Plant-based milk powders: technological challenges, nutritional opportunities, and market outlook

Abstract

The global demand for plant-based milk has increased in response to health, sustainability, and dietary concerns. Liquid products are not without their advantages, but powdered forms offer unique benefits, including shelf stability, lightweight distribution, and versatile food applications. Despite the growth in market value, there is a paucity of systematic research addressing the processing of plant-based milk powders, particularly the influence of drying technologies and formulation strategies on yield, nutrient retention, and functionality. This review synthesizes recent advances in the production of plant-based milk powders, focusing on pretreatment, drying technologies, and carrier systems. Spray drying remains the dominant industrial process and is valuable for scalability but is limited by stickiness, poor flow, and low solubility. Enzymatic pretreatments have been shown to yield consistent increases in yield and improvements in suspension stability. The optimization of feed concentration and atomization parameters is imperative, and studies have identified inlet temperatures ranging from 140 to 170 °C as optimal for balancing yield and nutrient retention. The influence of carrier agents on performance is a subject of considerable interest. Maltodextrin, for example, has been shown to increase drying efficiency, although it concurrently reduces nutritional quality. Protein and gum-based carriers, while demonstrating potential, remain underexplored. A variety of alternative methods have been demonstrated to increase the retention of bioactive compounds, reduce energy consumption, and improve flowability. These methods include dehumidified air spray drying, pulse spray drying, freeze drying, and foam-mat drying. However, these methods are not easily scalable. The application of agglomeration and postprocessing techniques has been demonstrated to further enhance the reconstitution process and improve consumer acceptability. The advancement of plant-based milk powders necessitates the establishment of a connection between laboratory findings and industrial application. Subsequent research should concentrate on the optimization of hybrid drying technologies, the diversification of carrier systems, and the development of standardized protocols to ensure nutritional quality, functionality, and commercial viability.

Introduction

The global demand for plant-based foods has markedly increased over the past two decades, reflecting a convergence of health, environmental, and ethical concerns. Within this trend, plant-based milk stands as a particularly dynamic category, offering lactose-free and dairy protein-free alternatives that appeal to consumers with allergies, intolerances, or those adopting vegan and flexitarian diets. These beverages have gained mainstream acceptance worldwide, driven by consumer perceptions of healthfulness, sustainability, and animal welfare [1, 2].

While liquid plant-based milk dominates retail markets, their powder forms are rapidly emerging as a complementary and highly versatile segment. The appeal of these materials lies in their extended shelf life, reduced transportation costs, and multifunctional applications. Unlike their liquid counterparts, powdered formats can be reconstituted into beverages or incorporated into bakery products, confectionery, infant formulas, sports nutrition, and ready-to-drink mixes. This versatility positions them as valuable functional ingredients for both household use and industrial food processing [3, 4].

Market data further supports this trend. A recent study revealed that the global sales of plant-based milk powders (PBMP) were valued at approximately USD 0.5 billion in 2024. Projections indicate that this figure will exceed USD 0.8 billion by 2034, which corresponds to compound annual growth rates of 7–11%, depending on the region [5, 6]. Soy and almond powders remain leading products, but oat milk powder has experienced the most rapid growth in Europe and North America, reflecting consumer preferences for clean-label, allergen-friendly, and environmentally sustainable options. The Asia–Pacific region, particularly China and India, is also emerging as a major growth engine, driven by high rates of lactose intolerance and rising demand for dairy alternatives [6, 7].

Despite their industrial and nutritional potential, the scientific literature on PBMP is relatively limited. Numerous reviews exist on liquid plant-based milk, covering processing technologies, sensory attributes, and nutritional evaluation [8–10]. However, few studies address powder formulations, particularly with respect to how raw material selection, pretreatment, drying methods, and carrier agents affect nutritional retention, functional properties, and storage stability. Given that powders are more concentrated matrices subjected to additional thermal and mechanical stresses, their behavior cannot be directly extrapolated from liquid systems.

PBMPs can be produced from legumes, cereals, nuts, pseudocereals, and seeds [11, 12]. Each of these sources imparts unique nutritional, functional, and sensory characteristics, shaping their suitability for beverage or powder applications. However, limitations such as incomplete amino acid profiles or minerals, low protein density (in cereals and nuts), or susceptibility to oxidation (in PUFA-rich oils) highlight the need for blended formulations or fortification strategies to achieve nutritional parity with dairy milk powders [2].

Drying processes such as spray drying, freeze drying, and emerging techniques (e.g., pulse spray drying, foam-mat drying) play critical roles in powder quality, yield, and bioactive retention. The choice of carrier agent (e.g., maltodextrin, proteins, or gums) significantly influences physicochemical properties, reconstitution behavior, and nutrient stability. Furthermore, PBMPs are particularly vulnerable to thermal contaminants (Maillard reaction products, acrylamide, and advanced glycation end products), which are amplified during drying and long-term storage [13, 14]. These aspects remain understudied compared with dairy powders.

In this context, the present review aims to systematically synthesize current knowledge on PBMPs, with particular emphasis on (i) raw material sources and their nutritional profiles; (ii) processing and drying methods, including pretreatment and carrier strategies; (iii) physicochemical, nutritional, and microbiological properties of powders; (iv) applications in the food industry and consumer acceptability; and (v) market trends, challenges, and future perspectives. By consolidating existing evidence and identifying critical research gaps, this review seeks to provide a foundation for developing nutritionally optimized, technologically robust, and commercially viable PBMPs.

To ensure a comprehensive and transparent synthesis of the current state of PBMPs, a systematic search of literature was conducted. The primary databases utilized included Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar. The search was limited to peer-reviewed articles, book chapters, and industrial reports published primarily between 2000 and 2025, with foundational studies included where necessary.

Keywords used in various combinations included: “plant-based milk alternatives”, “non-dairy beverages”, “vegan milk powder”, “soymilk powder”, “oat milk powder”, “almond milk”, “hazelnut milk”, “milk drying”, and “milk powder”. The inclusion criteria focused on studies providing quantitative data on drying yields, powder characteristics, and the impact of processing parameters on nutritional and functional quality. Studies focusing solely on liquid beverages without a drying component were excluded unless they provided critical contextual information regarding raw material pre-treatment or protein stability.

Plant-based milk sources

In recent years, the global interest in plant-based milk has increased significantly, driven by health concerns, sustainability motivations, and the increasing prevalence of lactose intolerance and dairy allergies [1, 2]. In response, food manufacturers have expanded their portfolios beyond liquid beverages and have started developing innovative products containing PBMP as ingredients. These powders are now being incorporated into bakery products, confectionery, ready-to-drink beverages, infant formulas, and sports nutrition, reflecting both consumer demand for functional plant-derived ingredients and industry interest in shelf-stable, versatile formulations [15, 16].

Although excellent reviews exist on liquid plant-based milks and their processing technologies [1, 8–10, 12, 17, 18], the literature on PBMP is relatively scarce. Therefore, in this section, we briefly highlight production methods for plant-based milk in this section. Following the widely used categorization (Hidalgo-Fuentes et al., 2024), plant-based milks and powders can be grouped into five main source classes (Table 1): (i) Legumes (e.g., soy, chickpea, pea, lupin, cowpea), (ii) cereals (e.g., oats, rice, millet, corn), (iii) nuts (e.g., almond, hazelnut, cashew, walnut), (iv) pseudocereals (e.g., quinoa, amaranth, buckwheat) and (v) seeds (e.g., sesame, hemp, flax, chia, pumpkin).

Table 1.

Nutritional and bioactive profiles of selected plant-based milk sources

Category	Source	Key nutritional & bioactive components
Legumes	Soy	Essential fatty acids (mono- and poly-unsaturated), isoflavones, and protein content similar to bovine milk.
	Chickpea	High protein and carbohydrate content, rich in soluble and insoluble fibers.
	Peanut	Potential oilseed/legume source with high sensory potential for non-dairy beverages.
Nuts	Almond	High lipid content, protein (22–25%), Vitamin E, calcium, magnesium, and potassium.
	Coconut	Saturated fats (notably lauric acid), Vitamin E, and antioxidants.
	Cashew	High protein, carbohydrate, and saturated fatty acid (SFA) contents compared to other nuts.
Cereals	Oat	Dietary fibers (specifically β-glucan), starch, antioxidants, and polyphenols.
	Rice	High starch content
Pseudo-cereals	Quinoa	Complete protein with all nine essential amino acids, iron, zinc, and magnesium.
	Buckwheat	Rich source of flavonoids (rutin), tocopherols and dietary minerals.
	Amaranth	Excellent source of minerals including iron, zinc, and magnesium.
Seeds	Sesame	High lignan content (sesamin, sesamolin), protein, and minerals.
	Hemp	High nutritional value with low allergenicity and interactive protein structures.

Legumes

Owing to their rich nutritional profiles, legumes, including soy, chickpea, pea, peanut, lupin, and cowpea, are significant raw materials for producing plant-based milk substitutes. These plant extracts are water soluble and resemble dairy milk in appearance [12]. While they offer various health benefits and are chosen for reasons such as lactose intolerance, milk protein allergies, cultural reasons, or lifestyle choices such as veganism. They also present different sensory characteristics, stability, and nutritional compositions compared with milk based counterparts [9].

Soy milk is one of the earliest and most established plant-based milk alternatives; it is widely consumed in Asia and is increasingly popular in Western markets because of its favorable nutritional profile and functional similarity to dairy milk. It is notably high in protein (approximately 3.0–3.5 g/100 mL), with a complete amino acid profile, making it nutritionally superior to many other plant-based beverages [15, 19]. Soy milk is also a rich source of isoflavones—particularly genistein and daidzein—phytoestrogens that are associated with potential health benefits, including cholesterol reduction and improved cardiovascular system [20]. Its creamy texture and neutral taste increase its suitability for culinary applications, further supporting its market appeal. However, concerns persist regarding allergenicity and the presence of antinutritional factors such as trypsin inhibitors and phytic acid [12]. Additionally, consumer skepticism related to genetically modified soybeans has influenced purchasing decisions in some regions.

Chickpea milk is an emerging plant-based milk alternative that is gaining attention because of its balanced nutritional profile, mild flavor, and sustainability. Chickpea milk has a relatively highly bioavailable protein content (2.0–3.5 g/100 mL) and essential amino acids such as lysine and arginine. However, sulfur-containing amino acids such as methionine and cysteine is limited in chickpea [21, 22]. Unlike many plant milks, chickpea milk is low in fat yet rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids—particularly linoleic acid—and offers substantial levels of potassium, calcium, and iron, often surpassing the mineral content of dairy milk. It also provides isoflavones, phenolics, and saponins with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and potential anticancer benefits. However, sensory limitations—including its natural “beany” flavor and gritty mouthfeel—require processing innovations such as enzymatic hydrolysis, germination, or flavor masking to increase palatability. Despite its nutritional advantages, further research is needed to optimize extraction methods and scale production effectively [22].

Tree-nuts

Tree-nut-based plant milks are among the most prominent dairy alternatives in global markets and are prized for their natural richness in lipids, micronutrients, and flavor compounds. These milks are typically derived from oil-rich nuts, including almonds, hazelnuts, cashews, pistachios, and walnuts, each contributing unique organoleptic and nutritional profiles. Their creamy textures and characteristic nutty flavors have led to their widespread use in beverages, barista blends, and culinary recipes. However, fortification is often necessary because of the inherently low protein content, and potential allergenic risks must be considered [8, 23].

Almond milk is the most popular plant-based dairy alternative, especially in North America and Europe, largely because of its appealing sensory properties and consumer perception as a natural and healthy product. Compared with dairy milk, almond milk is generally low in calories and protein but rich in unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins (especially vitamin E), minerals, and phytochemicals such as flavonoids and phenolic acids [19, 23]. Almond milk is often chosen by consumers with lactose intolerance or those following vegan diets. However, its relatively low protein and calcium levels require fortification to achieve nutritional equivalence with dairy milk [12].

Hazelnut milk has gained consumer attention primarily for its pleasant flavor profile and high content of health-promoting unsaturated fatty acids, particularly oleic acid, which accounts for 70–80% of its lipid fraction [4]. Compared with dairy milk, hazelnut milk is lower in protein (typically 0.6–4.2%) but richer in vitamin E, phytosterols, and phenolic compounds that have antioxidant and cholesterol-lowering effects [24]. Despite these nutritional advantages, its low protein density and absence of certain essential amino acids (tryptophan) limit its use as a standalone dairy replacement. Hazelnut milk poses allergenic risks, and its global market expansion is constrained by the regional concentration of hazelnut cultivation, especially in Türkiye, which accounts for more than 75% of world production [25].

Cereals

Cereal-based plant milks constitute a growing segment of the alternative dairy market because of their cost-effective raw materials, wide consumer acceptability, and favorable sustainability metrics. Cereal based milk alternatives are produced from grains such as oats, rice, corn, barley, and millet, often offering mild flavors, smooth textures, and naturally sweet profiles. While they are generally lower in protein than their legume-based counterparts are, cereal milk alternatives—especially oat milk—are increasingly fortified and optimized for texture, making them suitable for coffee and food applications. In addition to oat and rice, other cereals, such as corn and millet, have also been explored, although they remain less commercialized due to flavor and stability constraints [10].

Oat milk has rapidly become one of the most popular plant-based milk alternatives because of its appealing sensory qualities, sustainable credentials, and favorable nutritional composition. It is typically low in fat and moderate in protein (1.0–1.5 g/100 mL) but rich in β-glucans—soluble dietary fibers known for their cholesterol-lowering, glycemic-regulating, and prebiotic properties [26]. Oat milk also contains polyphenols, including avenanthramides, which have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. The creamy texture and natural sweetness of oat starch, which are enhanced by the enzymatic hydrolysis of oat starch during production, have broadened its appeal in coffee culture and culinary applications. While oat milk offers a better nutrient profile than many cereal-based alternatives do, it remains deficient in essential amino acids such as lysine and must be fortified with calcium, vitamin D, and B12 to approximate the nutritional adequacy of dairy milk. Additionally, formulation challenges such as sedimentation, enzyme optimization, and nutrient losses during processing are areas of active research [26].

Rice milk is a widely consumed plant-based dairy alternative that is particularly favored for its hypoallergenic properties and suitability for individuals with lactose intolerance or soy allergies. It is naturally rich in carbohydrates but typically moderate in protein (approximately 1.8 g/100 mL), and low in fat, and calcium, necessitating fortification for nutritional adequacy [27, 28].

Pseudocereals

Pseudocereals—such as quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat—are increasingly recognized as valuable sources for plant-based milk formulations owing to their high-quality protein content and being gluten-free. Pseudocereals contain a more complete amino acid profile compare to traditional cereals. Additionally, they are often rich in lysine and sulfur-containing amino acids that are deficient in many plant-based beverages. The composition of their bioactive compounds, including flavonoids and saponins, provides added health functionality. However, these compounds can create sensory challenges such as bitterness and. While quinoa milk has gained early traction, amaranth milk and buckwheat milk remain underexplored but promising alternatives in the functional beverage space [12, 29].

Quinoa milk is a novel plant-based dairy alternative derived from the pseudocereal Chenopodium quinoa and is recognized for its high-quality protein and unique nutritional attributes. It provides a relatively higher protein content than many grain-based milks do (1.7 g/100 mL) and offers a more complete amino acid profile, including appreciable levels of lysine and methionine [29]. However, saponins contribute to their naturally bitter taste, and effective processing methods are needed to improve their palatability [12].

Seeds

Seed-based plant milk represents a novel and functionally diverse category of dairy alternatives. These beverages, which are derived from nutrient-dense seeds such as sesame, hemp, flax, sunflower, pumpkin, and chia, often deliver exceptional profiles of essential fatty acids, plant sterols, minerals, and antioxidants. While protein content and sensory appeal vary among seed types, their inclusion in plant-based milk alternatives is increasing due to increasing interest in omega-3-rich and allergen-friendly options. Despite technical hurdles in emulsification, flavor masking, and oxidative stability, seed milks are becoming a frontier for fortification and bioactivity retention [12, 30].

Sesame milk is an emerging plant-based milk alternative because of its dense nutrient composition and bioactive compounds. It is particularly rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, calcium, and tocopherols, providing natural antioxidant capacity. Sesame seeds are unique in their high lignan content, especially sesamin and sesamolin, which have antihypertensive, cholesterol-lowering, and anti-inflammatory effects. Processing into milk preserves a significant fraction of these bioactive compounds, although pasteurization and storage can alter phenolic stability and antioxidant activity [12]. Despite these nutritional strengths, sesame milk faces limitations: its relatively low lysine content reduces protein quality and low thermal tolerance.

Hemp seed milk, derived from Cannabis sativa seeds, is a nutrient-rich plant-based milk alternative that is increasingly recognized for its balanced amino acid profile. It typically provides 0.8–4 g protein/100 mL and omega-3 oils as α-linolenic acid [30]. Additionally, it contains bioactive compounds with high antioxidant potential. However, the hemp seed milk market is facing challenges, such as limited consumer awareness and misconceptions about hemp products [31].

Production of PBMPs

Drying is one of the most essential unit operations in the food industry and plays a critical role in enhancing the stability, shelf-life, and convenience of various food products. It is defined as the removal of moisture from a substance through evaporation, often involving the application of heat and/or a reduction in surrounding humidity [32]. The main objectives of drying include reducing water activity to inhibit microbial growth and enzymatic reactions, improving transport and storage properties, and preserving functional components such as nutrients, bioactives, and probiotics. In recent years, the demand for plant-based products has increased significantly because consumer preferences have shifted toward sustainable, lactose-free, and vegan-friendly alternatives [16]. In this context, PBMPs have emerged as convenient, shelf-stable products that can be used as instant beverages or as functional ingredients in a wide range of food applications. The Fig. 1 shows the basic steps involved in producing milk powder.

Fig. 1.

The general manufacturing process of PBMPs

Various drying methods have been employed in the production of PBMPs, each with distinct advantages and limitations. Among these methods, spray drying is the most commonly used technique because of its scalability, efficiency, and relatively low cost. Spray drying enables the transformation of liquid feeds into fine powders in a single step while retaining desirable physicochemical properties. To overcome the limitations of conventional spray drying, other dyring techniques such as pulse spray drying, dehumidified air spray drying, freeze drying, and foam-mat drying, have been explored for sensitive or viscous plant-based formulations. The choice of drying technique and parameters not only affects the powder yield and energy consumption but also plays a vital role in determining powder characteristics such as moisture content, water activity, solubility, particle size, bulk density, and microbiological stability.

The choice of raw material and its processing into plant-based milk significantly influences the process yield and powder characteristics, including its nutritional profile, sensory attributes, and functional and technological properties. Given the complexity of plant-based milk matrices and the functional demands of the final powder, a comprehensive understanding of drying mechanisms and process conditions is crucial. This section aims to provide an in-depth review of the drying processes applied in the production of PBMPs, with a particular focus on recent innovations, optimization strategies, and the impact of drying conditions on the physicochemical, functional, and microbiological properties of the powders.

Pretreatment of raw materials

Two main approaches are used to prepare plant-based milk for drying. In the first approach, plant-based milk is prepared similarly to industrial beverages, which involve hydration of the raw materials, blending, filtration and pasteurization. In this approach, a beverage with a low soluble solid content is obtained, which decreases the effectiveness of the drying process and results in a high amount of waste.

In the second approach, a highly concentrated solution is prepared, and enzymatic preparation is added to hydrolyze the polymeric compounds. With this approach, a more concentrated slurry is obtained for drying. The hydrolytic enzymes depends on the composition of raw material. In a study on powdered oat milk production, β-glucanase and α-amylase were effectively used [33]. In another study, alcalase and thermostable α-amylase were applied for production of chickpea beverage powder [21].

R Silvestre-De-Leon, J Espinosa-Ramirez, E Perez-Carrillo and SO Serna-Saldivar [21] compared instant beverage powders produced by spray drying using raw or enzyme-treated chickpea flours. This study clearly revealed that the enzymatic treatment of raw materials significantly improved the drying yield, increasing it more than 2-fold. Additionally, beverages prepared from enzymatically treated samples had better suspension stability without altering the pH or total soluble content than the other samples did.

K Samborska, I Budziak-Wieczorek, A Matwijczuk, D Witrowa-Rajchert, M Gagoś, B Gładyszewska, D Karcz, K Rybak, M Jaskulski and A Barańska [34] evaluated different pretreatment approaches—concentration, addition of oat fiber, and their combination—to increase yield during dehumidified air spray drying (DASD) of oat milk without the use of a carrier agent. For conventional DASD of oat milk, the yield was 44.6%. Preconcentrating oat milk before DASD significantly increased the yield of oat milk powder to 59.2%. However, the addition of oat fiber alone or in combination with oat fiber addition had a negative effect on yield. Among all the samples, the conventional DASD resulted in the smallest particle size and lowest polydispersity index. Therefore, pretreatment led to an increase in the particle size and polydispersity index to a certain extent. Additionally, oat fiber addition caused an increase in the water activity of the samples.

Drying techniques

The production of PBMPs directly involves the dehydration of the five categories of liquid plant-based beverages described in the previous section: legumes, nuts, cereals, pseudo-cereals, and seeds. These liquid extracts serve as the primary feedstock for various drying operations.

As an energy-intensive process, drying must be optimized for the economical, sustainable and competitive production of PBMPs. Although different techniques, such as spray drying, foam mat drying or freeze drying, are applied in scientific studies, spray drying stands out for industrial applications because of its wealth of know-how, scalability and availability on the market. However, there is a significant gap in the literature regarding the use of 4th-generation or hybrid drying techniques to produce PBMPs.

Spray drying

One of the most prevalent methods for converting liquid foods into powders is spray drying, which offers significant advantages in scalability and cost-effectiveness. This process rapidly dries liquid or semiliquid materials at high temperatures by converting them into micro or nano sized droplets through atomization. The technique has gained considerable expertise through over a century of industrial application in the production of milk, fruit juice and egg powders. It is particularly renowned for its ability to preserve the integrity of heat-sensitive components despite the application of high drying temperatures, thereby ensuring that the quality of the final product is maintained.

Spray drying is typically performed in four key stages: (i) preparation of feed materials, (ii) atomization, (ii) drying, and (iv) product separation. In the feed preparation stage, two primary approaches are employed: the concentration of the feed material and the addition of carrier agents [35].

To achieve an economical drying process, the solid content of the feed material is increased through concentration. In the dairy industry, vacuum evaporation is a standard pre-treatment used to increase the total solid content of liquid milk to approximately 50% before it enters the spray dryer [36]. This process is critical for energy efficiency, as it removes a significant portion of water at lower temperatures, thereby reducing the thermal load and residence time required in the drying chamber. Despite its necessity for industrial scalability and economic sustainability, the implementation of vacuum evaporation remains rare in PBMP research. Currently, only one study [34] has incorporated a concentration step, demonstrating that pre-concentrating oat milk can significantly increase the final powder yield to 59.2%. Integrating vacuum evaporation into PBMP production lines is essential to bridge the gap between laboratory-scale experiments and energy-efficient industrial manufacturing.

During the drying phase, the high temperatures applied cause the ingredients in the feed to exceed their glass transition temperatures. As a result, these ingredients become stickier, which can lead to lower yields [35]. To address this issue, carrier agents—such as maltodextrin, gum acacia, or xanthan gum—are added to the feed material. These agents modify the glass transition temperature of the mixture and/or alter the surface composition of the liquid droplets, thereby reducing stickiness and improving the drying efficiency [35, 37].

Among these carrier agents, maltodextrin is mostly used in studies related to PBMPs. Maltodextrin, which is produced by hydrolyzing starches with acids or heat, typically has a glass transition temperature above 100 °C, depending on its dextrose equivalency [35, 38]. However, achieving efficient spray drying often requires a high concentration of maltodextrin. While this helps mitigate stickiness and enhances drying efficiency, the addition of large amounts of maltodextrin can significantly alter the chemical composition and nutritional quality of the final powder.

For sugar-rich materials, protein-based carriers such as whey protein, pea protein, or sodium caseinate have also been found to be effective in improving yield and product quality while requiring much lower concentrations than maltodextrin does [37]. However, research on the use of protein-based wall materials in PBMPs remains limited, with only one study examining their effects on drying performance and product quality [39]. Therefore, further research is needed to explore the potential of protein-based materials and their modified derivatives as alternative carrier agents. Such studies could help reduce reliance on maltodextrin and contribute to the development of more nutritionally balanced PBMPs.

In the spray drying of plant based milk, maltodextrin is generally preferred for carrier agent to enhance techno-functional features of PBMPs. A Dantas, P Gou, M Piella-Rifà and X Felipe [33] investigated the effect of maltodextrin on the production of powdered oat milk via spray drying. The results revealed that the addition of maltodextrin had no significant effect on the moisture content, water activity, particle diameter (D₅₀), solubility, bulk density, tapped density, Carr index, and Hausner ratio. In a previous study, the effects of maltodextrin concentration (0–15%) on the physical and chemical properties of hazelnut milk powder were analyzed. These findings indicated that increasing the maltodextrin concentration led to a reduction in the water activity, moisture content, and ash content of the samples. Additionally, it improved the flow properties, as analyzed by the angle of repose and Hausner ratio, as well as the solubility [4]. On the other hand, the low solubility and poor flow properties were detected in the hazelnut milk powder dried without maltodextrin. It was attributed to high oil content of hazelnut (70%). Compared with oils, maltodextrin has a higher molecular weight [40] and, therefore, lower molecular mobility. Rapid evaporation during spray drying may have resulted in a different surface composition than the overall composition of the droplets, depending on molecular mobility [41]. The surface composition of the particles governs their flow and reconstitution properties by affecting the interactions between particles, surfaces, and water molecules [42]. Although the relationship between surface composition and flow characteristics has been well documented in the literature for dairy powders [42, 43], additional studies are needed for PBMP to better understand this effect.

In a similar study, Bambara groundnut milk was spray dried using maltodextrin as a carrier agent at ratios of 5%, 10%, and 15. Varying concentrations of maltodextrin did not affect the bulk density, emulsification capacity, wettability, fat absorption, or particle size of the samples [44]. The authors attributed this result to chemical composition of the feed materials. Because Bambara groundnut milk has a higher carbohydrate content (11.4 g/100 g) than oil (0.3 g/100 g) or protein (0.9 g/100 g). Similarly, NL Ruiz-Zambrano, V Tejada-Ortigoza, SO Serna-Saldívar, J Welti-Chanes, J de la Rosa-Millán and E Pérez-Carrillo [45] spray-dried enzyme-treated chickpea hydrolysate using inulin and maltodextrin, and all powders exhibited similar solubilities, particle sizes, and morphologies. It has been demonstrated that oil-rich plant-based milks are more dependent on the carrier agent than their lower-fat counterparts are.

In another study on the spray drying of a plant-based beverage using maltodextrin and pea protein, the carrier agent was used at a concentration of 10%, but the mixture was diluted with water at different concentrations. According to the evaluation based on yield, which is defined as the ratio between the dry matter content of the obtained powder and the dry matter content of the feed, the dilution ratio was found to have a stronger effect than the carrier agents. Increasing the dilution ratio (only for maltodextrin) from 0% to 60% led to a yield increase from 14.49% to 40.01%. However, further increases had a detrimental effect on yield. Maltodextrin and pea proteins were compared at dilutions of only 60% and 70%, and maltodextrin provided higher yields than did pea protein [39].

Some previous studies on the spray drying of fruit juices or other sugar-rich materials have indicated that protein-based carrier agents, particularly whey proteins and sodium caseinate, can be more effective in increasing yield despite their lower usage levels [46, 47]. In sugar-rich materials, the molecular mobility of proteins is significantly slower than that of the feedstock components, allowing them to effectively modify the surface properties during drying. However, plant-based milks have high protein and fat contents, with molecular mobilities closer to those of the proteins used as carrier materials. This similarity prevents the proteins from effectively altering surface properties during drying, thereby limiting their potential advantages in improving yield. Nonetheless, further studies are needed to verify this hypothesis.

For probiotic-enriched PBMPs, plant-based ingredients are used as wall materials for probiotic bacteria to ensure controlled release in the gastrointestinal tract. S Chaturvedi and S Chakraborty [48] produced three different PBMPs using red kidney beans, green mung beans, and a combination of both (7:3 ratio). Maltodextrin (10%), gum acacia (2%), and xanthan gum (0.1%) were used as carrier agents. Among the PBMPs, green mung bean milk had the highest yield, while maltodextrin was the most effective carrier agent in terms of yield. However, gum acacia and xanthan gum provided increased encapsulation efficiency for probiotics. According to gastrointestinal digestion simulations, milk produced with a combination of red kidney bean and green mung bean with gum acacia resulted in higher probiotic delivery counts in the duodenum and ileum. In probiotic drinks and powders, preserving probiotics during digestion and ensuring their targeted release in the intestine are of paramount importance. However, only the aforementioned studies have examined the impact of spray drying conditions on release behavior. Notably, further research is needed to explore the effects of spray drying parameters such as temperature, flow rate, and atomization pressure along with carrier materials and posttreatment processes on the release characteristics of probiotics.

While maltodextrin remains the most common carrier, recent attention has shifted towards synergistic carrier blends, such as the combination of maltodextrin with plant proteins. This synergy is driven by the different physical behaviors of the components during the rapid evaporation phase of spray drying. Protein-based carriers, due to their lower molecular mobility compared to smaller sugar molecules, tend to migrate toward the air-droplet interface [35]. This surface migration results in the formation of a protein-rich “crust” or protective shell around the drying droplet, which significantly reduces the stickiness of the particles to the drying chamber walls and improves overall powder recovery [49]. Although MTL Pereira, MP Cavalcante, SF da Silva, Y Sensheng, SdS Silva, AC de Aquino, IdMdS Araújo, ES Dantas, BrMB da Silva and EdG Alves Filho [39], compared these materials individually and found maltodextrin to provide higher yields in specific plant-based matrices, the strategic use of protein-maltodextrin blends offers a promising path to balance drying efficiency with the nutritional profile of the final PBMP.

The second step of spray drying is atomization, which can be achieved via rotary atomizers, pneumatic nozzles, or ultrasonic nozzles. In scientific studies, pneumatic nozzles are the most commonly used technique. This method relies on compressed carrier gas pressure to achieve atomization. As a novel approach, ultrasonic nozzles generate droplets with a narrower particle size distribution and lower velocity, which can potentially improve drying efficiency and product quality [50]. Atomization determines the size of the formed droplets and final particle size. Additionally, it affects the velocity of the droplets. The yield is reduced by high-speed droplets because these particles hit and stick to the surface of the drying chamber. Although some studies have investigated the effect of the feed flow rate on the spray drying of PBMPs [51, 52], there is a lack of research comparing different atomization techniques and the influence of atomization speed/pressure on drying performance and final product quality. Further studies are needed to assess the impact of atomization methods on particle characteristics, yield, and overall product stability.

Drying of the atomized droplets is achieved at high temperatures via air or inert gases. Air is the most commonly used drying medium in PBMP. Additionally, dehumidified air was tested in one study. In this study, K Samborska, I Budziak-Wieczorek, A Matwijczuk, D Witrowa-Rajchert, M Gagoś, B Gładyszewska, D Karcz, K Rybak, M Jaskulski and A Barańska [34] demonstrated that, compared with conventional spray drying, dehumidified air improved yield by reducing the drying temperature. While conventional spray drying uses 180 °C, dehumidified air enables effective drying at a lower inlet temperature of 90 °C. For conventional spray drying, various optimization studies have determined that the optimum drying temperature ranges from 140 to 170 °C, depending on the feed material and spray drying conditions [51–53]. In the final step of the process, dried particles are separated from humid air via cyclones, filters, scrubbers, and electrostatic precipitators [54].

U Issara and S Rawdkuen [55] prepared instant rice bran milk powder by spray-drying a mixture of rice bran milk, xanthan gum, sugar, and vanilla flavor. The spray-drying yield was reported to be 52%. Higher yields (73.7–77.4%) were reported for almond milk enriched with probiotic bacteria and spray dried at 170–190 °C [3]. K Samborska, I Budziak-Wieczorek, A Matwijczuk, D Witrowa-Rajchert, M Gagoś, B Gładyszewska, D Karcz, K Rybak, M Jaskulski and A Barańska [34] used spray drying (inlet temperature: 180 °C, outlet temperature: 90 °C) to produce PBMP from commercial soymilk, almond milk, rice milk, and oat milk without using a carrier agent. Among the samples, rice milk had the highest yield (37.4%), followed by soy milk (32.0%), almond milk (24.7%), and oat milk (16.1%). Since oat milk has the lowest yield, researchers have applied dehumidified air spray drying (DASD; inlet temperature: 90 °C, outlet temperature: 60 °C) to improve yield. The results revealed that the yield of oat milk increased to 44.6% during DASD. Additionally, DASD caused a reduction in the particle size and polydispersity index of the powders.

S Yadav and S Mishra [53] employed two different approaches—artificial neural networks (ANNs) and the desirability function—to optimize the spray drying conditions of probiotic (Lactiplantibacillus plantarum) finger millet milk powder. The inlet temperature (120–180 °C), maltodextrin concentration (20–40%), and feed flow rate (100–200 mL/h) were evaluated as independent factors. The drying yield ranged from 34.78% to 58.13%, and the reduction in probiotic viability varied between 0.13% and 3.97%, depending on the drying conditions. According to the statistical evaluation, the desirability function was found to be more accurate in predicting the optimized conditions, which were 160.87 °C, 20% maltodextrin, and a 200 mL/h feed flow rate. Under these conditions, a product yield of 48.86% and a reduction in probiotic viability of 1.20% were obtained. In another optimization study using the same material and similar drying conditions, the optimum parameters for the inlet temperature, maltodextrin concentration, and feed flow rate were determined to be 151.7 °C, 29.3%, and 100 mL/h, respectively. The product obtained under these conditions had a yield of 43.8% and a viability reduction of 0.58 [52]. Optimizing the spray drying conditions to improve the physical properties revealed that the ideal inlet temperature was 138 °C and the optimal feed flow rate was 35 ml/min [56, 57].

There are only a few studies on the spray drying of plant-based milk produced at different temperatures. In one of these studies, probiotic almond milk powders were produced within a temperature range of 170–190 °C. The pH, moisture content, water activity, bulk density, tapped density, particle density, porosity, flow characteristics, and reconstitution properties of the powders were analyzed. The results revealed that the drying temperature affected only the particle density, porosity, hygroscopicity, and solubility of the powders. Additionally, the effect on the survival of a probiotic bacterium (Lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 8014) was evaluated. Interestingly, similar log reductions and survival rates were observed across different drying temperatures. The authors explained this finding by the high tolerance of the bacterial strain to thermal and mechanical stresses [3]. MJ Tian, AL Wang, S Xiao, WW Yu, CH Tan and L Zou [58] investigated the effects of spray drying temperature (ranging from 140 to 180 °C) on the bulk density, emulsifying activity, and solubility of oat milk powders. Their findings indicated that temperature had only a slight effect on the analyzed properties, with 160 °C yielding the most favorable results.

A Zungur Bastıoğlu, D Tomruk, M Koç and FK Ertekin [59] spray-dried a traditional plant-based beverage (Subye) produced from melon seeds using two different melon varieties. Although the powdered samples exhibited good reconstitution properties, they presented poor flowability. The sensorial properties of the reconstituted powdered beverages were compared with those of traditional beverages. Although slight decreases in flavor and consistency were observed, taste and overall acceptability remained similar.

The main disadvantages of spray-dried PBMP are low flowability and poor reconstitution characteristics. Both factors significantly impact final consumer’s acceptability. Therefore, an additional postprocessing step is required to improve these properties. Agglomeration is one of the most effective approaches in this regard. N Jinapong, M Suphantharika and P Jamnong [60] produced soymilk powder via spray drying after a preconcentration step with ultrafiltration. Regardless of the soymilk concentration, the Carr index and Hausner ratio of the soymilk powders were determined to be greater than 32 and 1.47, respectively. These values indicate that all the powders exhibited poor flowability and high cohesiveness. To enhance the flow properties, fluid bed agglomeration was applied with different binder concentrations (0–20%). At a 10% binder concentration, the Carr index and Hausner ratio decreased to 18 and 1.23, respectively, indicating good flowability and low cohesiveness. However, at binder concentrations above 15%, the flow properties were negatively affected. Therefore, the agglomeration process must be carefully optimized for different materials.

Pulse spray drying

Pulse spray drying is an emerging technology proposed to overcome the challenges of conventional spray drying, such as low energy efficiency and limited applicability to high-viscosity liquids [33]. The main difference between pulse spray drying and conventional spray drying is the presence of a pulsed combustion burner. In this technique, air is mixed with fuel and introduced into the burner, where pulsed combustion generates high-temperature (up to 1000 °C) and high-pressure (~ 3 psi) jets. This process simultaneously atomizes and dries the feed material, eliminating the need for separate atomizers and enabling the spray drying of more viscous liquids [61]. Additionally, pulse spray drying enhances momentum, mass transfer, and heat/mass transfer rates, thereby improving energy efficiency (up to 40% compared with spray drying) [62]. It also offers other advantages, such as lower feed pressures and reduced maintenance costs [61].

As an emerging drying technology, only one study on pulse spray drying of PBMPs has been reported in the literature. In this study, A Dantas, P Gou, M Piella-Rifà and X Felipe [33] compared pulse spray drying with conventional spray drying in the presence or absence of maltodextrin during powdered oat beverage production. The study revealed that while the water activity, solubility, hue angle, bulk density, Carr index, and Hausner ratio were statistically similar for both drying techniques. Additionally, pulse spray drying resulted in a relatively high moisture content and particle diameter (D₅₀), a relatively dark color, and relatively low tap density. Furthermore, the presence of maltodextrin was found to be more critical in pulse spray drying than in conventional spray drying. The dependency on maltodextrin during pulse spray drying was attributed to the presence of high-energy pulses, which drastically altered the droplet diameter depending on the viscosity of the feed material and the rapid solidification of the outer layer of droplets during pulse spray drying. However, additional studies are needed to better understand the effects of viscosity and carrier agents on the changes that occur during pulse spray drying.

Freeze drying

Freeze drying is a process that involves freezing the water in a material and then sublimating it under controlled temperature and vacuum conditions. Since this process occurs at low temperatures, it minimally affects the features of material. However, the industrial applicability of freeze drying is limited by its high investment and operating costs as well as its low processing capacity and long residence time [63]. Despite these limitations, it is frequently used as a control method in the production of PBMP containing probiotic microorganisms, as it helps preserve microbial viability and product quality.

In one study, extruded and enzymatically hydrolyzed chickpea flours were freeze-dried after fermentation with two different Lactobacillus species [45]. Additionally, unfermented flour was dried via spray drying. The samples were compared via principal component analysis, which revealed that the freeze-dried samples were distinct from the other samples in terms of their glucose content, sucrose content, pH, and particle size. The changes in glucose content, sucrose content, and pH arose from microbial activity in the flours. In contrast, particle size differences resulted from the drying techniques, as freeze drying is a bulk drying method that requires milling after drying. Therefore, the particle size is primarily determined by the milling process, and in this study, larger particles were obtained.

Foam mat drying

Foam mat drying is a simple and cost-effective technique that can be integrated into different drying methods, such as convective drying and freeze-drying. In this process, a foaming agent (e.g., glycerol monostearate, sodium caseinate, or gum Arabic) is added to the material to be dried, and foam is generated through mixing, whisking, or another method. To ensure foam stability during drying, stabilizing agents (e.g., carboxymethyl cellulose and maltodextrin) are also incorporated. The formed foam is then spread into a thin layer and dried in the dryer. This technique enhances drying efficiency by increasing the surface area exposed to drying. As a result, foam mat drying shortens the drying period and helps preserve bioactive components, making it particularly advantageous for heat-sensitive materials. Additionally, it is also reported to be a suitable technique for producing sticky and viscous materials that are difficult to dry via other techniques [64–66].

P Shameena Beegum, M Manikantan, K Anju, V Vinija, R Pandiselvam, S Jayashekhar and K Hebbar [67] used foam-mat drying in a convective oven at 50 °C and optimized the foaming and carrier agent concentrations via response surface methodology. Sodium caseinate was used as a foaming agent (4–7%), and maltodextrin was used as a carrier agent (15–35%). Optimization was carried out on the basis of the bulk density, solubility, and overall acceptability of the samples, and the optimum conditions were detected as 4% and 17.54% for foaming and carrier agent concentration, respectively. The crude fat, carbohydrate, protein, and ash contents of the obtained powders were 52%, 27%, 8%, and 7%, respectively. The powders obtained under optimized conditions had a Carr index of 6 and a Hausner ratio of 1.16, indicating excellent flow properties.

Comparative analysis of drying technologies and selection criteria

To assist researchers and industry professionals in selecting the most appropriate dehydration strategy, Tables 2 and 3 summarize the primary drying methods for PBMPs based on their typical operating conditions, advantages, disadvantages, economic profile, energy efficiency, and impact on the sensory and physical quality of the final powder.

Table 2.

Comparative matrix of drying technologies for PBMPs

Drying method	Typical processing conditions	Advantages	Disadvantages
Conventional spray drying	Inlet: 140–180 °C Outlet: 60–90 °C	High scalability, cost-effective, and rapid drying.	Low flowability, poor reconstitution
Pulse spray drying	High-energy pulsed jets (~ 1000 °C at burner)	40% higher energy efficiency; handles high-viscosity liquids.	May cause darker color and higher moisture content.
Dehumidified air spray drying (DASD)	Inlet: 90 °C Outlet: 60 °C	Higher yields at lower temperatures.	Requires specialized air-dehumidification systems.
Freeze drying	Sublimation under vacuum (low temp)	Maximum retention of bioactives and microbial viability.	High investment/operating costs and low processing capacity.
Foam-mat drying	Convective oven at 50–70 °C	Simple, low-cost, and produces powders with excellent flow properties.	Requires addition of foaming and stabilizing agents.

Table 3.

Comparative evaluation of drying methods for plant-based milk powders

Drying method	Economic & energy profile	Sensory & physical effects	Key limitations
Spray drying	Relatively low cost and high scalability; energy-intensive but well-established.	Produces fine powders; may suffer from poor flowability	Low yields for certain matrices (e.g., oat milk) without carriers. Necessity of post processing techniques
Pulse spray drying	High energy efficiency (up to 40% improvement); lower maintenance costs.	Results in larger particle diameters and potentially darker product color.	Limited research on diverse plant-based matrices.
Dehumidified air spray drying	Improved yield by allowing lower inlet temperatures (e.g., 90 °C).	Reduces particle size and polydispersity index compared to conventional methods.	Requires specialized air-handling equipment.
Freeze drying	High CAPEX and OPEX; low processing capacity.	Excellent preservation of bioactives; larger, distinct particle profiles due to milling.	Long residence time; primarily limited to premium/niche products.
Foam-mat drying	Simple and cost-effective; reduces drying time in convective systems.	Excellent flow properties if optimized.	Requires the addition of foaming and stabilizing agents. Requires large drying areas
4th generation drying techniques	Low OPEX, low environmental impact	Good sensorial and flow properties	Availability of commercial equipments, scale-up problems, lacks know-how

The selection of a drying method for PBMPs must be tailored to the specific macro-nutrient profile of the raw material to ensure optimal yield and powder quality. The suggested drying techniques for each plant milk category are given below.

• Cereal-Based Matrices: These products are prone to gelatinization, which increases viscosity and causes wall stickiness. Dehumidified air spray drying is recommended as it allows for lower inlet temperatures (90 °C), reducing the risk of starch-related stickiness.

• Legume-Based Matrices: These benefit from conventional spray drying combined with enzymatic hydrolysis, which has been shown to more than double the drying yield and improve suspension stability.

• Nut-Based Matrices: Due to high lipid content, these are highly susceptible to oxidation. Spray drying with optimized blend of carrier agents is essential to encapsulate the oil phase and prevent wall adhesion.

• Pseudo-Cereal Matrices: Quinoa milk typically exhibits much higher viscosity than other beverages, which can retard sedimentation but complicates atomization. Spray drying with moderate temperature settings is preferred to maintain the integrity of complete proteins and bioactive flavonoids like rutin.

• Seed-Based Matrices: These are rich in lignans and sensitive unsaturated fatty acids. For sesame, salt-soluble proteins are susceptible to heat denaturation, making foam-mat drying or low-temperature spray drying more suitable to prevent protein aggregation.

• Probiotic and Functional PBMPs: To preserve the viability of heat-sensitive microorganisms, freeze drying or foam-mat drying are the most suitable options.

Nutritional composition

While the chemical composition of dairy milk powders typically shows limited variation due to the standardized structure of milk production, plant-based milks, as well as their powders, exhibit substantial variability in their macronutrient and micronutrient profiles [68]. This heterogeneity arises from multiple factors, including the botanical origin, intrinsic biochemical composition, agronomic and postharvest conditions, and preprocessing operations such as soaking, germination, enzymatic hydrolysis, and heat treatments. Furthermore, the choice of drying aid or encapsulating agent, along with specific drying parameters, can markedly influence the retention or degradation of bioactive compounds, mineral availability, and lipid stability. While such variability provides opportunities to tailor PBMPs for specific nutritional targets, functional properties, and sensory attributes, it also poses challenges for establishing standardized processing protocols and achieving consistent product quality.

Macronutrient profile (proteins, carbohydrates, and fats)

The macronutrient composition of PBMPs varies markedly according to the botanical source, processing method, and formulation aids. Unlike dairy milk powder, whose proximate composition is highly standardized (typically 25–27% protein, 36–38% lactose, 26–28% fat and 5–7% ash), PBMPs show broad heterogeneity in protein, carbohydrate, and lipid contents, reflecting the biochemical diversity of legumes, cereals, nuts, and seeds used as raw materials [1, 16].

Proteins

Compared with PBMPs, legume-derived powders generally present the highest protein content. Soy milk powders stand out with values often exceeding 40% on a dry basis [60], positioning them as the most protein-rich option. In contrast, chickpea-based powders contain more moderate protein levels of 20.15–21.40% [21]. On the other hand, they are rich in lysine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid and arginine but relatively low in sulfur-containing amino acids. R Silvestre-De-Leon, J Espinosa-Ramirez, E Perez-Carrillo and SO Serna-Saldivar [21] reported a protein digestibility-corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) of 82.1–83.1 for chickpea beverage powders, which is lower than that of dairy milk powder (120%) but markedly higher than those of cereal and nut-based milks (0.45–60%, 54%, 30%).

Cereal-derived powders, such as oat and rice, generally provide 7–15% protein [55, 58]. Nut-based powders (e.g., almond, cashew) show wider variability, typically ranging from 7 to 25%, and while they contain lower absolute protein levels than legumes, they contribute complementary amino acids and functional peptides with antioxidant properties [3, 19, 44]. Interestingly, apricot seed milk powder was recently reported to contain much higher protein contents than most nut-based analogs [69].

Processing also strongly influences protein quality and functionality. Treatments such as enzymatic hydrolysis increase solubility and digestibility but can also cause partial denaturation, negatively affecting techno-functional properties such as foaming or emulsification [21]. Overall, while certain legume-derived powders approach the protein quality of dairy milk, most PBMPs require blending or targeted fortification to deliver balanced amino acid profiles comparable to those of dairy milk.

Carbohydrates

The carbohydrate fraction of PBMPs substantially varies depending on the botanical source and the technological interventions applied during processing. Dairy milk powders consistently contain lactose [1], while PBMPs are generally composed of sucrose, glucose, or maltose as major sugars, along with starches, dietary fibers, and bioactive polysaccharides. The results of quantitative analyses highlight a considerable variation in carbohydrate content in PBMPs. Rice bran milk powder contains up to 86.4% carbohydrates [55], with formulations supplemented with carrier agents such as maltodextrin reaching as high as 91.4% [39]. In comparison, soymilk powders contain 11.1–32.0% carbohydrates, depending on formulation and processing [60], whereas probiotic-enriched almond milk powders contain 36.3–38.7% carbohydrates [3], coconut milk powders contain approximately 27.3% carbohydrates [67], apricot seed milk powders contain approximately 53.0% carbohydrates [69], and Bambara groundnut milk powders contain up to 72.4% carbohydrates [44].

PBMPs differ from one another in terms of not only their carbohydrate concentration but also their structure and quality. Cereal- and legume-derived powders tend to be more common in native starches and oligosaccharides [45], whereas nut-based powders typically contain lower levels unless supplemented with carriers [3]. Functional carbohydrates such as β-glucans in oat powders provide recognized health benefits, including cholesterol-lowering effects [33, 70]. Conversely, oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose in legumes can act as prebiotics but may also induce flatulence and gastrointestinal discomfort in sensitive consumers [21]. These findings confirm that the carbohydrate composition of PBMPs is determined not only by species but also by processing decisions, with carrier addition serving as a major driver of high carbohydrate fractions.

Fats

While dairy milk powders typically contain 26–28% fat, their lipid fraction is dominated by saturated fatty acids (65–70%), followed by monounsaturated fatty acids (25–30%), with only minor levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (2–5%) [71]. This composition confers relative stability against oxidative rancidity, particularly under low-moisture and oxygen-controlled storage conditions.

In contrast, the lipid fraction of PBMPs shows pronounced variability, primarily reflecting the fatty acid composition of the source material. Nut-based powders such as almond and cashew are rich in monounsaturated fatty acids, especially oleic acid [72], whereas coconut milk powders are characterized by exceptionally high levels of medium-chain saturated fatty acids (mainly lauric acid), which confer greater oxidative stability similar to dairy [73]. On the other hand, soy- and oat-based powders contain substantial proportions of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), notably linoleic (ω-6) and α-linolenic acids (ω-3), which are nutritionally valuable but highly susceptible to autoxidation during drying and storage [74].

The reported fat contents also vary widely across sources. Soy powders contain 21.9–33.5% fat [60] enriched in PUFA but prone to peroxide and aldehyde formation [35]. Almond powders have similarly high and unsaturated fat levels (41.1–43.4%) [3], whereas coconut powders contain even higher amounts (~ 52.1%) but remain more stable because of their saturated profile [67]. Conversely, some PBMPs are extremely low in fat such as rice bran (1.1%) [55], Bambara groundnut (1.6%) [44], chickpea (3.6–5.3%) [21], and apricot seed (2.2%) [69]. Although these low-fat powders are less vulnerable to oxidative rancidity in absolute terms, even slight degradation of their PUFA fraction can significantly affect their sensory stability. This situation leads to more noticeable sensory changes, particularly in legume-based powders, which are already susceptible to unwanted flavours.

Overall, the lipid composition of PBMPs has both a nutritional advantage through higher PUFA levels than dairy products. However, susceptibility to lipid oxidation and off-flavour formation poses a technological challenge, requiring careful control of processing and storage conditions.

Ash

The ash content is an indicator of the total mineral residue remaining after the complete combustion of organic matter, and it provides a useful estimate of the overall mineral composition of milk powders. Dairy milk powders typically contain 5–7% ash, largely originating from calcium, potassium, and phosphorus salts [71]. In PBMPs, however, the ash content varies widely depending on the botanical source, preprocessing treatments, and use of carrier agents.

Cereal-derived powders generally have relatively high ash contents. For example, rice bran milk powder was reported to contain 3.6% ash [55]. Legume-based powders also present moderate values; for example, Bambara groundnut powders constitute approximately 2.1% [44]. Among nuts, almond milk powders presented values of approximately 2.5% [3], that of apricot seed milk powders reached approximately 3.7% [69], and that of hazelnut milk powder ranged from 1.15 to 3.14% depending on the drying conditions and maltodextrin levels [4]. Interestingly, coconut milk powders have been reported to have much higher ash contents, approximately 7.5% [67], exceeding not only most plant-based counterparts but also the typical range for dairy powders.

Micronutrients and bioactive compounds

Compared with dairy milk, plant-based milk is frequently promoted for being naturally richer in vitamins, minerals, phenolic compounds, and phytosterols [1, 16]. For example, legumes such as soy and chickpea are recognized sources of isoflavones and minerals, oats are rich in β-glucans and avenanthramides, and nuts and seeds contribute tocopherols and phytosterols with well-documented antioxidant and cholesterol-lowering effects. These attributes have supported the rapid growth of plant-based beverages as functional alternatives to dairy.

When considering PBMPs specifically, the scientific evidence is still limited. Only a few studies have directly quantified micronutrient or bioactive compound retention after drying. For example, U Issara and S Rawdkuen [55] analyzed vitamins (B₁, B₂, B₃, and E) and minerals (Ca, Fe, Mg, P, K, and Zn) in organic rice bran milk powders, although they did not report the composition of the liquid milk prior to drying, which makes evaluation of retention challenging. MJ Tian, AL Wang, S Xiao, WW Yu, CH Tan and L Zou [58] reported that oat milk powder contained a total phenolic content of 20.3 mg/100 mL, whereas reconstituted oat milk powder contained slightly lower levels (18.6 mg/100 mL). However, spray drying reduced the antioxidant activity by up to 35%, indicating partial degradation of heat- and oxidation-sensitive compounds. Similarly, L Lipan, B Rusu, E Sendra, F Hernández, L Vázquez-Araújo, DC Vodnar and ÁA Carbonell‐Barrachina [3] investigated the effect of spray drying temperature on the mineral composition of probiotic-enriched almond milk powders. While drying at 180–190 °C caused slight decreases in Mg, Fe, Cu, and Mn compared with those of the feed material, processing at 170 °C affected only the Cu and Mn levels, suggesting that careful adjustment of the thermal conditions can help mitigate nutrient losses.

Studies on other heat-sensitive foods have shown that thermal drying methods, such as spray drying and foam-mat drying, often lead to reductions in vitamins, minerals, and phenolic compounds due to thermal degradation and oxidation. In contrast, freeze-drying has been shown to retain most micronutrients and bioactive compounds with minimal loss [63]. Nevertheless, freeze-drying remains impractical for large-scale industrial production because of high energy requirements, long processing times, and high costs.

Nutritional challenges and fortification

Despite their growing popularity, plant-based milk powders face significant nutritional limitations compared with dairy milk powders, necessitating careful formulation strategies.

Antinutritional factors

A major concern in plant-derived products is the presence of antinutritional compounds such as phytic acid, tannins, lectins, and trypsin inhibitors, which can reduce the bioavailability of key minerals (e.g., Ca, Fe, Zn, Mg) and impair protein digestibility [18]. For example, soy and chickpea beverages are naturally rich in phytic acid, which forms insoluble complexes with divalent cations. Processing interventions such as soaking, germination, enzymatic phytase treatment, and fermentation can substantially reduce these factors [75]. Drying only minimizes but does not eliminate them according to the limited number of studies [76, 77]. Thus, the final powder may still exhibit lower mineral bioaccessibility than its dairy counterparts do.

Nutrient gaps and fortification

Compared with dairy milk powder, PBMPs are often deficient in certain nutrients, notably vitamin B₁₂, vitamin D, and calcium, which are either absent or present in negligible quantities in most plant sources [78]. Moreover, the amino acid profiles of many plant proteins lack sulfur-containing amino acids, whereas fatty acid profiles, although often richer in PUFA, may not align with optimal human dietary requirements. To compensate, fortification with minerals (Ca, Fe, Zn), vitamins (B₁₂, D₂/D₃, A, riboflavin), and essential amino acids (methionine, cysteine) has become a standard practice in the formulation of PBMPs [23]. However, data on fortification effectiveness and nutrient stability in powdered systems are scarce.

Thermal contaminants

One of the less studied but highly relevant nutritional concerns in PBMPs is the formation of thermal processing contaminants. For liquid dairy analogs, several studies have reported elevated levels of Maillard reaction products and related compounds, such as furosine, hydroxymethylfurfural, advanced glycation end products, and acrylamide, arising from the interaction of reducing sugars and amino acids during sterilization or pasteurization processes. Recent findings on liquid soy, oat, and almond beverages confirm that these matrices are especially prone to such reactions due to their intrinsic carbohydrate–protein ratios and the presence of added sugars or carriers [13].

For milk powders, the risk is even greater because spray drying, roller drying, or foam drying apply additional heat stress to already processed formulations. While dairy powders contain ~ 36–38% lactose and relatively stable proteins, PBMPs frequently incorporate maltodextrins, glucose syrups, or starch hydrolysates as carrier agents. These factors not only increase the reducing sugar pool but also increase the reactivity with lysine residues, accelerating the early Maillard stage. For example, soymilk powders containing up to 32% protein and added carbohydrates are highly susceptible to furosine and carboxymethyllysine accumulation during drying and storage [14].

Storage is another critical factor in the formation of Maillard end product. PBMPs concentrate free amino acids and sugars within a glassy matrix, despite having low water activity. Over extended storage, particularly at elevated temperatures (> 25 °C), furosine can further convert to advanced Maillard products, reducing protein quality and raising potential health concerns [13].

Overall, while evidence from liquid plant-based beverages clearly highlights susceptibility to thermal contaminant formation, systematic research on powders remains scarce. Given the combined effects of concentration, drying, and long-term storage, it is highly plausible that contaminant levels in PBMPs surpass those in their liquid counterparts, representing a critical research and regulatory gap in the development of safe, nutritionally optimized dairy alternatives.

Market trends and consumer insights

PBMPs represent a fast-growing segment of the dairy alternative market. Globally, this market has expanded significantly in recent years and is led by North America, Europe, and East Asia [6]. The United States and China are especially prominent. PBMPs market of the U.S. was valued at approximately US$69 million in 2024 and is projected to double to ~ US$140 million by 2034 [5]. China’s market is of a similar magnitude (≈ US$75 million in 2024), with even faster growth (~ 8% annually) driven by high demand for infant formula and dairy alternatives [5]. The EU is also a key region; collectively, European countries account for roughly one quarter of global PBMPs sales [6]. Within Europe, major markets such as Germany and the UK are steadily expanding [79]. These trends reflect a worldwide shift, with PBMPs gaining traction across North America, Europe, and the Asia-Pacific region as mainstream consumer products. Notably, the Asia-Pacific region is the fastest-growing region, fueled by rising health-conscious and vegan populations in countries such as China and India [6].

Drivers of increasing consumer demand

Several converging trends explain why consumer demand for PBMPs is rising worldwide. Many consumers perceive PBMPs as healthier options than dairy products. They contain little/ no cholesterol and less saturated fat than does dairy milk, which is appealing to health-conscious buyers [5].

A significant portion of the global population cannot tolerate lactose or have dairy protein allergies. In East Asia, for instance, 70–100% of adults are lactose intolerant [7], and globally, 2–3% of infants suffer from dairy milk allergies [79]. The increasing incidence of lactose intolerance and milk allergies has directly increased the demand for nondairy milk.

The worldwide shift toward vegetarian, vegan, and flexitarian diets is a major driver. Growing vegan populations and consumers choosing to reduce animal product intake prefer plant-based substitutes [5]. PBMPs align perfectly with these dietary trends, providing a shelf-stable milk alternative for those avoiding animal products.

Concerns about the environmental footprint of dairy farming (greenhouse gas emissions, water use, and animal welfare) are driving consumers toward more sustainable options. Compared with dairy products, plant-based milks generally require fewer resources and have a lower carbon footprint [5]. Powdered formats further reduce shipping weight and packaging, which can reduce the environmental impact of distribution. Consumers motivated by sustainability view powdered plant milk as an eco-friendlier choice.

Powdered foods are shelf-stable and lightweight, making them convenient for transportation and storage. Unlike liquid milk, they can be transported and stored without refrigeration. This makes them attractive for commerce and consumers in regions with limited cold-chain logistics. The ease of mixing powder with water also reduces food waste and improves product longevity, meeting consumer demands for convenience [35].

Market size and growth forecasts

The market size for PBMPs has been expanding rapidly, with strong growth projected ahead. In 2024, the global PBMPs market was valued on the order of a few hundred million U.S. dollars (approximately US$0.4–0.5 billion) [5]. Although still a fraction of the broader plant-based dairy market, this segment is set to grow at a robust compound annual growth rate. Recent analyses forecast annual growth in approximately the 7–11% range globally for the next decade, as plant-based powders have gained wider adoption [5, 6].

This growth is underpinned by steady expansion in all major regions. North America (especially the U.S.) and East Asia (led by China) are currently the largest contributors, each accounting for approximately 20–30% of global sales [5, 6]. Europe represents roughly one quarter of the market, with notable contributions from countries such as Germany, France, and the UK [6]. Importantly, the Asia-Pacific region is the fastest-growing region, reflecting the large untapped consumer base in markets where lactose intolerance is high and dairy alternatives are only beginning to penetrate [6, 7]. The sustained growth trajectory of ~ 8% per year in East Asia and ~ 7% in North America is expected to continue through at least 2030 [5, 6].

Popular product categories in high demand

Currently, consumers can choose from a diverse range of plant-based milk powder products, but a few key categories dominate sales.

Almond milk powder

Almond-based powders are currently the largest segment globally, capitalizing on almond milk’s popularity. Estimates suggest that almond milk powder accounts for approximately 35–40% of all PBMPs sales [5, 6]. Its appeal lies in its mild, nutty flavor and positive nutritional profile (e.g., vitamin E content) [5]. Almond milk powder is especially popular for adding smoothies, cereals, and baked goods. The U.S., a leading almond producer, has experienced strong growth in this category; the widespread success of almond milk (over $2.5 billion in U.S. sales in 2022) has translated into a growing demand for almond milk powder as well [79].

Soymilk powder

Soy has long been a staple dairy alternative, and soymilk powder remains a high-demand product, particularly in Asia. Soy powder typically ranks as the second-largest segment (approximately one-third of the market) [6]. It is valued for its high protein content and amino acid profile, making it nutritionally competitive with dairy products [6]. Soymilk powder has a long history of use (including in infant soy formulas and nutritional beverages) and is often enriched with calcium/vitamins to serve as a full dairy replacement. In China and many Southeast Asian countries, soymilk is traditional, which contributes to the popularity of soy powder in those regions [80].

Oat milk powder

In recent years, oat milk has increased in popularity, and powdered oat milk products are an emerging category for meeting that demand. Oat milk powder appeals to consumers because it is free from major allergens (no nuts, soy, or gluten in pure oat milk) and has a creamy taste that works well in coffee and recipes. While there is still a smaller share of the market compared with almond or soy, oat milk powder is expected to grow quickly.

Coconut milk powder

Coconut milk powder has been in use for years (often in culinary applications), and it remains a notable segment of the PBMP market (estimated ~ 10–15% share) [6]. Coconut powder is prized for its richness and is commonly used in Southeast Asian and Indian cuisines as a shelf-stable substitute for canned coconut milk. In the broader dairy alternative market, coconut milk is a popular option after almond and soy, and its powdered form serves both demand of food industry (baking, confectionery) and consumers (for cooking or mixing drinks). Its growth is steady, although coconut’s strong flavor and lower protein content mean that it often serves niche uses compared with neutral-tasting alternatives such as oat or rice.

Others

Other PBMPs, such as rice milk powder, pea protein blends, cashew milk or hazelnut milk powder, are available and cater to specific dietary needs or flavor preferences. The overall market trend is toward innovation and diversification: manufacturers are continually exploring new plant bases and fortifications (e.g., adding calcium, vitamin B₁₂, etc.) to improve nutritional parity with dairy milk [6].

Industrial applications PBMPs in food formulations

Plant-based milk powders serve as sophisticated functional ingredients across diverse food sectors, moving beyond their role as simple beverage bases to perform specific technological tasks within complex food matrices. In the bakery and pastry industry, these powders function as versatile alternatives to dairy milk and eggs, where plant proteins contribute to the structural integrity and texture of baked goods while the interaction between reducing sugars and amino acids promotes the Maillard reaction, ensuring desirable browning and aroma development [13]. The production of instant beverage mixes and creamers relies heavily on the high solubility and rapid reconstitution properties of plant-based powders to provide a stable, creamy emulsion in coffee or to act as a nutrient-dense foundation for ready-to-drink protein mixes [81]. Furthermore, in confectionery applications such as chocolate and specialty fillings, plant-based milk powders are utilized to replace dairy solids, where they play a critical role in enhancing the stability of the lipid phase to prevent fat bloom and maintain a consistent, smooth mouthfeel [82]. The industrial success of these applications is intricately linked to the physicochemical properties of the powder, including particle size and surface composition, which implies that a one-size-fits-all drying approach is insufficient and requires category-specific optimization to meet both functional and sensory requirements.

Challenges and future perspectives

Plant-based milk alternatives differ significantly in chemical composition from dairy milk, and these differences play crucial roles in the drying process and storage stability of the final product. While certain plant-based milks—such as oat milk, coconut milk, and peanut milk—contain a higher oil content than bovine milk, others, such as almond milk, rice milk, and hemp milk, are typically lower in protein content [83]. Moreover, the types of oil found in PBMPs are predominantly unsaturated, increasing their vulnerability to degradation during processing and storage because of their sensitivity to heat, light, and oxygen [1]. As a result, the production strategies and technological insights derived from dairy milk powders are not always directly transferable to PBMPs.

In the drying of feed materials with a high content of compounds exhibiting low glass transition temperatures, carrier agents are essential for increasing drying efficiency and ensuring powder quality. In the spray drying of fruit juices, various carrier agents—such as maltodextrin, gum Arabic, whey proteins, plant-based proteins, and pectins—are commonly employed [84]. However, current studies on the spray drying of plant-based milks predominantly rely on maltodextrin as the carrier agent. This heavy dependence highlights a research gap: the need to investigate the use of protein-based materials and their modified derivatives as alternative carrier agents. Such research could reduce the reliance on maltodextrin and support the development of PBMPs with improved nutritional profiles and functional properties.

In a study on the microencapsulation of probiotic bacteria in finger millet milk via spray drying, some particles exhibited a dent surface morphology [52]. These surface defects may negatively impact the shelf-life of both probiotic-enriched PBMPs and those with high oil contents because of increased exposure to oxygen and moisture. Moreover, the surface composition of powder particles plays a critical role in determining their flowability and cohesiveness [42, 43]. Consequently, further studies are warranted to comprehensively investigate the surface morphology and composition of PBMPs to optimize their stability, functionality, and overall quality.

Another significant challenge in the production of PBMPs is the difficulty of scaling up from the laboratory to industrial levels. For example, O Gül, İ Atalar, F Törnük and A Akgün [51], in their study on the spray drying of boza powders, reported discrepancies between powders produced at the laboratory scale and those obtained at the pilot scale. These inconsistencies highlight the limitations of small-scale findings in predicting performance at larger production volumes. Therefore, additional pilot- and industrial-scale studies are essential to address scale-up challenges and ensure the reproducibility, quality, and feasibility of commercial PBMPs production.

Various posttreatment techniques are commonly employed to improve the production efficiency and consumer usability of powders with poor flow properties. Among these methods, agglomeration is particularly effective in enhancing flowability, wettability, and reconstitution behavior. However, in the context of PBMPs, agglomeration has been explored in only a limited number of studies [60]. To increase user satisfaction and expand the commercial applicability of these powders, further research is needed to explore and optimize posttreatment methods such as agglomeration, fluid bed coating, or granulation.

A critical benchmark for the market viability of PBMPs intended for use as instant creamers is their performance in the “coffee test”. This test evaluates whether the powder “feathers” (curdles) when added to hot, acidic coffee [9]. To prevent this phenomenon, the use of buffering salts, most notably dipotassium phosphate, is essential in the powder formulation. These salts function as pH regulators that stabilize plant proteins against heat-induced and acid-induced denaturation. By maintaining the pH above the isoelectric point of the proteins, these buffering agents ensure a smooth, homogeneous dispersion and prevent the grit or curdled appearance that otherwise limits consumer acceptance of plant-based alternatives in hot beverage applications [85].

While drying reduces water activity to inhibit microbial growth, it does not guarantee sterility. Microbiological safety in PBMPs is critical, particularly regarding pathogens like Salmonella, which can survive in low-moisture environments for extended periods [86, 87]. The thermal treatments prior to drying are primary kill steps, but post-drying contamination during cooling or packaging remains an industrial risk. Furthermore, the high carbohydrate content in powders like oat and rice milk can support the growth of xerophilic molds if storage humidity is not strictly controlled.

Despite growing interest and recent advancements, a significant gap remains in the literature regarding the application of 4th-generation and hybrid drying technologies—such as refractance window drying, agitated thin-film drying, and electrotechnologies—for the production of PBMPs. These emerging methods offer potential advantages in terms of energy efficiency, retention of bioactive compounds, and suitability for heat-sensitive or high-viscosity formulations. Future research should focus on adapting and optimizing these innovative drying techniques for plant-based milk systems, particularly those enriched with functional components such as probiotics or unsaturated lipids. Bridging this gap could pave the way for more sustainable, efficient, and consumer-friendly PBMPs products.

Conclusion

PBMPs represent a rapidly expanding sector within the broader dairy alternative market, offering advantages of extended shelf life, convenience in transport and storage, and diverse industrial applications. This review highlights that while significant progress has been made in identifying suitable plant sources and developing processing strategies, technological and nutritional challenges remain critical bottlenecks. Spray drying remains the predominant industrial method, yet it is often associated with low yield, stickiness, and nutrient degradation. While alternative and hybrid drying technologies—such as freeze drying, foam-mat drying, and pulse spray drying—demonstrate potential for improved bioactive retention and functionality, their widespread industrial adoption is currently hindered by high capital expenditure and a lack of long-term stability data at scale. A primary limitation of the current body of research remains the reliance on laboratory-scale findings, which may not accurately reflect the complex interactions and thermal stresses occurring in continuous industrial manufacturing.

From a nutritional perspective, legume-based powders provide high protein content, cereal-based powders contribute functional fibers, and nuts and seeds enrich formulations with bioactive compounds and unsaturated fatty acids. However, no single plant source achieves full nutritional equivalence to dairy milk powders, underscoring the importance of blended formulations and fortification strategies. The relevance of these findings lies in their implications for both research and industry, emphasizing that addressing the ‘scaling gap’ and optimizing formulation strategies offers a necessary pathway toward delivering powders that balance nutritional integrity with functional stability. By bridging these gaps, PBMPs can contribute meaningfully to the development of sustainable dairy alternatives, provided that future research focuses on the long-term commercial and nutritional viability of these products in real-world industrial settings.

Fig. 2.

Comparative nutritional fingerprints of PBMPs vs. bovine milk powder

Author contributions

IT: Conceptualization, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Review & Editing, Visualization.SAT: Conceptualization, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Review & Editing, Visualization.

Funding

No funding has been received for this publication.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.