Traditional medicinal bath plants along the Beibu Gulf coast of Guangxi, China

Abstract

Background

Medicinal baths are a widely practiced traditional health maintenance method in southern China, yet systematic ethnobotanical studies from coastal regions remain limited. The Beibu Gulf coastal area of Guangxi is a biologically and culturally diverse region where such practices are actively maintained. This study aims to document the plant species used in traditional medicinal baths and to characterize their composition, usage patterns, and regional variation.

Methods

Ethnobotanical interviews were conducted at 20 sites across Beihai, Qinzhou, and Fangchenggang City, which comprise the Beibu Gulf. A total of 135 informants (62 males and 73 females) were interviewed in medicinal markets and traditional villages. Data on plant species, plant parts used, and medicinal applications were recorded. Quantitative analyses, including Jaccard Index (JI), cumulative contribution analysis, and Gini coefficient, were applied to assess species similarity and usage patterns.

Results

A total of 286 plant species used for medicinal baths were recorded. These plants belong to 92 families and 218 genera. Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Rubiaceae, and Asteraceae were the dominant families, with monotypic genera prevalent. Herbs were the most common life form (99 species, 34.62%). Branches, leaves, and whole plants accounted for 71.66% of use. The main applications of these plants in medicinal bath practices were for traumatic injuries, rheumatic diseases, and skin conditions (58.50%). Species richness was highest in Fangchenggang (249 species), followed by Qinzhou (238) and Beihai (144), with 133 shared species. Higher similarity was observed between Fangchenggang and Qinzhou (JI = 0.72). The top 10, 20, 30, 50, and 100 species contributed 10.24%, 18.16%, 25.10%, 37.47%, and 62.25% of total usage frequency, respectively, with a Gini coefficient of 0.383.

Conclusions

The medicinal bath plant system in the Beibu Gulf coastal region is characterized by high species richness and a balanced structure of commonly used and supplementary species. While a shared core flora exists, local differences among cities in the Beibu Gulf are also evident. This study provides comprehensive ethnobotanical data from southern coastal China and offers a regional case for understanding plant selection and functional convergence in medicinal bath practices.

Introduction

Plants have long been used by humans for diverse livelihood purposes, including their role in traditional healthcare systems. In many regions, plants are integral to practices such as fumigation and medicinal bathing [1–3]. Compared with general external herbal applications, medicinal baths and related steam bath practices are not simply based on the use of a single plant or a single therapeutic purpose. Rather, they represent integrated practices that have developed within specific living environments and health needs, involving plant selection, compatibility, and empirical correspondences between these practices and bodily conditions [2, 3]. Existing studies indicate that such practices are widespread across many regions of the world and are commonly associated with postpartum recovery, rheumatic conditions, skin disorders, and routine health maintenance [4].

Medicinal bath practices have been documented across diverse cultural contexts worldwide. Ethnobotanical studies, particularly from Asia and the Americas, indicate that these practices are typically characterized by well-defined application contexts, relatively stable plant selections, and corresponding usage practices. For example, among the Yao ethnic group in China, 110 plant species have been recorded for medicinal bath use, covering applications such as rheumatism, skin diseases, injuries, and gynecological conditions, reflecting clearly defined therapeutic contexts [2]. In Suriname, van ‘t Klooster et al. documented 349 plant species used in different types of medicinal baths and noted that, despite variation in species composition among communities, these practices exhibit consistent typological and structural characteristics [5]. Studies from French Guiana further show that herbal baths remain widely practiced in contemporary society and are closely associated with local body care and folk medical systems, demonstrating the persistence of these practices across cultural settings [6]. Overall, these findings suggest that medicinal bath plants are not incidental elements within general medicinal plant use, but constitute a distinct category of plant-based practices with independent ethnobotanical significance.

In China, medicinal bathing is also closely related to external therapies in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and local folk medicine. Chinese herbal bath therapy usually involves adding herbal decoctions or extracts to warm water for bathing, soaking, or washing, and has been used as an external treatment for conditions such as pruritus, skin disorders, rheumatic pain, and other chronic discomforts [7–9]. Historical and clinical literature indicates that herbal bath therapy has long been used in China and remains a commonly reported complementary external therapy in contemporary TCM practice [7–9].

In southern China, medicinal baths have long been a common daily health practice, often associated with specific seasonal festivals. According to our fieldwork over the past two years, the Hakka people of Fujian still practice bathing in water boiled with mugwort (Artemisia argyi) during the Dragon Boat Festival. Meanwhile, existing folk customs indicate that some areas in Guangdong commonly use water boiled with mugwort, calamus (Acorus calamus), and peach tree (Prunus persica) branches and leaves for bathing during the Dragon Boat Festival to ward off evil spirits and impurities, while also providing practical skin-care benefits. However, compared to this widespread folk practice, ethnobotanical case studies of medicinal bath plants in China remain relatively limited. Currently reported cases are mainly concentrated in areas inhabited by ethnic minorities, such as the Yao people in southern China [2, 10].

The Beibu Gulf coastal region of Guangxi is located in southern China and mainly includes Beihai, Qinzhou, and Fangchenggang [11]. Located in the southern coastal area of the country, this region has a warm and humid climate and relatively abundant plant resources, providing a natural foundation for the diverse plant utilization practices of the local community [11]. Existing research indicates that the Beibu Gulf coastal area and its surrounding regions preserve a relatively rich knowledge of traditional plant utilization. For example, ethnobotanical surveys of communities surrounding the Fangcheng Golden Camellia National Nature Reserve have recorded numerous medicinal plants and related utilization experiences, demonstrating that this coastal region still retains a relatively complete system of local medicinal plant knowledge [12]. Furthermore, previous research on traditional edible and medicinal plants in the Beibu Gulf region has also revealed that the utilization of local plants is not only reflected in the selection of specific species and their uses, but is also deeply embedded in daily diet, physical conditioning, and local cultural practice [13]. In addition to the use of plants, research on medicinal uses of marine animals among the Jing ethnic group further illustrates that traditional medicine knowledge in the Beibu Gulf region has distinct local characteristics and high research value [14]. However, despite some existing research on medicinal plants and their local uses in Guangxi, systematic ethnobotanical studies on traditional bathing plants in the Beibu Gulf coastal region remain relatively insufficient, and this study therefore conducted a systematic ethnobotanical investigation in the Beibu Gulf coastal region.

Based on this background, this study focuses on traditional medicinal bath plants along the Beibu Gulf coast of Guangxi. The objectives were to document the plant taxa and associated local knowledge used in medicinal bathing, analyze their taxonomic composition, resource sources, plant parts used, perceived functions, use-frequency patterns, and conservation status, and examine similarities and differences in plant composition among Fangchenggang, Qinzhou, and Beihai. By further comparing these findings with existing records of medicinal bath plants from other regions of China, this study seeks to provide a regional case for understanding how medicinal bath practices are shaped by local plant resources, everyday health needs, and different ecological and cultural settings.

Methods

Study area

Fieldwork was conducted in Fangchenggang, Qinzhou, and Beihai, three prefecture-level administrative cities located in the Beibu Gulf coastal region of Guangxi, China, where elevation is generally near sea level (Fig. 1). The specific study sites are listed in Table 1. The area lies in the southern subtropical coastal zone, with coastal wetlands, mangroves, agricultural landscapes, and villages, exhibiting significant characteristics of a coastal-agrarian composite ecosystem [15]. Among these, the mangroves along the Beibu Gulf coast are an important component of the regional ecosystem [15]. The populations of Fangchenggang, Qinzhou, and Beihai are approximately 1.03 million, 4.20 million, and 1.85 million, respectively [16–18]. Han people form the majority population in the study area, while Zhuang, Yao, Jing, and other ethnic groups are also present, with differences among the three cities. Fangchenggang has a relatively diverse ethnic composition, Qinzhou includes mainly Han, Zhuang, and Yao communities, and Beihai is predominantly Han [16–18]. These areas are predominantly Chinese-speaking, with Yue and Hakka as the main language varieties; in minority communities, Zhuang, Yao, and Jing languages are also spoken. The religious landscape of the region is constituted by institutionalized religions which include Buddhism, Taoism, and Catholicism, and a diverse folk belief, such as maritime folk beliefs centered on Mazu (Goddess of the Sea), General Fubo, and the Jing people’s sea gods are particularly prominent, widely distributed in coastal fishing villages and Jing communities, reflecting a cultural identity rooted in maritime livelihoods [19].

Fig. 1.

Map of study area

Table 1.

Specific study sites in the Beibu Gulf

City	Specific location	Longitude (°E)	Latitude (°N)	Site type
Fangchenggang	Roadside stalls near Guomao Market, Dongxing City	107.967238	21.547501	Periodic herbal market
	Wutou Village, Jiangping Town, Dongxing City	108.1330415	21.53821842	Traditional village
	Jinhai Market, Gangkou District	108.345484	21.632727	Fixed herbal market
	Nawan Village, Fangcheng District	108.199679	21.773459	Traditional village
	Binjiang Market, Fangcheng District	108.351282	21.763605	Fixed herbal market
	Nasuo Market, Fangcheng District	108.11351	21.720474	Periodic herbal market
	Mingjiang Market, Shangsi County	107.9810751	22.14674419	Weekend herbal market
	Nanping Yao Township, Shangsi County	107.7199482	21.9165626	Periodic herbal market
Qinzhou	Dasha Village, Wuli Town, Lingshan County	109.2452221	22.2168153	Traditional village
	Xiaonanmen Street, Lingshan County	109.300645	22.41994524	Fixed herbal market
	Dafa Market, Pubei County	109.5568233	22.26888323	Periodic herbal market
	Dasi Town Market, Qinbei District	108.446903	22.134146	Periodic herbal market
	Hongfa Market, Qinbei District	108.627073	21.979503	Fixed herbal market
	Shayuan Market, Qinnan District	108.615711	21.952539	Fixed herbal market
	Tunnan Village, Qinnan District	108.509431	21.973335	Traditional village
Beihai	Gongguan Town Market, Hepu County	109.604201	21.792896	Periodic herbal market
	Near Huanzhu Square, Hepu County	109.189242	21.672275	Periodic herbal market
	Shankou Village, Hepu County	109.730587	21.609158	Traditional village
	Zhendong Village, Hepu County	108.970685	21.632098	Traditional village
	Nanzhu Market, Haicheng District	109.123496	21.482643	Fixed herbal market

Site type refers to the survey setting, including fixed herbal markets, periodic herbal markets, weekend herbal markets, and traditional villages

Ethnobotanical data collection

This study was conducted from January 2023 to December 2025. Fieldwork was carried out by the research team at the survey sites, with assistance from local guides. Before the surveys, the research objectives, data collection content, and intended use of the data were clearly explained to all respondents. This study was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Guangxi Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmaceutical Science. Interviews and sample recording were conducted only after obtaining oral informed consent from the respondents. During the surveys, the wishes of respondents were respected, and information involving personal privacy or deemed unsuitable for public disclosure was not recorded or reported. All data collection, processing, and use followed the general ethical principles of ethnobotanical research as outlined by the International Society of Ethnobiology [20]. A combination of semi-structured interviews, key informant interviews, market surveys, and participant observation was employed [21]. Respondents mainly included medicinal herb dealers, collectors of medicinal bath plants, local knowledge holders, and residents with long-term experience in their use [10]. Key informants were selected based on their familiarity with local medicinal bath plants and related practices, including medicinal herb dealers, collectors of medicinal bath plants, local knowledge holders, and residents with long-term experience in medicinal bath use. The interviews were then further expanded through on-site referrals and a snowball sampling approach. The interviews primarily focused on documenting local names, uses, plant parts used, preparation methods, compatibility, resource sources, and usage experiences of medicinal bath plants [10]. In general, the recorded medicinal bath plants were prepared by boiling fresh or dried plant materials in water, and the resulting decoction was used for external bathing, washing, or soaking. Market surveys recorded the commercial forms of plant materials, sales practices, and sellers’ instructions on usage. For species with complex information or inconsistent responses, data were cross-checked through repeated verification across different survey sites to improve reliability.

Furthermore, participant observation was used to document the handling and use of medicinal bath plants in real-life contexts, including the procurement of materials, processing of fresh or dried products, preparation of compound formulations, and usage scenarios. This approach helped to better interpret experiential knowledge described by respondents during interviews.

In total, 135 individuals were interviewed in the study area (62 males and 73 females). Among them, 55 were key informants, while the remaining 80 were general respondents selected through snowball sampling from markets and villages. The ages of respondents ranged from 21 to 82 years.

Plant collection and identification

During the investigation, medicinal plants mentioned by respondents and for which physical samples could be obtained were collected or photographed. For plant materials sold in the market, voucher specimens were collected with the consent of the vendors. For species where living plants could be found in the wild or around villages, on-site collection was conducted based on respondents’ identification. During collection, information such as habitat, resource source, and utilization status was recorded as much as possible. Collected samples were processed into voucher specimens or preserved as investigation materials, and identified based on morphological characteristics, relevant floras, and taxonomic literature. The voucher specimens were deposited in the Herbarium of the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine (GXMI).

Data analysis

To describe the distribution pattern of the frequency of use of traditional medicinal bath plants among different species in the Beibu Gulf coastal area of Guangxi, this study added a cumulative contribution analysis to the conventional frequency statistics. All medicinal bath plants were sorted from highest to lowest frequency of use, and the cumulative frequency and its proportion of the total frequency for each ranking position were calculated. Based on this, a cumulative contribution curve was plotted. This analysis draws on the basic idea of the Lorenz curve to determine whether the frequency of use is relatively evenly distributed among different species or relatively concentrated in a few high-frequency species; the greater the deviation of the curve from the uniform line, the more uneven the distribution [22–24]. The total number of medicinal bath plant species is denoted as n. After all species were arranged in descending order of use frequency, f_i represents the use frequency of the i-th species, where i = 1, 2,…, n. The ranked use frequencies are expressed as follows:

Total frequency

The cumulative frequency of the first k species is

Cumulative contribution rate

In these formulas, F represents the total use frequency of all recorded species, k represents the number of top-ranked species included in the cumulative calculation; C_k represents the cumulative frequency of the first k species; and P_k represents the cumulative contribution rate of the first k species.

Building upon this, the Gini coefficient is further calculated to quantify the uneven distribution of usage frequency across different species. The Gini coefficient is a commonly used general indicator of distribution concentration; its value typically ranges between 0 and 1. A value closer to 0 indicates a more even distribution, while a value closer to 1 indicates a more concentrated distribution [22–24].

Furthermore, to compare the similarity of traditional medicinal bath plant compositions in different coastal areas of the Beibu Gulf in Guangxi, this study calculated pairwise Jaccard similarity coefficients between regions based on the lists of medicinal bath plants for each region, and then created similarity heatmaps to demonstrate the degree of similarity in the composition of medicinal bath plants in different regions [25, 26].

Let a and b be the number of medicinal plant species recorded in the two regions, respectively, and let c be the number of common species. Then the formula for calculating the Jaccard similarity coefficient is:

The value of J remains between 0 and 1, with higher values indicating more similar plant composition between two regions [25, 26]. Ailment categories targeted by medicinal bath practices were classified into eleven groups, with minor modifications based on the local context [27]. This classification was used to calculate the number of plant species used in each category.

The conservation status of the recorded plant species was assessed using the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (https://www.iucnredlist.org/). In addition, a conservation priority framework was developed for 20 vulnerable species and one near-threatened species. A threat score was constructed following [28], with modifications, based on seven variables, including habitat type, distribution range, life form, ailment categories, plant parts used, IUCN conservation status, and relative frequency of citation. The conservation threat index was calculated using the R program [29].

Results

Taxonomic composition of medicinal bath plants

A total of 286 species of traditional medicinal bath plants, belonging to 92 families and 218 genera, as well as their related knowledge, were recorded in the Beibu Gulf coastal area of Guangxi (Table 2). The taxonomic distribution is presented in Table 3. At the family level, Fabaceae contained the highest number of species (21 species), followed by Lamiaceae and Rubiaceae (17 species each), while Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae included 16 and 10 species, respectively. At the genus level, Ardisia had the highest species richness (6 species), followed by Clerodendrum (5 species), while Heptapleurum, Melastoma, and Syzygium each comprised 4 species.

Table 2.

Inventory of plants used in traditional medicinal bath along the Beibu Gulf coast of Guangxi

Scientific name	Local name	Family name	Resource type	Life form	Part used	Medicinal purpose	IUCN	F	FC	QZ	BH	Voucher no.
Acorus calamus var. angustatus Besser	Shi suan	Acoraceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; relaxing tendons and activating collaterals; fatigue relief; common cold	LC	60	*	*	*	YY240119069
Acronychia pedunculata Miq.	Shan you gan	Rutaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Common cold; dampness removal	LC	54	*	*	*	HRC210907055
Adenia cardiophylla Engl.	San kai piao	Passifloraceae	Wild	Liana	Root bark, foliage	Relaxing tendons and activating collaterals; fatigue relief	LC	6	*	–	–	YY231208025
Adina pilulifera (Lam.) Franch. ex Drake	Shui tuan hua	Rubiaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Sedative	LC	57	*	*	*	YY231209073
Aeschynanthus acuminatus Wall. ex A. DC.	–	Gesneriaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Lower back pain; foot pain	LC	21	*	*	–	YY250810013
Agave sisalana Perrine	Jian ma	Asparagaceae	Cultivated	Herb	Leaves	Pediatric measles	–	7	*	–	–	HRC210907085
Alchornea trewioides (Benth.) Müll. Arg.	Lv ye shan ma gan	Euphorbiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Dampness removal; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; anti-itching; fatigue relief; anti-inflammatory; common cold; redness-related conditions; dust allergy	LC	50	*	*	*	YY250325011
Alocasia cucullata (Lour.) G.Don	Lao hu yu	Araceae	Cultivated or wild	Herb	Stem	Severe cold	–	20	*	*	*	YY240119074
Alocasia odora (G.Lodd.) Spach	Di shui guan yin	Araceae	Wild	Herb	Stem	Typhonium flowers; dispelling wind and removing dampness	LC	31	*	*	*	YY240122015
Alsophila gigantea Wall.	Long gu feng	Cyatheaceae	Wild	Herb	Stem	Joint pain; rheumatism	LC	7	*	*	–	YY231209066
Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br.	Mian pen jia	Apocynaceae	Cultivated	Tree	Foliage	Common cold; dampness removal	–	3	*	–	–	HRC210907063
Amygdalus persica L.	Tao	Rosaceae	Cultivated	Tree	Stem	Sedative; fever	–	49	*	*	*	YY240531012
Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze	Tu fang feng	Lamiaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Dispelling negative conditions; common cold; sedative; anti-itching; heat rash	LC	62	*	*	*	HRC210906007
Aporosa octandra (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) Vickery	Yin chai	Phyllanthaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; anti-itching; fatigue relief; common cold	LC	65	*	*	*	YY231209015
Aralia elata (Miq.) Seem.	Ying bu zhan	Araliaceae	Wild	Tree	Whole plant	Fever	LC	6	*	–	–	YY240910018
Archidendron clypearia (Jack) I. C. Nielsen	Xi tou mu	Fabaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Hair darkening	LC	68	*	*	*	YY240118038
Ardisia crenata Sims	Da luo san	Primulaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Traumatic injuries; pharyngitis	LC	62	*	*	*	YY250325013
Ardisia hanceana Mez	Luo san shu	Primulaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Sprains; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis	LC	43	*	*	–	YY240910006
Ardisia hypargyrea C. Y. Wu & C. Chen	Xiao luo san	Primulaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant, leaves	Rheumatic bone pain; traumatic injuries	LC	19	*	–	–	YY240119044
Ardisia polysticta Miq.	Niu zi guo	Primulaceae	Wild	Shrub	Root, leaves	Traumatic injuries; rheumatic bone pain	LC	26	*	*	–	YY231209038
Ardisia thyrsiflora D. Don	Xiao luo san	Primulaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Stroke; numbness of limbs	LC	38	*	*	–	YY231209098
Ardisia villosa (Thunb.) Mez	Tie luo san	Primulaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; traumatic injuries	LC	7	*	–	–	YY240908021
Artemisia argyi H. Lév. & Vaniot	Ai cao	Asteraceae	Cultivated or wild	Herb	Foliage	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; relaxing tendons and activating collaterals; fatigue relief; common cold	–	62	*	*	–	YY240911006
Artemisia indica Willd.	Ai cao	Asteraceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Dampness removal; anti-itching; common cold	LC	131	*	*	*	YY240909029
Artemisia lactiflora Wall. ex DC.	Ya jiao cai	Asteraceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Pediatric internal heat	LC	53	*	*	*	YY250630011
Arundo donax L.	Guo jiang long	Poaceae	Wild	Herb	Rhizome	Pain relief; reducing swelling	LC	48	*	*	–	YY231209082
Asplenium antrophyoides Christ	Da e fu dou	Aspleniaceae	Wild	Herb	Leaves, whole plant	Pediatric malnutrition	LC	7	*	–	–	YY231209031
Asplenium wrightii D. C. Eaton ex Hook.	Tian dong hu dao	Aspleniaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Pediatric malnutrition	LC	3	*	–	–	YY240121055
Averrhoa carambola L.	Yang tao ye	Oxalidaceae	Cultivated	Tree	Foliage	Anti-itching; anti-inflammatory	–	19	–	*	–	YY241118009
Axonopus compressus (Sw.) P. Beauv.	Gou ya cao	Poaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Pediatric wind-cold	LC	26	*	*	*	YY240121010
Baeckea frutescens L.	Gang song	Myrtaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Sedative; common cold and fever; gynecological conditions; dampness removal; dust allergy	LC	83	*	*	*	YY240119005
Biancaea sappan (L.) Tod.	Su mu	Fabaceae	Cultivated	Tree	Stem	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis	–	53	*	*	*	YY250630006
Bidens alba DC.	Gui zhen cao	Asteraceae	Wild	Herb	Root	Heat-clearing and detoxification	LC	38	*	*	*	HRC210906006
Bischofia javanica Blume	Qiu feng guo	Phyllanthaceae	Cultivated or wild	Tree	Fruit	Promoting qi circulation and relieving pain; heat-clearing and detoxification; postpartum recovery	–	29	*	*	–	YY250630003
Bischofia polycarpa (H. Lév.) Airy Shaw	Chong yang mu	Phyllanthaceae	Cultivated or wild	Tree	Foliage	Fatigue relief; muscle soreness; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; dispelling rheumatism; headache; postpartum recovery	–	17	–	*	–	HRC210907044
Blastus cochinchinensis Lour.	Shan dou luo	Melastomataceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Anti-itching; sedative; sedative	LC	16	*	*	–	YY240121049
Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC.	Ai na xiang	Asteraceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Dispelling wind and removing dampness; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; fatigue relief; muscle soreness; headache; common cold; fatigue relief; postpartum recovery	LC	73	*	*	*	YY240119003
Blumea megacephala (Randeria) C. C. Chang & Y. Q. Tseng	Jiu li ming	Asteraceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage	Pustules; blisters	LC	77	*	*	*	YY240119010
Blumea riparia DC.	Dong feng cao	Asteraceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage	Pediatric jaundice	LC	60	*	*	*	HRC210907068
Boehmeria penduliflora Wedd. ex D. G. Long	Da san mai	Urticaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Knife wounds	LC	6	*	–	–	YY240121030
Breynia fruticosa (L.) Müll. Arg.	Gui hua fu	Phyllanthaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Traumatic sprains; gynecological conditions	LC	31	*	*	–	YY240531002
Buchozia japonica (Thunb.) Callm.	Shui jin shu	Rubiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Root	Pain relief; fatigue relief	LC	52	*	*	–	YY250630001
Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth	Mu dong	Fabaceae	Cultivated	Shrub	Whole plant	Pediatric chickenpox	–	60	*	*	*	YY250810016
Callerya cinerea (Benth.) Schot	Gei xue teng	Fabaceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis	LC	23	–	*	–	YY240122020
Callicarpa kwangtungensis Chun	Jiang feng cha	Lamiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Pediatric fever; pediatric jaundice; sedative	LC	16	–	*	–	YY240910031
Calophyllum membranaceum Gardner & Champ.	Wan nian xiao	Calophyllaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Traumatic sprains	VU	38	*	*	–	YY240121040
Camellia drupifera Lour.	Da guo you cha	Theaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Dampness removal; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; relaxing tendons and activating collaterals; fatigue relief; common cold; runny nose	LC	51	*	*	–	YY240121006
Camellia oleifera C. Abel	You cha ye	Theaceae	Cultivated	Tree	Leaves	Anti-itching; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; common cold; heat-clearing and detoxification	–	86	*	*	*	YY250810021
Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze	Cha	Theaceae	Cultivated	Shrub	Foliage	Dampness removal; dust allergy	–	48	*	*	*	YY240911030
Cassytha filiformis L.	Wuniang teng	Lauraceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Heat-clearing and detoxification; jaundice; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; anti-itching; fatigue relief; common cold	LC	42	*	*	*	YY240121011
Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng.	Ye shi liu	Rubiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Gynecological conditions	LC	15	*	–	–	YY240531020
Celtis biondii Pamp.	Zi dan shu	Cannabaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Jaundice	LC	6	–	*	–	YY241118006
Centipeda minima (L.) A. Braun & Asch.	E ba shi cao	Asteraceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Anti-inflammatory; measles	LC	15	–	–	*	YY250630010
Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B. L. Burtt & A. W. Hill	Suan zao ren	Anacardiaceae	Cultivated	Tree	Inner bark	Burns	–	5	–	*	–	YY250630008
Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. Rob.	Fei ji cao	Asteraceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Wind-cold common cold; dampness removal	LC	31	*	*	*	YY240121016
Chrysanthemum indicum L.	Ju hua	Asteraceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Heat-clearing and detoxification	LC	70	*	*	*	YY250701008
Cinnamomum parthenoxylon (Jack) Meisn.	Zhang shu	Lauraceae	Wild	Tree	Inner bark	Detoxification of snake venom	LC	30	*	*	–	YY240908003
Cissus hexangularis Thorel ex Planch.	Da luo shu	Vitaceae	Wild	Liana	Root	Dispelling wind and removing dampness; traumatic injuries	LC	62	*	*	*	YY240910040
Cissus repens Lam.	Si fang teng	Vitaceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage	Stroke; numbness of limbs	LC	18	*	*	–	YY241118010
Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr.	You zi	Rutaceae	Cultivated	Tree	Foliage	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; anti-itching; fatigue relief; common cold	–	78	*	*	*	HRC210907020
Citrus maxima ‘Tomentosa’	Ju hong	Rutaceae	Cultivated	Tree	Foliage	Dispelling wind and removing dampness	–	30	–	*	–	YY241118008
Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook.f.	Chi ye huang pi	Rutaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Traumatic injuries; jaundice	VU	26	*	*	–	YY240118005
Clausena lansium (Lour.) Skeels	Huang pi	Rutaceae	Cultivated	Tree	Foliage	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; anti-itching; fatigue relief; sedative; fever; dispelling wind and removing dampness	–	75	*	*	*	HRC210907021
Cleidion brevipetiolatum Pax & K. Hoffm.	Hu li luan	Euphorbiaceae	Wild	Tree	Root	Rheumatism; anti-itching	LC	42	*	*	–	YY240118027
Clerodendrum bungei Steud.	Chou mao dan	Lamiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Anti-itching; rheumatic bone pain; spot and scar removal	LC	52	*	*	*	YY240118004
Clerodendrum cyrtophyllum Turcz.	Lu bian qing	Lamiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Dispelling wind and removing dampness; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; anti-itching; fatigue relief; common cold and fever; dust allergy	LC	106	*	*	*	YY231208026
Clerodendrum fortunatum L.	Gui deng long	Lamiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Heat-clearing and detoxification	LC	52	–	*	*	YY250325009
Clerodendrum japonicum (Thunb.) Sweet	Bai ri hong	Lamiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage, flowers	Heat-clearing and detoxification	LC	20	–	*	–	YY241118014
Clerodendrum mandarinorum Diels	Zou ma feng	Verbenaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Numbness and pain in hands	LC	25	*	*	*	YY241118003
Corchoropsis crenata Siebold & Zucc.	Tian ma	Malvaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Measles	LC	6	–	*	–	YY250325004
Corchorus capsularis L.	Huang ma	Malvaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Pediatric measles	LC	8	*	–	–	HRC210907084
Cratoxylum cochinchinense (Lour.) Blume	Huang niu mu	Hypericaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Jaundice	LC	26	*	*	*	HRC210907012
Crinum asiaticum var. sinicum (Roxb. ex Herb.) Baker	Du suan lan	Amaryllidaceae	Cultivated	Herb	Whole plant	Reducing swelling and relieving pain; bone-setting; edema	–	12	*	–	*	YY231209076
Crotalaria pallida Aiton	Jia hua sheng	Fabaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Heat-clearing and detoxification in children	LC	42	*	*	–	YY250325005
Croton tiglium L.	Ba dou	Euphorbiaceae	Wild	Tree	Root	Dispelling wind and removing dampness	LC	35	*	*	*	YY240118045
Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook.	Sha mu	Cupressaceae	Cultivated	Tree	Foliage	Jaundice; sedative; dampness removal; common cold	–	83	*	*	*	YY240121003
Curcuma longa L.	Huang jiang	Zingiberaceae	Cultivated or wild	Herb	Rhizome	Traumatic injuries; reducing swelling and relieving pain	–	53	*	*	*	YY240122008
Cuscuta chinensis Lam.	Tu si zi	Convolvulaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Pediatric jaundice	LC	59	*	*	*	YY250701006
Cuscuta japonica Choisy	Wu gen teng	Convolvulaceae	Wild	Herb	Vine	Traumatic injuries; bone-setting; sprains	LC	50	*	*	*	YY231208041
Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf	Xiang mao	Poaceae	Cultivated	Herb	Whole plant	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; relaxing tendons and activating collaterals; fatigue relief; pediatric common cold	–	62	*	*	*	YY231209071
Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk.	Shui wu gong	Cyperaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Traumatic injuries	LC	32	*	*	–	YY240121034
Daphniphyllum calycinum Benth.	Niu er feng	Daphniphyllaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Dispelling rheumatism; postpartum recovery	LC	87	*	*	*	YY231209028
Decalobanthus boisianus (Gagnep.) A. R. Simões & Staples	Wu gen teng	Convolvulaceae	Wild	Herb	Vine	Traumatic injuries; bone-setting; sprains	LC	18	*	–	–	YY231208041
Decaneuropsis cumingiana (Benth.) H. Rob. & Skvarla	Guo shan long	Asteraceae	Wild	Liana	Root, foliage	Rheumatic bone pain; rheumatism; burns; skin diseases; reducing swelling	LC	16	*	–	–	YY250630002
Decaspermum gracilentum (Hance) Merr. & L. M. Perry	Song bai mu	Myrtaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Fatigue relief	LC	43	*	*	–	YY240118022
Dendrolobium triangulare (Retz.) Schindl.	Jia mu dou	Fabaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Body itching; fatigue relief	LC	62	*	*	*	HRC210906011
Derris fordii Oliv.	Tie teng	Fabaceae	Wild	Shrub	Root	Traumatic injuries; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis	VU	8	*	–	–	YY240118013
Derris trifoliata Lour.	Yu teng	Fabaceae	Wild	Shrub	Stem	Rheumatism; traumatic injuries	LC	23	*	*	–	YY240118041
Desmos chinensis Lour.	Ji zhua feng	Annonaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Traumatic injuries; rheumatic bone pain; promoting circulation and activating collaterals	LC	78	*	*	*	YY240119014
Dicliptera chinensis (L.) Juss.	Jia liang fen	Acanthaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Heat-clearing; pain relief; anti-inflammatory; pediatric jaundice	LC	36	*	*	*	YY240121018
Dicliptera tinctoria (Nees) Kostel.	Da bo gu	Acanthaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Pediatric jaundice	LC	16	*	*	*	HRC210907069
Dicranopteris pedata (Houtt.) Nakaike	Lang ji	Gleichniaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Skin allergy	LC	7	–	*	–	YY240910022
Dimetia hedyotidea (DC.) T. C. Hsu	Mao ji shi teng	Rubiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Rheumatic bone pain	LC	46	*	*	*	YY231209007
Dimocarpus longan Lour.	Long an	Sapindaceae	Cultivated	Tree	Foliage	Common cold; dampness removal	–	36	*	*	–	HRC210907052
Dioscorea pentaphylla L.	Wu jia pi	Dioscoreaceae	Wild	Liana	Root, leaves	Rheumatic bone pain; traumatic injuries; bone-setting	LC	20	*	*	–	YY240119038
Dischidia chinensis Champ. ex Benth.	Shan shu bie	Apocynaceae	Wild	Liana	Whole plant	Anti-itching; herpes zoster	LC	13	*	–	–	HRC210906003
Dracaena reflexa Lam.	Bai zhu yao	Asparagaceae	Cultivated	Herb	Leaves	Syphilis	–	3	*	–	–	YY240120026
Drynaria coronans J. Sm.	Da gu sui bu	Polypodiaceae	Wild	Herb	Tuber	Rheumatic bone pain; tinea	LC	20	*	*	–	YY250630007
Drynaria roosii Nakaike	Hou zi xie	Polypodiaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Hemostasis; promoting blood circulation	LC	55	*	*	*	YY240120013
Ehretia acuminata R. Br.	Hou ke shu	Boraginaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Fatigue relief; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis	DD	6	–	*	–	YY240909003
Elephantopus scaber L.	Cao xie gen	Asteraceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Sedative; fever	LC	62	*	*	*	YY240531007
Engelhardia roxburghiana Lindl.	Huang gu mu	Juglandaceae	Wild	Tree	Leaves	Anti-itching	LC	35	*	*	*	YY240118036
Entada phaseoloides (L.) Merr.	Guo jiang long	Fabaceae	Wild	Liana	Stem	Rheumatism	VU	42	*	*	*	YY231209056
Epipremnum aureum (Linden & André) G. S. Bunting	Ya jiao teng	Araceae	Cultivated or wild	Liana	Whole plant	Rheumatic bone pain	–	3	*	–	–	YY231209030
Eriocaulon buergerianum Körn.	Gu jing cao	Eriocaulaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Eye conditions	LC	39	*	*	*	YY240119022
Erycibe obtusifolia Benth.	Ding gong teng	Convolvulaceae	Wild	Liana	Whole plant	Rheumatism; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; paralysis	VU	28	*	*	–	YY231209096
Eucalyptus robusta Sm.	An shu	Myrtaceae	Cultivated	Tree	Foliage	Common cold; fatigue relief; promoting blood circulation; dampness removal; dust allergy	–	72	*	*	*	YY240911038
Eupatorium fortunei Turcz.	Shi lan cai	Asteraceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Rheumatic bone pain; traumatic injuries	LC	31	*	*	–	YY240119072
Euphorbia hirta L.	Da fei yang	Euphorbiaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Dampness removal; dust allergy	LC	15	*	*	–	YY240911035
Exallage auricularia (L.) Bremek.	Er cao	Rubiaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Pediatric jaundice	LC	22	*	*	*	HRC210907072
Ficus abelii Miq.	Shui rong shu	Moraceae	Wild	Shrub	Leaves	Sedative	LC	25	*	*	–	YY240908040
Ficus hispida L. f.	Niu nai shu	Moraceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Dispelling wind and removing dampness	LC	18	–	*	–	YY240601003
Fissistigma chloroneurum (Hand.-Mazz.) Tsiang	Gua fu mu	Annonaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Rheumatic bone pain	LC	22	*	*	–	YY240121019
Fissistigma glaucescens (Hance) Merr.	Chuan yang feng	Annonaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Rheumatic bone pain	LC	13	*	–	–	YY240121019
Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Kuntze ex Merr.	Qianjinba	Fabaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Rheumatism; tonic use; sedative	LC	21	*	*	*	YY240118031
Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle	Yu yan shu	Phyllanthaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Anti-itching; reducing swelling and relieving pain	LC	36	*	*	*	YY231209039
Gardenia jasminoides J.Ellis	Huang zhi zi	Rubiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Anti-itching; heat-clearing and detoxification	LC	19	–	*	–	YY240120008
Gladiolus × gandavensis Van Houtte	Xiang pu	Iridaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; dampness removal; anti-itching; fatigue relief; common cold	LC	7	–	*	–	HRC210907026
Glechoma longituba (Nakai) Kuprian.	Huo xue dan	Lamiaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Reducing swelling and relieving pain; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis	LC	62	*	*	*	YY250701002
Glochidion eriocarpum Champ. ex Benth.	Mao qi gong	Phyllanthaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant, leaves	Anti-itching; sedative; dust allergy; dampness removal	LC	90	*	*	*	YY240119050
Gnetum montanum Markgr.	Hong teng	Gnetaceae	Wild	Liana	Stem, foliage	Rheumatic bone pain; measles; sedative	LC	23	*	*	–	YY240119055
Gnetum parvifolium (Warb.) W. C. Cheng	Mai ma teng	Gnetaceae	Wild	Liana	Stem, foliage	Rheumatic bone pain; measles; sedative	LC	52	*	*	*	YY240119055
Grona heterocarpos var. strigosa (Meeuwen) H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi	Jia hua sheng	Fabaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Dampness removal; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; anti-itching; fatigue relief	LC	6	–	*	–	YY240910021
Grona styracifolia (Osbeck) H. Ohashi & K. Ohashi	Ma lou qian	Fabaceae	Cultivated or wild	Herb	Foliage	Pediatric jaundice	–	22	*	*	–	HRC210907074
Gymnosphaera denticulata (Baker) Copel.	Suo luo	Cyatheaceae	Wild	Herb	Stem	Traumatic injuries; dampness removal	LC	3	*	*	–	YY250630004
Gynura japonica (Thunb.) Juel	Shi lan cai	Asteraceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Traumatic injuries	LC	12	–	*	–	YY231208058
Heliciopsis lobata (Merr.) Sleumer	Dong zhang feng	Proteaceae	Wild	Tree	Root, leaves	Rheumatic bone pain; traumatic injuries; postpartum recovery	LC	19	*	–	–	YY240119031
Helicteres glabriuscula Wall. ex Mast.	Shan zhi ma	Malvaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Heat-clearing and detoxification; dampness removal; anti-itching	LC	42	*	*	*	YY250810015
Heptapleurum arboricola Hayata	Qi ye feng	Araliaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Rheumatic bone pain; dust allergy	LC	44	*	*	–	YY231209035
Heptapleurum ellipticum (Blume) Seem.	Dong zhang feng	Araliaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Postpartum dampness removal	LC	8	*	–	–	YY231209061
Heptapleurum heptaphyllum (L.) Y. F. Deng	Ya jiao mu	Araliaceae	Wild	Tree	Leaves, stem, root	Rheumatic bone pain; traumatic injuries; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; fatigue relief; common cold; fever	LC	66	*	*	*	HRC210907005
Heptapleurum pesavis (R. Vig.) Y. F. Deng	E zhang chai	Araliaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Rheumatism; measles	DD	21	*	*	–	YY240121029
Homalomena occulta (Lour.) Schott	Bao zhen	Araceae	Wild	Herb	Stem	Bone pain	LC	17	*	–	–	YY231209084
Houttuynia cordata Thunb.	Yu xing cao	Saururaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Sedative	LC	70	*	*	*	YY240531016
Hoya fusca Wall.	Niu ban jin	Apocynaceae	Wild	Shrub	Leaves	Traumatic injuries; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis	LC	19	*	*	–	YY240119081
Hoya pottsii Traill	Tie cao xie	Apocynaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Common cold; dampness removal	VU	16	*	–	–	HRC210907065
Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam.	Man tian xing	Apiaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Heat-clearing and detoxification	LC	8	–	–	*	YY250701003
Hypericum japonicum Thunb.	Tian ji huang	Hypericaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Pediatric jaundice	LC	43	*	*	*	HRC210907073
Ilex hainanensis Merr.	Hai nan dong qing	Aquifoliaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; anti-itching; fatigue relief	LC	30	*	*	*	YY231208036
Ilex rotunda Thunb.	Jiu bi ying	Aquifoliaceae	Cultivated or wild	Tree	Foliage	Common cold; runny nose	–	70	*	*	*	YY240909031
Illigera aromatica S. Z. Huang & S. L. Mo	Qing teng	Hernandiaceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage	Dampness removal; dust allergy	NT	26	*	*	–	YY240911036
Illigera rhodantha Hance	Gou zhi teng	Hernandiaceae	Wild	Liana	Stem	Dispelling rheumatism	VU	20	*	–	–	YY240118034
Impatiens clavigera Hook.f.	Chui feng san	Balsaminaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Rheumatism	LC	8	*	–	–	YY231209070
Iris domestica (L.) Goldblatt & Mabb.	Jian dao cao	Iridaceae	Cultivated or wild	Herb	Foliage	Sedative	–	8	–	*	–	YY250325007
Ixonanthes reticulata Jack	Hong mu	Ixonanthaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Fatigue relief; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; relaxing tendons and activating collaterals; dispelling wind and removing dampness	VU	3	*	–	–	YY241118005
Ixora henryi H. Lév.	Hei gou gu	Rubiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Fatigue relief; rheumatism	LC	39	*	*	*	YY240118026
Jasminum pedunculatum Gagnep.	Bai su xin	Oleaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Anti-itching	LC	46	*	*	*	YY250325008
Jatropha curcas L.	Ma feng shu	Euphorbiaceae	Cultivated	Shrub	Foliage	Traumatic injuries	–	16	–	–	*	YY250325014
Juncus effusus L.	Deng xin cao	Juncaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Sedative	LC	45	*	*	*	YY240121014
Justicia adhatoda L.	Da bo gu	Acanthaceae	Cultivated or wild	Shrub	Foliage	Rheumatic bone pain; traumatic injuries; sprains	–	40	*	–	*	YY240122019
Justicia gendarussa Burm. f.	Bo gu cao	Acanthaceae	Cultivated	Herb	Leaves	Dampness removal; traumatic injuries	–	38	*	*	–	YY240120002
Justicia ventricosa Wall. ex Nees	Da bo gu	Acanthaceae	Cultivated or wild	Herb	Foliage	Traumatic sprains	–	28	*	–	–	YY250325002
Kadsura coccinea (Lem.) A. C. Sm.	Fan tuan	Schisandraceae	Wild	Liana	Root, leaves	Traumatic injuries	VU	52	*	*	*	YY231208015
Lantana camara L.	Wu se hua	Verbenaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Dampness removal; anti-itching; dust allergy	LC	73	*	*	*	HRC210907042
Leonurus japonicus Houtt.	Yi mu cao	Lamiaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Blood pressure reduction	LC	97	*	*	*	YY240122016
Liquidambar chinensis Champ. ex Benth.	Jia ban bian feng	Altingiaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; dispelling wind and removing dampness; fatigue relief	VU	16	*	*	–	YY240119030
Liquidambar chingii (F.P.Metcalf) Ickert-Bond & J. Wen	Ban bian feng	Altingiaceae	Wild	Tree	Whole plant	Dispelling wind and removing dampness; rheumatic bone pain; postpartum recovery	VU	46	*	*	–	YY240910007
Liquidambar formosana Hance	Mei feng	Altingiaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Dispelling wind and removing dampness; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; fatigue relief; muscle soreness; headache; postpartum recovery	LC	118	*	*	*	YY240119006
Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers.	Shan chang zi	Lauraceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; dispelling rheumatism; common cold and fever; fatigue relief; postpartum recovery; muscle soreness; headache	LC	60	*	*	*	HRC210907004
Lonicera confusa DC.	Shan yin hua	Caprifoliaceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage	Fatigue relief; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; dampness removal; dust allergy	VU	47	*	*	*	YY240909002
Lonicera hypoglauca Miq.	Jin yin hua	Caprifoliaceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage	Heat-clearing and detoxification; heat rash in children	LC	55	*	*	*	YY240119056
Lonicera macrantha Spreng.	Jin yin hua	Caprifoliaceae	Wild	Liana	Whole plant	Heat-clearing and detoxification; dispelling rheumatism	VU	30	*	*	–	YY250810019
Lophatherum gracile Brongn.	Dan zhu ye	Poaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; anti-itching; fatigue relief; sedative; common cold and fever; cough	LC	51	*	*	*	HRC210907024
Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H. Hara	Cao long	Onagraceae	Wild	Herb	Root	Common cold; dampness removal	LC	71	*	*	*	HRC210907060
Luffa aegyptiaca Mill.	Shui gua	Cucurbitaceae	Cultivated	Liana	Fruit pulp	Anti-itching	–	50	*	*	*	YY240121007
Lycopodiastrum casuarinoides (Spring) Holub ex R. D. Dixit	Ma wei jin jin cao	Lycopodiaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Improving blood circulation; paralysis; relaxing tendons and activating collaterals	LC	36	*	*	*	YY250701005
Lycopodium sp.	Shi song	Lycopodiaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Common cold	VU	9	*	–	–	YY240911013
Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw.	Hai jin sha	Lygodiaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Common cold and fever; inflammation; sedative	LC	33	*	*	–	YY240121002
Lygodium japonicum (Thunb.) Sw.	Hai jin sha	Lygodiaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; anti-itching; fatigue relief	LC	112	*	*	*	HRC210907017
Lygodium microphyllum (Cav.) R. Br.	Xiao ye hai jin sha	Lygodiaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Anti-itching; heat-clearing and detoxification	LC	60	*	*	*	YY250701007
Lythrum salicaria L.	Shui liu	Lythraceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Anti-itching	LC	26	–	*	*	YY250325003
Macaranga indica Wight	Fan bao shu	Euphorbiaceae	Wild	Tree	Root	Rheumatism	LC	8	*	–	–	YY240118019
Maclura tricuspidata Carrière	Chuan po shi	Moraceae	Wild	Shrub	Root, stem	Rheumatic bone pain	LC	29	*	*	–	YY240118023
Maesa acuminatissima Merr.	Mi zhen guo	Primulaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Dampness removal	LC	25	*	*	–	YY240119004
Maesa japonica (Thunb.) Moritzi ex Zoll.	Qing qi	Primulaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Knife wounds; inflammation	LC	10	–	*	–	YY240119008
Maesa montana A. DC.	Guan yin cha	Primulaceae	Wild	Shrub	Leaves	Wound inflammation; rheumatism	LC	42	*	*	*	YY240908006
Mallotus apelta (Lour.) Müll. Arg.	Bai bei ye	Euphorbiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Rheumatism	LC	36	*	*	*	YY231209014
Mallotus paniculatus Müll. Arg.	Bai bei tong	Euphorbiaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Dampness removal; anti-itching	LC	27	*	*	*	YY231208011
Melastoma dodecandrum Lour.	Di nian zi	Melastomataceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Dampness removal; anti-itching; dust allergy; common cold and fever; pediatric wind-cold; sedative	LC	68	*	*	*	YY231209027
Melastoma malabathricum subsp. malabathricum	Mao ye mu dan	Melastomataceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Pediatric common cold	LC	62	*	*	*	YY231209018
Melastoma malabathricum subsp. normale (D.Don) Karst. Mey.	Ye mu dan	Melastomataceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Hemostasis	LC	42	*	*	*	YY250325012
Melastoma sanguineum Sims	Mao ye mu dan	Melastomataceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Pediatric common cold	LC	36	*	*	*	YY231209017
Melia azedarach L.	Ku lian	Meliaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Anti-itching	LC	46	*	*	*	YY241118004
Melicope pteleifolia (Champ. ex Benth.) T. G. Hartley	San cha hu	Rutaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Reducing swelling and relieving pain; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; anti-itching; fatigue relief; influenza prevention	LC	108	*	*	*	YY231209003
Melocalamus arrectus T. P. Yi	Teng zhu	Poaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Fatigue relief; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; dispelling negative conditions; dispelling wind; common cold; runny nose	VU	28	*	–	–	YY240909009
Microcos paniculata L.	Gua bu shu	Malvaceae	Wild	Tree	Bark	Anti-itching; dampness removal	LC	48	*	*	*	YY231209025
Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze	Jiu li ming	Asteraceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Gynecological conditions	LC	43	*	*	*	YY240531025
Micromelum integerrimum (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & Arn. ex M. Roem.	Bai mu, bai gou chang	Rutaceae	Wild	Tree	Stem	Dampness removal	LC	26	*	*	*	YY240118033
Microsorum cuspidatum (D. Don) Tagawa	She qing	Polypodiaceae	Wild	Herb	Horizontal stem	Rheumatism	LC	21	*	*	–	YY240908054
Mimosa pudica L.	Han xiu cao	Fabaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Anti-inflammatory; anti-itching	LC	48	*	*	*	YY250701001
Mirabilis jalapa L.	Yan zhi gen	Nyctaginaceae	Cultivated or wild	Herb	Whole plant	Pediatric internal heat	–	5	–	*	–	YY250701009
Mussaenda pubescens Dryand.	Xiao liang teng	Rubiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Leaves	Boils and sores; common cold	LC	82	*	*	*	YY231208005
Naravelia pilulifera Hance	Lao hu xu	Ranunculaceae	Wild	Liana	Whole plant	Dispelling rheumatism	LC	8	*	–	–	YY240908018
Nephelaphyllum tenuiflorum Blume	Guo shan feng	Orchidaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Rheumatism	VU	2	*	–	–	YY231209048
Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C. Presl	Shi huang pi	Nephrolepidaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Pediatric malnutrition; common cold	LC	10	*	–	–	YY240120017
Nerium oleander L.	Jia zhu tao	Apocynaceae	Cultivated	Shrub	Whole plant	Rheumatic bone pain; traumatic injuries	–	17	–	*	–	YY250810012
Oldenlandia platystipula (Merr.) Chun	Shan jiu cai	Rubiaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Dispelling wind and removing dampness; neonatal skin infection	LC	6	*	–	–	YY240601001
Ophiopogon platyphyllus Merr. & Chun	Shan jiu cai	Asparagaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Reducing swelling and relieving pain	LC	4	*	–	–	YY240118017
Oryza sativa L.	Shui dao	Poaceae	Cultivated	Herb	Whole plant	Pediatric internal heat; pediatric jaundice	–	19	–	*	*	YY250701010
Osbeckia opipara C. Y. Wu & C. Chen	Jin xiang cao	Melastomataceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; rheumatic bone pain	LC	30	*	*	–	YY250810011
Ouret sanguinolenta (L.) Kuntze	Tu tou cao	Amaranthaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; dampness removal; anti-itching; fatigue relief	LC	60	*	*	*	HRC210907033
Paederia foetida L.	Gei shi teng	Rubiaceae	Wild	Liana	Leaves	Gynecological conditions; heat-clearing and detoxification; rheumatic bone pain	LC	76	*	*	*	YY250810022
Palhinhaea cernua (L.) Vasc. & Franco	Niu dong xi	Lycopodiaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; dispelling wind and removing dampness; dispelling negative conditions; sedative; wind-cold; anti-itching; fatigue relief	LC	102	*	*	*	YY240119029
Pandanus austrosinensis T. L. Wu	Lu dou cao	Pandanaceae	Wild	Tree	Fruit	Dampness removal; hemorrhoids; cerebral infarction	LC	39	*	*	*	YY240120020
Parthenocissus dalzielii Gagnep.	Di jin	Vitaceae	Wild	Liana	Whole plant	Migratory viral infection	LC	9	*	*	–	YY231209074
Pentaphragma spicatum Merr.	Xue cai	Pentaphragmataceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Rheumatic bone pain; traumatic injuries; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis	DD	7	*	–	–	YY240121048
Pericampylus glaucus (Lam.) Merr.	Xi yuan teng	Menispermaceae	Wild	Liana	Whole plant	Relaxing tendons and activating collaterals; sedative	LC	51	*	*	*	YY250810020
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton	Zi si	Lamiaceae	Cultivated	Herb	Foliage	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; relaxing tendons and activating collaterals; fatigue relief; common cold	–	63	*	*	*	YY240121031
Persicaria chinensis (L.) H. Gross	Hong lan cao	Polygonaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Detoxification; anti-itching	LC	76	*	*	*	YY231209016
Phanera apertilobata (Merr. & F. P. Metcalf) K. W. Jiang	Xiao zhong yang ti jia	Fabaceae	Wild	Liana	Stem	Rheumatic bone pain; measles; wound inflammation	LC	17	*	–	–	YY240118032
Phanera championii Benth.	Xiao zhong yang ti jia	Fabaceae	Wild	Liana	Stem	Rheumatic bone pain	LC	48	*	*	*	YY240118032
Phanera ornata var. kerrii (Gagnep.) Bandyop., Ghoshal & M. K. Pathak	Hei yang ti jia	Fabaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Rheumatism; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; skin diseases; anti-itching	LC	5	–	*	–	YY240118014
Phyllanthus emblica L.	You gan zi	Phyllanthaceae	Wild	Tree	Leaves	Sedative; fever	LC	19	*	*	–	YY240531011
Phyllanthus urinaria L.	Ye xia zhu	Phyllanthaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Common cold	LC	30	*	*	*	YY240121023
Phyllanthus virgatus G. Forst.	Bai bei jing	Phyllanthaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Pediatric malnutrition	LC	26	*	*	–	YY250630009
Phyllodium elegans (Lour.) Desv.	Mao pai qian shu	Fabaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Diuretic; anti-itching; traumatic injuries; rheumatic bone pain	LC	46	*	*	*	YY250810014
Physalis angulata L.	Ku cai	Solanaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Dampness removal; anti-itching	LC	43	*	*	*	HRC210907038
Pinus massoniana Lamb.	Ma wei song	Pinaceae	Cultivated or wild	Tree	Leaves	Relieving heat rash; anti-itching; pain relief; dampness removal	–	86	*	*	*	YY240120031
Piper semiimmersum C. DC.	Zhong feng tou	Piperaceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage	Joint swelling and pain; traumatic injuries; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis	LC	15	*	*	–	YY231209065
Pittosporum glabratum Lindl.	Shan la jiao	Pittosporaceae	Wild	Shrub	Stem, root	Rheumatism	VU	28	–	*	–	YY240118048
Platycladus orientalis (L.) Franco	Bai zhi	Cupressaceae	Cultivated	Tree	Foliage	Antiparasitic; anti-itching	–	42	*	*	*	YY241118007
Pleioblastus amarus (Keng) Keng f.	Ku zhu	Poaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Common cold and fever; dampness removal	LC	25	*	*	–	HRC210907013
Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth.	Guang huo xiang	Lamiaceae	Cultivated or wild	Herb	Whole plant	Pediatric jaundice	–	46	–	*	*	YY250810010
Polygonum perfoliatum L.	Huo tan mu	Polygonaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Detoxification of snake venom; anti-itching; relieving heat rash; dampness removal; dust allergy	LC	85	*	*	*	YY250630014
Polygonum senticosum (Meisn.) Franch. & Sav.	Ci liao	Polygonaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Anti-itching	LC	10	–	*	*	YY250630012
Potentilla discolor Bunge	Fan bai cao	Rosaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Heat-clearing and detoxification; hemostasis	LC	31	*	*	–	YY250630013
Pothos chinensis (Raf.) Merr.	Tie wu gong	Araceae	Wild	Liana	Whole plant	Rheumatism; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis	LC	26	*	*	–	YY240908053
Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn.	Wu shui ge	Urticaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Pediatric fever; measles	LC	16	*	*	–	YY240531001
Premna fulva Craib	Zhan gu	Lamiaceae	Wild	Tree	Stem	Bone necrosis; gout; edema; anti-itching	LC	22	*	*	–	YY250630005
Premna puberula var. bodinieri (H. Lév.) C. Y. Wu & S. Y. Pao	Zhong feng tou	Lamiaceae	Wild	Tree	Whole plant	Edema	LC	16	–	*	–	YY240119067
Psychotria asiatica L.	Dao gu gang	Rubiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Root	Dampness removal; anti-itching; pain relief; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; fatigue relief; common cold and fever; urticaria	LC	89	*	*	*	YY231209001
Psychotria serpens L.	Pai si bie	Rubiaceae	Wild	Liana	Whole plant	Promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; rheumatic bone pain; herpes zoster; anti-itching; boils	LC	68	*	*	*	YY240908008
Pteris semipinnata L.	Ban bian qi	Pteridaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Jaundice	LC	30	*	*	*	YY240120012
Pterospermum truncatolobatum Gagnep.	Bai gui feng	Malvaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Rheumatism; measles	LC	17	*	*	–	YY240121026
Radermachera hainanensis Merr.	Cao dou shu	Bignoniaceae	Wild	Tree	Bark	Weak constitution in children; dampness removal	LC	13	–	*	–	YY240118006
Reynoutria japonica Houtt.	Hu zhang	Polygonaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Dampness removal; dust allergy	LC	62	*	*	*	YY240909023
Rhaphidophora decursiva (Roxb.) Schott	Xue liang san	Araceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage, stem	Rheumatic bone pain	LC	29	*	*	–	YY231209072
Rhaphidophora hongkongensis Schott	Shan wu gong, wu gong teng	Araceae	Wild	Liana	Whole plant	Rheumatism	LC	36	*	*	–	YY231208012
Rhus chinensis Mill.	Yan feng bao	Anacardiaceae	Wild	Tree	Whole plant	Excessive sweating; night sweating; dampness removal	LC	72	*	*	–	YY250810017
Rhus chinensis var. roxburghii (DC.) Rehder	Yan feng bao	Anacardiaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Dispelling wind and removing dampness; fatigue relief; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; common cold; runny nose	LC	120	*	*	*	YY241118002
Ricinus communis L.	Bi ma	Euphorbiaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Dispelling wind and removing dampness	LC	72	*	*	*	YY240119061
Rubus parvifolius L.	San dian jin	Rosaceae	Wild	Shrub	Root	Gynecological conditions	LC	44	*	*	–	YY231209022
Rubus rosifolius Sm.	San yue pao	Rosaceae	Wild	Shrub	Root	Pediatric malnutrition; conjunctivitis	LC	25	*	*	–	YY240121043
Sarcandra glabra (Thunb.) Nakai	Jiu jie cha	Chloranthaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Joint pain; rheumatic pain; relaxing tendons and activating collaterals; bone-setting	LC	70	*	*	*	YY231209086
Securidaca inappendiculata Hassk.	Diu le bang	Polygalaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Fatigue relief; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis	LC	9	*	*	–	YY240909008
Selaginella doederleinii Hieron.	Shi shang bai	Selaginellaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Dampness removal; anti-inflammatory	LC	35	*	*	*	YY250701004
Senecio scandens Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don	Gou li guang	Asteraceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Clearing liver and improving vision; anti-inflammatory; conjunctivitis; cataract; dampness removal; dust allergy	LC	95	*	*	*	YY240909022
Setaria palmifolia (J. Koenig) Stapf	Gou wei ba cao	Poaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Sedative	LC	8	*	–	–	YY250325006
Sonerila cantonensis Stapf	Feng dou cao	Melastomataceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Dispelling wind and removing dampness	LC	10	*	–	–	YY240601002
Spatholobus suberectus Dunn	Ji xue teng	Fabaceae	Wild	Liana	Twigs, stem	Rheumatic bone pain	VU	67	*	*	*	YY240122002
Staphylea japonica (Thunb.) Mabb.	Ye ya chun	Staphyleaceae	Wild	Tree	Leaves, foliage	Reducing swelling; anti-itching	LC	33	*	*	–	YY231209040
Stephania longa Lour.	Fen qi zhu	Menispermaceae	Wild	Liana	Whole plant	Pain relief	LC	62	*	*	*	YY240119012
Streptocaulon juventas (Lour.) Merr.	Nai po gen	Apocynaceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage	Dispelling rheumatism; skin care	LC	40	*	*	*	YY241118013
Strophanthus divaricatus (Lour.) Hook. & Arn.	Yang jiao niu	Apocynaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Traumatic injuries; hand, foot and mouth disease; syphilis; eczema	LC	45	*	*	*	YY240119018
Symplocos paniculata (Thunb.) Miq.	Sui mi zi shu	Symplocaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Anti-itching; hernia	LC	39	*	*	*	YY231209023
Syzygium championii (Benth.) Merr. & L. M. Perry	Jiu pa mu	Myrtaceae	Wild	Tree	Leaves	Rheumatism	LC	6	–	*	–	YY240908044
Syzygium hancei Merr. & L. M. Perry	Huo tan mu	Myrtaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Anti-itching; headache	LC	7	*	–	–	YY231209037
Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston	Shui fan tao	Myrtaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Dispelling wind and removing dampness	LC	9	–	*	–	YY240120028
Syzygium nervosum DC.	Shui rong shu	Myrtaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Athlete’s foot; tinea pedis	LC	25	*	*	–	YY240911009
Tadehagi triquetrum (L.) H. Ohashi	Hu lu cha	Fabaceae	Wild	Shrub	Root, foliage	Dampness removal; anti-itching	LC	32	*	*	*	YY240908002
Tarenna depauperata Hutch.	Mu ben yi dian hong	Rubiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Root	Rheumatic bone pain; traumatic injuries	LC	16	*	–	–	YY240118037
Taxillus chinensis (DC.) Danser	Jiu jie sang ji sheng	Loranthaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Traumatic injuries; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis	LC	13	*	*	–	YY231209002
Tetracera sarmentosa (L.) Vahl	Cu ye teng	Dichapetalaceae	Wild	Liana	Whole plant	Detoxification; dry skin	LC	15	*	–	–	YY231209099
Tetrastigma planicaule (Hook. f.) Gagnep.	Bian dan teng	Vitaceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage	Dispelling wind; relaxing tendons and activating collaterals	LC	61	*	*	*	YY231209100
Ticanto sinensis (Hemsl.) R.Clark & Gagnon	Ji zui le	Fabaceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage	Ulcerative conditions	LC	15	–	*	–	YY241118011
Tinomiscium petiolare Miers ex Hook. f. & Thomson	Da shui teng	Menispermaceae	Wild	Liana	Whole plant	Inducing sweating; common cold	LC	7	*	–	–	YY240118039
Trachelospermum jasminoides (Lindl.) Lem.	Luo shi	Apocynaceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage	Relaxing tendons and activating collaterals	LC	50	*	*	*	YY241118012
Trema cannabina var. dielsiana (Hand.-Mazz.) C. J. Chen	Shan ma	Cannabaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Measles	LC	12	*	*	–	HRC210907082
Trema tomentosa (Roxb.) H. Hara	Ma mu	Cannabaceae	Wild	Tree	Stem, leaves	Measles	LC	18	*	*	*	YY240119068
Triadica sebifera (L.) Small	Wu gou mu	Euphorbiaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Antiparasitic; anti-itching; gynecological conditions	LC	84	*	*	*	YY240531022
Uncaria hirsuta Havil.	Gou teng	Rubiaceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage	Dampness removal; postpartum recovery; relieving heat rash; chronic urticaria	LC	23	*	*	–	YY231209104
Uncaria rhynchophylla (Miq.) Miq.	Gou teng	Rubiaceae	Wild	Liana	Whole plant	Dispelling wind; common cold; postpartum recovery	LC	45	*	*	*	YY250810018
Uncaria sinensis (Oliv.) Havil.	Gou teng	Rubiaceae	Wild	Liana	Foliage	Fatigue relief; muscle soreness; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; dispelling rheumatism; headache; postpartum recovery	LC	31	*	*	–	HRC210907046
Urceola micrantha (Wall. ex G. Don) D. J. Middleton	Chui feng san	Apocynaceae	Wild	Shrub	Stem	Rheumatism	LC	62	*	*	*	YY240118046
Urena lobata L.	Di tao hua	Malvaceae	Wild	Herb	Foliage	Anti-itching	LC	65	*	*	*	YY250325001
Ventilago leiocarpa Benth.	Qing teng	Rhamnaceae	Wild	Shrub	Whole plant	Stroke; paralysis; heat-clearing and detoxification; common cold	VU	6	*	–	–	YY240118009
Verbena officinalis L.	Ma bian cao	Verbenaceae	Wild	Herb	Whole plant	Gynecological conditions	LC	72	*	*	*	YY240531013
Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek	Lv dou	Fabaceae	Cultivated	Herb	Whole plant	Chickenpox	–	17	–	*	*	YY240121005
Vitex negundo L.	Wu zhi feng	Lamiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Blood pressure reduction; dampness removal; heat-clearing and detoxification; fatigue relief; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; common cold	LC	116	*	*	*	YY240121012
Vitex negundo var. cannabifolia	Mu geng	Lamiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Fatigue relief; muscle soreness; promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis; dispelling rheumatism; headache	LC	25	*	*	–	HRC210907048
Vitex quinata (Lour.) F. N. Williams	Wu zhi feng	Lamiaceae	Wild	Tree	Leaves	Inducing sweating; stopping sweating	LC	32	*	*	–	YY240119053
Volkameria inermis L.	Hai chang shan	Lamiaceae	Wild	Shrub	Foliage	Boils and sores	LC	18	–	*	–	YY250325010
Wendlandia uvariifolia Hance	Shui jin shu	Rubiaceae	Wild	Tree	Foliage	Dampness removal; anti-itching; common cold	LC	28	*	*	–	HRC210907034
Wikstroemia indica (L.) C. A. Mey.	Guan yin ma	Thymelaeaceae	Wild	Shrub	Twigs	Rheumatic bone pain; hand, foot and mouth disease	LC	52	*	*	*	YY240122004
Zanthoxylum avicennae (Lam.) DC.	Ha dang mu	Rutaceae	Wild	Tree	Root	Rheumatic bone pain	LC	43	*	*	–	YY231208003
Zanthoxylum nitidum (Roxb.) DC.	Liang mian zhen	Rutaceae	Wild	Shrub	Root	Analgesic	VU	59	*	*	*	YY240910034

The inventory is arranged alphabetically by scientific name. Botanical names were checked according to Plants of the World Online (POWO). “*” denotes recorded occurrence in the survey; “–” denotes absence of records. F, frequency; FC, Fangchenggang; QZ, Qinzhou; BH, Beihai. Conservation status follows IUCN categories: LC, Least Concern; NT, Near Threatened; VU, Vulnerable; DD, Data Deficient

Table 3.

Taxonomic structure of medicinal bath plants recorded

Classification level	Category	Number of taxa	Number of species	Percentage
Family	Multiple families (≥ 5 species)	16	161	56.3
	oligospecific families (2–4 species)	27	76	26.57
	Monotypic families (1 species)	49	49	17.13
	Total	92	286	100
Genus	Multiple genera (≥ 5 species)	2	11	3.85
	oligospecific genera (2–4 species)	41	100	34.97
	Monotypic genera (1 species)	175	175	61.19
Classification level	Total	218	286	100

Further analysis of taxonomic structure showed a clear pattern at both family and genus levels. At the family level, 16 families contained ≥ 5 species, accounting for 161 species (56.30%) of the total; 27 families included 2–4 species, representing 76 species (26.57%); and 49 families were represented by a single species, accounting for 49 species (17.13%). At the genus level, only 2 genera contained ≥ 5 species, comprising 11 species (3.85%); 41 genera included 2–4 species, representing 100 species (34.97%); and 175 genera were represented by a single species, accounting for 175 species (61.19%). Overall, medicinal bath plants in the Beibu Gulf coastal region exhibit a certain degree of concentration at the family level, while showing a relatively dispersed pattern at the genus level.

Life forms and conservation status

The traditional medicinal bath plants recorded are predominantly herbaceous, with 99 species (34.62%), followed by shrubs 76 (26.57%), trees 68 species (23.78%), and vines 43 species (15.03%).

Traditional medicinal bath plants in the Beibu Gulf coastal area of Guangxi are mainly wild resources, 246 (86.01%), with only 26 cultivated species (9.09%) and semidomesticated 14 (4.9%) of the total species recorded. This distribution indicates a clear predominance of wild-sourced plants within the recorded medicinal bath plants.

Parts of plants used in medicinal bath

The plant parts used in medicinal baths were dominated by foliage, accounting for 124 species (40.39%), followed by whole plants (96 species, 31.27%) (Fig. 2). Stems, including running stems, tubers, and rhizomes, were used in 27 species (8.80%), while leaves and roots were recorded in 24 (7.82%) and 23 species (7.49%), respectively. Other plant parts, including bark (inner and outer), root bark, pulp, flowers, fruits, vines, and branches, were less frequently used, accounting for 13 species (4.23%). These results indicate that medicinal bath practices in the study area predominantly rely on aerial plant parts, particularly foliage and whole plants.

Fig. 2.

Plant parts used in medicinal baths

Ailment categories treated by medicinal bath plants

The therapeutic uses of traditional medicinal bath plants in the Beibu Gulf coastal region of Guangxi are relatively concentrated, primarily involving injuries from falls and blows, rheumatic conditions, and skin diseases (Table 4). These three categories were reported 140, 133, and 109 times, respectively, accounting for 58.50% of the total frequency and forming the core of local medicinal bath practices. Sedative-related uses and treatments for the common cold were also frequently mentioned, with 79 and 63 occurrences, accounting for 12.10% and 9.65%, respectively. In contrast, categories such as pediatric conditions, gynecological problems, heat-clearing, inflammation, and vascular conditions were reported less frequently.

Table 4.

Ailment categories targeted by medicinal bath practices

Ailment categories	Frequency	Relative frequency (%)
Trauma and injury	140	21.44
Rheumatic conditions	133	20.37
Skin disease	109	16.69
Sedative-related uses	79	12.1
Common cold	63	9.65
Pediatric conditions	32	4.9
Gynecological conditions	20	3.06
Heat-clearing	19	2.91
Inflammatory conditions	17	2.6
Vascular conditions	7	1.07
Others	34	5.21

This distribution indicates that medicinal bath practices in the region are primarily oriented toward musculoskeletal discomfort, rheumatic symptoms, and skin-related conditions, reflecting their close relevance to common health concerns in daily life. In practice, the use of medicinal bath plants typically involves combinations of multiple species rather than reliance on single plants, with respondents emphasizing that different plants contribute distinct properties, aromas, and perceived effects. Formulations are also adjusted according to user groups, with differences observed between adults and children in terms of strength, dosage, and ingredient selection, and between men and women in relation to physical condition and common health concerns.

For example, in local bathing formulas commonly used to relieve fatigue and promote blood circulation, men often used plants such as Aporosa octandra, Psychotria asiatica, Clausena lansium, Ilex hainanensis, Lygodium japonicum, and Microcos paniculata, whereas women more frequently used Blumea balsamifera, Uncaria sinensis, Vitex negundo var. cannabifolia, Liquidambar formosana, Litsea cubeba, and Bischofia polycarpa. Although these gender-related formulations differed markedly in plant composition, they were locally perceived to serve similar functions, such as relieving fatigue, improving circulation, and alleviating bodily discomfort. These patterns suggest that local medicinal bath practices have developed flexible compatibility strategies tailored to different users and contexts through long-term use.

Cross-regional comparison of medicinal bath plants

A total of 133 medicinal bath plant species were shared across the three cities, including Fangchenggang, Qinzhou, and Beihai. The highest number of species was recorded in Fangchenggang (249 species), followed by Qinzhou (238 species) and Beihai (144 species). Pairwise comparison of species composition based on the Jaccard Index (JI) showed the highest similarity between Fangchenggang and Qinzhou (JI = 0.721), followed by Qinzhou and Beihai (JI = 0.572), while the lowest similarity was observed between Fangchenggang and Beihai (JI = 0.523) (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.

Jaccard similarity of medicinal bath plant species among Fangchenggang, Qinzhou, and Beihai

Frequency distribution and core species of medicinal bath plants

Cumulative contribution analysis showed that the use frequency of traditional medicinal bath plants in the Beibu Gulf coastal region of Guangxi was not highly concentrated in a small number of species, but rather distributed across a wide range of plant resources. The top 10, 20, 30, 50, and 100 species contributed 10.24%, 18.16%, 25.10%, 37.47%, and 62.25% of the total usage frequency, respectively. Among these, Artemisia indica, Rhus chinensis var. roxburghii, Liquidambar formosana, Vitex negundo, Lygodium japonicum, Melicope pteleifolia, and Clerodendrum cyrtophyllum showed relatively high frequencies, forming a prominent group of commonly used species in local medicinal bath practices (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.

Relative frequency of citation (RFC) of the ten most frequently cited medicinal bath plant species in the Beibu Gulf

Most of these high-frequency species are widely distributed and readily available in the Beibu Gulf coastal region, and are also frequently reported in medicinal bath practices or related traditional medicine studies in other regions, suggesting that their frequent use is associated with both accumulated empirical experience and material accessibility. In contrast, the high frequency of Rhus chinensis var. roxburghii reflects a stronger local adaptation. In local traditional medicine, Rhus chinensis var. chinensis is widely recognized for both bathing and other medicinal uses, but its resources are relatively limited in the coastal areas investigated in this study. As a result, local residents often use the closely related R. chinensis var. roxburghii as a substitute. This local substitution is based on their close taxonomic relationship and perceived similarity in efficacy, contributing to the relatively high frequency of R. chinensis var. roxburghii in medicinal bath formulations.

The Gini coefficient for the frequency distribution of medicinal bath plant use was 0.38. Combined with the cumulative contribution curve, this indicates that although several core high-frequency species are present, the overall concentration is limited and no pattern dominated by a few species has formed. Instead, the system exhibits a structure in which commonly used high-frequency species coexist with a large number of medium- and low-frequency supplementary species.

Conservation status

According to the IUCN Red List categories, among the traditional medicinal bath plants recorded in this study, 222 species were classified as Least Concern (LC), 20 as Vulnerable (VU), 3 as Data Deficient (DD), and 1 as Near Threatened (NT) (Table 5). The results show that most medicinal bath plants in the Beibu Gulf coastal region of Guangxi fall into the Least Concern category, indicating a generally low level of conservation risk for the majority of species recorded. Only a small number of species were classified as Vulnerable or Near Threatened, with Illigera aromatica being the only Near Threatened species identified in this study.

Table 5.

IUCN conservation status of medicinal bath plants in the Beibu Gulf

IUCN conservation status	Number of species
Least concern (LC)	222
Vulnerable (VU)	20
Data deficient (DD)	3
Near threatened (NT)	1

In addition, two species have specific conservation status at different levels: Nephelaphyllum tenuiflorum is listed as Vulnerable according to the IUCN Red List, while Drynaria roosii is protected at the provincial level in Guangxi, China. Further analysis of these 23 species with IUCN or provincial conservation status showed that Lonicera macrantha faces the highest level of local threat, followed by Liquidambar chingii and Melocalamus arrectus (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5.

Conservation threat ranking of IUCN and provincially protected species

Discussions

Characteristics of the traditional medicinal bath plant system in the Beibu Gulf

This study recorded 286 medicinal bath plant species in the Beibu Gulf coastal region of Guangxi, indicating high species diversity together with a distinct structural pattern. This species richness is higher than that reported for medicinal bath plants among traditional Yao communities in China, where 110 species were documented [2]. The richness of recorded species in the Beibu Gulf reflects both the diversity of local plant resources and the long-term continuity of medicinal bathing as an external therapeutic practice, which has maintained a relatively comprehensive foundation of plant utilization. At the family level, a certain degree of concentration is evident, whereas at the genus level, a high proportion of genera are represented by a single species. This pattern suggests that the medicinal bath plant system is not based on a limited set of fixed taxa, but rather has developed through long-term selection from the regional flora. Although herbs predominate, shrubs and trees also account for a substantial proportion, indicating that the sources of medicinal bath plants are diverse and not restricted to a single life form.

The patterns of resource origin, plant parts used, and ailment categories further highlight the practical nature of this system. The predominance of wild resources indicates that traditional medicinal bathing remains closely linked to the surrounding natural environment. Plant use is mainly concentrated on vegetative parts, particularly branches, leaves, and whole plants, which aligns with the practical requirements of bathing applications and reflects a preference for easily accessible materials, suggesting a degree of sustainability in local practices. The ailment categories are largely concentrated on trauma, rheumatic conditions, and skin-related problems, indicating that medicinal bathing is primarily oriented toward addressing musculoskeletal discomfort and common skin conditions in daily life.

The structure revealed by the frequency distribution provides additional insight. Although several species show relatively high frequencies of use, cumulative contribution analysis and the Gini coefficient indicate that overall use is not concentrated in a very small number of species, but rather distributed across a broad range of plants. This pattern suggests that traditional medicinal bath knowledge in the Beibu Gulf coastal region includes both a set of relatively stable, commonly used species and a substantial number of medium- and low-frequency supplementary plants.

The high-frequency species identified in this study deserve further attention because they connect local medicinal bath practice with broader ethnomedicinal and TCM-related knowledge. Several of these plants, such as A. indica, L. formosana, V. negundo, L. japonicum, L. japonicus, and Senecio scandens, or their closely related medicinal materials, have been recorded in Chinese Materia Medica, regional folk medicine, or ethnopharmacological studies. Reported phytochemical studies of these taxa and related groups have identified constituents such as volatile oils, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, terpenoids, and alkaloids, many of which are associated with anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, or skin-related activities [30–34]. These properties correspond broadly with the main local uses recorded in this study, especially for trauma, rheumatic conditions, common cold, and skin-related problems. In addition, the high frequency of R. chinensis var. roxburghii illustrates the role of local substitution in plant selection. Although R. chinensis is widely recognized in traditional medicine, its availability is limited in the Beibu Gulf coastal region; local residents therefore use the closely related R. chinensis var. roxburghii as a substitute, based on perceived similarity in efficacy.

Overall, the medicinal bath plant system in this region represents not a simple assemblage of a few dominant species, but a complex and well-developed knowledge system.

Regional differences and their potential drivers

Although the three coastal cities of the Beibu Gulf share a considerable number of medicinal bath plant species, clear regional differences are evident. Fangchenggang and Qinzhou exhibit the highest similarity in species composition, whereas Beihai shows a more distinct pattern, indicating that medicinal bath plant use does not follow a uniform pattern across the region.

These differences are likely related to variation in plant availability. Fangchenggang and Qinzhou are geographically adjacent and closely connected to mountain systems such as the Shiwan and Liuwan Mountains. In particular, Fangchenggang includes protected areas such as the Shiwan Mountains National Nature Reserve and the Fangcheng Golden Camellia National Nature Reserve, which support relatively high levels of biodiversity. In contrast, Beihai is characterized mainly by coastal plains, plateaus, and low hills, with a comparatively limited mountain forest background and a higher proportion of plantation forests, resulting in lower overall plant diversity. Such ecological differences are likely to influence the availability of medicinal bath plants, contributing to the greater similarity between Fangchenggang and Qinzhou and the differentiation observed in Beihai.

Regional variation may also be shaped by local socio-cultural contexts. Fangchenggang combines coastal and border characteristics and is home to several ethnic groups, including Zhuang, Yao, Miao, and the Jing, the latter forming the only concentrated community of this group in China. In contrast, Beihai is more strongly oriented toward coastal tourism and related development. These differences in social context may further influence patterns of plant knowledge, selection, and use. Taken together, the observed similarity between Fangchenggang and Qinzhou and the greater differentiation in Beihai likely reflect the combined effects of ecological background and socio-cultural factors.

The significance of the Beibu Gulf case in regional comparison

Comparison of this study with existing research on Yao medicinal bath practices reveals a consistent pattern: although the species composition of medicinal bath plants varies considerably across regions, their primary functional orientations remain broadly similar. For example, a study of Yao medicinal baths in Jinping, Yunnan, recorded 110 plant species mainly used for rheumatic conditions, skin diseases, traumatic injuries, and gynecological problems [2]. Research on medicinal baths and Dragon Boat Festival medicinal markets among the Yao in Jianghua, Hunan, further indicates that medicinal bathing is a common therapeutic practice and plays an important role in the transmission of local medical knowledge, with many plant uses also associated with rheumatism and general body conditioning [10, 35]. In the present study, medicinal bath uses in the Beibu Gulf coastal region are likewise concentrated on trauma, rheumatic conditions, and skin-related problems. These parallels suggest that, despite substantial differences in ecological environments, plant availability, and knowledge traditions among the Beibu Gulf coastal region, the mountainous border areas of southern Yunnan, and the Yao regions of southern Hunan, the core health concerns addressed by medicinal bathing remain highly consistent. Regional variation is therefore more strongly reflected in plant selection, whereas the underlying health needs associated with medicinal bath practices appear relatively stable. In this context, the Beibu Gulf case provides not only a new regional example but also additional evidence for understanding functional convergence in medicinal bath plant use across different regions.

Compared with the Yao community-based study in Jinping and the market-focused research in Jianghua, the Beibu Gulf case differs in both scale and survey setting. The Jinping study primarily documents medicinal knowledge within a single community, while the Jianghua study emphasizes the role of markets in knowledge circulation and maintenance. In contrast, the present study covers a coastal region in which markets and villages coexist as interconnected contexts of plant use. As such, the Beibu Gulf material reflects not only a local knowledge base but also a broader pattern of medicinal plant utilization that combines shared foundations with regional variation. Incorporating this case into regional comparisons contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of how local substitution and functional convergence coexist in medicinal plant use.

At the national scale, this pattern also corresponds to the broader logic of TCM external therapies, in which herbal materials are applied to the body surface through bathing, washing, soaking, or fumigation to address musculoskeletal discomfort, skin problems, fatigue, and other common bodily conditions [7–9]. However, the Beibu Gulf case also differs from more standardized TCM-related bath therapies because it is more strongly shaped by coastal environments, wild plant availability, market circulation, and household-level practice. The distinctiveness of the Beibu Gulf medicinal bath tradition is reflected in its local plant repertoire and in the way a broader external-therapy logic is expressed within a coastal ecological and social context.

Plant-based bathing practices in a broader Asian context

In addition to Chinese medicinal bath studies, several Asian studies have recorded plant-based bathing practices. In Southeast Asia, several plant-based bathing practices have been documented that, while related, differ from the Beibu Gulf medicinal baths in preparation, cultural context, and primary users. For instance, Malay mandi serom in Kedah, Malaysia, is a traditional postpartum bath practiced by midwives using multiple plant materials [36]. This practice is closely tied to postpartum care, aiming to support maternal recovery, cleanse the body, restore strength, and provide culturally defined protection during the vulnerable postpartum period. Similar postpartum-oriented bathing and plant-washing practices have also been recorded in Laos [37, 38], emphasizing recovery and care for women in specific life stages. These cases illustrate that plant-based bathing traditions in Asia can serve multiple functions depending on cultural and physiological contexts.

Another related practice is steam-bathing, which highlights further formal distinctions. In North Sumatra, Indonesia, Batak traditional steam-bathing uses heated plant materials and steam, rather than decoction-based immersion [39]. In Minahasa, North Sulawesi, the bakera steam bath is similarly focused on postpartum recovery and involves multiple plant species [40]. Comparable postpartum steam sauna or plant-washing practices have been reported in northern Thailand [41]. In contrast to the Beibu Gulf medicinal baths, these practices emphasize heat and steam exposure rather than direct washing with a plant decoction. This demonstrates that plant-based bathing traditions across Asia encompass a range of techniques, each shaped by local medical concepts, household practices, and community norms. Nonetheless, these diverse practices share a general external therapeutic principle: water, heat, and plant materials interact with the body surface to relieve discomfort, support recovery, cleanse, or provide protection.

From this broader Asian perspective, plant-based bathing practices reveal both considerable diversity in form and consistent convergence in underlying therapeutic logic. Rather than being regarded simply as a catalogue of useful plant species, these practices represent a flexible mode of external therapy, shaped by local ecological conditions, the availability of plant resources, embodied experience, and local understandings of health maintenance [36–41].

Conservation implications

This study documents both wild and cultivated plant species used in medicinal bath practices in Guangxi, China, and identifies a subset of species of conservation concern based on IUCN Red List categories and provincial protection status. Although most recorded species are not currently under high conservation risk, several vulnerable and protected species require targeted attention. Their conservation can be supported through education and awareness programs that promote sustainable use. The main threats to these species are associated with limited distribution ranges and continued demand driven by their perceived efficacy. For example, Liquidambar chingii, an endemic species in China, is valued for its phenolic acids and flavanols with relevance to rheumatic conditions [42], which may increase harvesting pressure. In addition, the use of destructive plant parts, such as roots or whole plants, may further exacerbate resource decline. The conservation relevance of medicinal bath plants should also be evaluated together with the plant parts used. In this study, although foliage was the most frequently used part, whole plants and roots were also recorded for 96 and 23 species, respectively, and such practices may create additional pressure on wild populations even when the species are not currently listed as threatened by the IUCN.

To address these issues, local knowledge should be incorporated into conservation planning and community-level education, encouraging the use of renewable plant parts such as leaves and twigs while regulating the harvesting of roots and whole plants. At the same time, the cultivation of key species should be promoted, provided that it does not negatively affect wild populations or their regeneration.

Limitations and future prospects

This study focuses on the documentation and pattern analysis of traditional medicinal bath plants and associated knowledge in the Beibu Gulf coastal region of Guangxi, based mainly on key informant interviews, market surveys, participant observation, and snowball sampling. This approach is suitable for recording locally recognized plants and use practices, but it cannot fully reveal how medicinal bath knowledge is distributed among different age groups, occupations, or communities. Future studies could combine ethnobotanical documentation with more systematic household surveys to examine how this knowledge is learned, transmitted, and transformed under changing social and economic conditions.

The discussion of efficacy, indications, and use in this study is based primarily on interview data and field observations. These records reflect local experiential knowledge and should not be interpreted as pharmacological or clinical validation. Further phytochemical, pharmacological, dermatological, and safety-related studies are needed for selected high-frequency species and culturally important formulations. Such work would help clarify which local practices have broader application potential and which are better understood within household or community-based contexts.

The future development of medicinal bath plant resources should also be considered in relation to environmental change and the health of humans, plants, and local ecosystems. Most recorded species are wild resources, and some are vulnerable, narrowly distributed, or collected through destructive harvesting of roots or whole plants. In coastal regions such as the Beibu Gulf, habitat change, tourism development, market demand, and shifts in land use may influence both plant availability and the continuity of local knowledge. Medicinal bath plants therefore should not be viewed only as resources for human healthcare, but also as part of a wider relationship among people, useful plants, habitats, and local ecological management.

Future work should further explore how the recorded knowledge can support community-centered practice. Possible directions include community-based inventories of locally important bath plants, participatory mapping of collection areas, identification of species suitable for leaf- or twig-based harvesting, cultivation trials for frequently used or conservation-sensitive species, and locally understandable educational materials on sustainable use. Any development of medicinal bath products or related cultural tourism activities should involve local knowledge holders, respect their consent and preferences, and establish appropriate mechanisms for benefit sharing. In this way, the documentation of medicinal bath plants can contribute not only to academic research, but also to community education, biodiversity conservation, and locally grounded health practices.

Conclusion

This study shows that the Beibu Gulf coastal region of Guangxi harbors a rich diversity of medicinal bath plants, most of which are derived from wild resources. These plants are primarily used for conditions such as traumatic injuries, rheumatic problems, and skin-related disorders, reflecting a clear functional orientation of medicinal bathing as an external practice for addressing limb strain, joint discomfort, and related surface symptoms. Regional comparison indicates that the composition of medicinal bath plants is more similar between Fangchenggang and Qinzhou, while Beihai exhibits a certain degree of differentiation, suggesting that medicinal bath plant use in the Beibu Gulf coastal region is characterized by both a shared foundation and local variation. Frequency distribution analysis further demonstrates that this system is not dominated by a small number of highly used species, but instead consists of a group of commonly used core species together with a large number of medium- and low-frequency supplementary plants. Overall, the use of traditional medicinal bath plants in the Beibu Gulf coastal region of Guangxi reflects both regional continuity and local diversity, and provides additional evidence for understanding the formation and persistence of medicinal bath plant knowledge under different ecological and cultural contexts in southern China.

Author contributions

Conception and design of the study: T.L., R.H., K.L.; Data collection: Q.W., T.L., R.H.; Interpretation and analysis: T.L., B.L., Q.W., R.H.; Draft of the manuscript: T.L, B.L., R.H.; Revision of the manuscript: D.K., K.L., R.H.

Funding

This research was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Guangxi (Grant No. 2023GXNSFAA026089); Survey and Collection of Germplasm Resources of Woody & Herbaceous Plants in Guangxi, China (GXFS-2021-34).

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

We followed the International Society of Ethnobiology (http://www.ethnobiology.net/). We acquired consent from the respondents before the survey.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.