informed care (Muzik et al., 2013). Helpful community impact programs have been shown to foster safety, and promote anxiety regulation, hopefulness, connection, and self and community efficacy among participants (Hobfoll et al., 2007).

Unexpectedly, MMF program completers did not have higher self‐esteem scores at the program's end. While MMF participants' mean reduction in self‐esteem was not statistically significant, this downward trend raises questions about the degree to which program participation may promote more accurate self‐appraisal or introspection or might reflect increased self‐vulnerability. Future research on the role of self‐esteem versus self‐efficacy in program engagement and outcomes would also be beneficial. Conversely, this unexpected finding increases confidence that observed score changes in the self‐report measures were not solely due to shared method variance or social desirability biases.

Research indicates that an internal locus of control is important for change maintenance (Botha & Dahmann, 2024; Chen & Wang, 2007). As such, greater perception of one's life skills may reflect a key mechanism of change. Consequently, we considered changes in mothers' self‐ratings of key program‐specific skills from pre‐MMF to post‐MMF. Skill changes in four domains were associated with large effect sizes among program completers: increased ability to set goals, greater self‐perceived resilience, better skills to resolve conflicts, and an increased ability to have healthy relationships. Importantly, several of these skills seem to track onto MMF's use of a Life Coach who worked closely with participants to set individualized goals. MMF's individualized goal setting and skill acquisition findings are similar to those reported by the Boston EMPath program, who also highlighted the importance of fostering a personalized relationship between Life Coach/Mentor and participant (EMpath, 2025). Consistent with our results, they noted an 81% increase in Bridge® scores a year into their mobility mentoring approach and a 67% increase in participant's goal setting and achievement rates (EMPath_Impact_Report_2018, 2018). Our results, after 1 year of the MMF mentoring approach, were similarly positive.

These skill‐enhancement effects may also map onto MMF's emphasis on building a cohort‐based sisterhood that encouraged participants to share, trust, and be vulnerable with one another (Ersoff et al., 2022); continued study of the program's sisterhood and social capital effects is necessary. Future research will also be needed to determine if greater belief in one's healthy relationship and conflict negotiation skills translate to the workplace, and to out‐of‐program social environments. This is important to consider as non‐significant improvements in co‐parenting skills were reported by the participants, even though moms rated their mastery of this skill as low at program onset. While this non‐finding is consistent with the lack of direct program emphasis on this relationship, it is also possible that the co‐parenting relationship is one of the most fraught dyads for these mothers, and that conflict in this relationship directly influences economic and emotional well‐being of all family members (Shah et al., 2025). Additional focused attention on this relationship is likely needed to achieve relationship skill generalization in this context. The degree to which a strong co‐parenting relationship is necessary for improved economic mobility, mother and child wellness, and family stability across time also warrants further study.

At the outset, one primary program outcome was economic mobility through greater budget management, savings, and career readiness. In support of program efficacy, significant changes in self‐reported budgeting and career readiness skills were reported by the MMF participants who completed the program, with moderate effect sizes. These skill gains were theorized to underlie the achieved economic outcomes; however, finding ways to objectively demonstrate greater skill competency, in conjunction with changes in beliefs about one's skill level, will be an important next step. Larger sample sizes with the power to test potential change mechanisms in statistical models will also advance the field as will study designs that do not rely on analyses solely based on program completers.

Last, given that MMF is a place‐based initiative that relies on mother‐to‐mother word of mouth for program recruitment, program completers' ratings of the usefulness and helpfulness of MMF were considered to address feasibility, acceptability, and participant satisfaction. Of note, among program completers, satisfaction with the program was substantial. According to previous studies, greater participant satisfaction is a critical predictor of better outcomes, adherence, and engagement with the program intervention (Roldán‐Pardo et al., 2026). For the future, finding ways to obtain program‐related information from those discontinuing participation or who are dissatisfied with MMF, perhaps through an exit interview, will aid program development and sustainability.

Limitations to these findings should be noted. First, MMF was not compared to a placebo condition, nor was there random assignment of participants to conditions. Instead, longitudinal analyses relied on program completers who voluntarily provided data. Moreover, multiple analyses were conducted, raising the possibility of alpha inflation. Replication of these results and use of observable criterion indices will be critical. Second, this program was piloted into an evolving healthcare and political climate. Many challenges to consistent program implementation and routinized data college occurred; they included the following: (1) staff/coach turnover; (2) neighborhood gentrification; (3) ongoing financial instability for many; (4) changing Covid protocols. Finally, care should be utilized when generalizing these findings to other groups, cities, or contexts. For example, the majority of mothers in the first six cohorts self‐identified as Black, yet that was not an explicit program requirement. Black unmarried mother households frequently encounter multiple overlapping barriers not faced by their white unmarried mother counterparts; these include having fewer employment opportunities, lack of access to high‐quality schools, higher poverty gaps, and having to utilize financial services that have been associated with structural racism (Baker & O'Connell, 2022; McLanahan & Percheski, 2008; Reardon, 2016; Smith‐Ruiz et al., 2017). Thus, the degree to which the MMF program operates similarly among mothers who differ in their racial or ethnic identity needs to be determined as the program continues and evolves.

Nonetheless, these initial findings align with the objectives articulated by both Freedom Communities and the City of Charlotte. This intervention was perceived as helpful and user‐friendly. There was initial evidence of change in a broad range of maternal holistic health and financial health outcomes among program completers. Findings support ongoing development of MMF through community‐academic implementation and evaluation research (Campbell, 2024). MMF warrants larger scale study with a more rigorous evaluation design. Furthermore, these initial outcomes, often in the moderate to large effect size range, were obtained through intense investment of time, resources, and energy by both program participants and program staff. Finding ways to determine the spread and sustainability of program‐related changes, as well as determining how to sustain and grow a resource intensive program, will be essential to support the holistic wellness of this vulnerable population who continues to live in an economically disadvantaged but rapidly gentrifying neighborhood.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.