Abstract
Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) was asked to deliver an opinion on frozen paste from blanched, whole migratory locusts (Locusta migratoria) as a novel food (NF) pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. The NF is produced from farmed sub‐adult L. migratoria, which are blanched, wet ground into a paste, packed and stored frozen. The main components of the NF are water, proteins, fats and dietary fibres, including chitin. The Panel notes that the concentration of contaminants in the NF depends on the occurrence levels of these substances in the insect feed. The Panel concludes that there are no safety concerns regarding the stability of the NF if it complies with the proposed specification limits throughout its shelf‐life. The NF has a protein content of 13.8–14.8 g/100 g when calculated using the nitrogen‐to‐protein conversion factor of 6.25. The Panel notes that the true protein content is overestimated when using this factor due to the presence of non‐protein nitrogen, mainly from chitin. The applicant proposed to use the NF as a food ingredient. The target population proposed by the applicant is the general population. Considering the composition of the NF and the proposed conditions of use, the consumption of the NF is not nutritionally disadvantageous. The Panel notes that no safety concerns arise from the toxicological information available in the literature. The Panel considers that the consumption of the NF might trigger primary sensitisation to L. migratoria proteins and may cause allergic reactions in subjects allergic to crustaceans, mites and molluscs. Additionally, the Panel notes that allergens from the feed might still be present in the NF. The Panel concludes that the NF is safe under the proposed uses and use levels.
Keywords: edible insects, food safety, Locusta migratoria, migratory locust, novel foods
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background and Terms of Reference as provided by the requestor
On 3 May 2018 the Belgian Insect Industry Federation submitted a request to the European Commission in accordance with Article 10 of Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 to authorise the placing on the market of paste form of Locusta migratoria (migratory locust) as a novel food.
The application requests to authorise the use of paste form of Locusta migratoria (migratory locust) in a number of foods. The target population is the general population.
In accordance with Article 10(3) of Regulation (EU) 2015/2283, the European Commission asks the European Food Safety Authority to provide a scientific opinion on the safety of paste form of Locusta migratoria (migratory locust) as a novel food.
1.2. Additional information
On 21 May 2021, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) adopted a scientific opinion, from another applicant, on the safety of frozen and dried formulations from migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. The Panel concluded that the novel food (NF) is safe under the proposed uses and use levels.
2. DATA AND METHODOLOGIES
2.1. Data
The safety assessment of this NF is based on data supplied in the application and information submitted by the applicant following EFSA's requests for supplementary information.
Administrative and scientific requirements for NF applications referred to in Article 10 of Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 are listed in Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2469. 1
A common and structured format on the presentation of NF applications is described in the EFSA guidance on the preparation and presentation of an NF application (EFSA NDA Panel, 2016). As indicated in this guidance, it is the duty of the applicant to provide all of the available (proprietary, confidential and published) scientific data (including both data in favour and not in favour) that are pertinent to the safety of the NF.
This NF application does not include a request for the protection of proprietary data.
2.2. Methodologies
The assessment follows the methodology set out in the EFSA guidance on NF applications (EFSA NDA Panel, 2016) and the principles described in the relevant existing guidance documents from the EFSA Scientific Committee. The legal provisions for the assessment are laid down in Article 11 of Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 and in Article 7 of Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2469.
This assessment concerns the risks that might be associated with consumption of the NF under the proposed conditions of use and is not an assessment of the efficacy of the NF regarding any claimed benefit.
In the context of this opinion, EFSA's definition of dietary fibre (i.e. non‐digestible carbohydrates plus lignin; EFSA NDA Panel, 2010) does not reflect the additional requirement of having a beneficial physiological effect demonstrated by generally accepted scientific evidence laid down in Annex I of Regulation (EC) 1169/2011 2 for:
edible carbohydrate polymers which have been obtained from food raw material by physical, enzymatic or chemical means and
edible synthetic carbohydrate polymers.
It is out of the scope of this opinion to establish whether the fraction of non‐digestible carbohydrates present in the NF meets the legal definition of dietary fibre in the EU or not.
3. ASSESSMENT
3.1. Introduction
The NF falls under the category ‘food consisting of, isolated from or produced from animals or their parts’, as described in Article 3 of Regulation (EU) 2015/2283.
The NF subject of the application is a paste derived from blanched, whole Locusta migratoria sp. (LM) (migratory locust), an insect species belonging to the family of Acrididae. The NF is produced by farming and processing of LM and consists mainly of water, protein, fat and fibre. The NF is proposed to be marketed in frozen form for use as an ingredient in various food products. The target population is the general population.
3.2. Identity of the NF
The NF is a frozen paste produced from the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria, hereafter LM). LM is an insect species belonging to the family Acrididae, subfamily Locustinae and genus Locusta. Recognised scientific synonyms, as described by the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF Secretariat, 2023), include Gryllus (Locusta) migratorius Linnaeus 1758, Pachytylus migratorius Rehn 1902, Gryllus (Locusta) danicus Linnaeus 1767, Locusta danica Ikonnikov 1913, Pachytylus danicus Doi 1932, Gryllus (Locusta) cinerascens Fabricius 1781 and Pachytylus cinerascens Walker 1870.
The species is widely distributed across various regions globally, including Australia, Asia, Africa and Europe (Lecoq, 2023; Ma & Kang, 2013). The applicant has verified the taxonomic identity of the source organism through a combination of morphological characterisation and DNA‐based identification, specifically targeting the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene.
The NF consists exclusively of the sub‐adult stage of LM. In this context, the term ‘sub‐adult’ refers to the late nymphal life stages, which are morphologically characterised by the absence of fully developed wings and functional reproductive organs.
As a species exhibiting density‐dependent phase polyphenism, LM manifests two distinct phenotypes: solitary and gregarious (Lecoq, 2023). The insects intended for the NF are farmed under controlled rearing conditions, which are managed by the applicant to ensure that the locusts remain in the solitary phase throughout rearing and at the time of harvest. Following the harvesting of the sub‐adults, the insects are blanched, frozen and ground to produce the final paste and stored frozen.
3.3. Production process
The production process is divided into three main stages: farming, harvesting and post‐harvest processing. Farming is conducted by breeders operating under good hygiene practices (GHP). Post‐harvest processing is performed in facilities operating under food safety management systems based on Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) principles.
Farming encompasses the mating of the adult insect population and the rearing of the nymphs for approximately 3–4 weeks. Rearing is conducted under controlled environmental conditions (temperature and relative humidity). Population density is managed to maintain the insects in the solitary phase and mitigate stress, cannibalism and the risk of disease outbreaks (Hinks & Erlandson, 1994). The insects are raised in regularly cleaned and disinfected containers made of non‐climbable, food‐grade materials. They are fed a plant‐based diet consisting of ■■■■■. The feed is compliant with Directive 2002/32/EC on undesirable substances in animal feed and is produced according to good feed practices (i.e. GMP equivalent). No antimicrobials or veterinary medicinal products are used during production.
Insects are harvested at the sub‐adult life stage (3–5 weeks). A fasting step is implemented to allow the insects to empty their bowel contents. Subsequently, the insects are separated from the substrate and faeces; deceased insects are removed at this stage. Harvested insects are then killed by freezing and temporarily stored at −18°C.
Post‐harvest processing involves transforming the frozen sub‐adults into the final paste formulation. The insects are washed in water to remove residual debris and are subsequently subjected to a thermal treatment (blanching in ■■■■■) to reduce the microbial load and inactivate spoilage enzymes. Following blanching, the insects undergo wet grinding to create a smooth and uniform paste (water is added during this step to achieve a smooth, uniform paste, together with ■■■■■). This results in a paste with a high water activity (Aw 0.984–0.999). The NF is packed in sealed, food‐grade bags and stored frozen at −18°C, which is the final form. The Panel considers that the production process is sufficiently described and does not raise safety concerns.
3.4. Compositional data
3.4.1. Proximate composition
To confirm that the manufacturing process is reproducible and adequate to produce a product with consistent characteristics at commercial scale, the applicant provided analytical information on five independently produced batches of the NF. Certificates of accreditation for the laboratories that conducted the analyses were provided. Analytical data were produced using methods validated for other types of matrices.
The NF is a ‘whole food’ as defined by EFSA Scientific Committee (2011), meaning that all its constituents cannot be fully identified and/or characterised (EFSA NDA Panel, 2016).
The results of the proximate analysis of the NF are presented in Table 1.
TABLE 1.
Batch‐to‐batch analysis of the NF.
| Parameter (g/100 g) | Batch number | Analytical method | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| #1 | #2 | #3 | #4 | #5 | ||
| Moisture | 77.60 | 77.00 | 73.30 | 77.30 | 78.00 | In‐house (thermo‐gravimetry) |
| Crude protein (N × 6.25) | 14.00 | 13.81 | 14.75 | 14.25 | 14.19 | In‐house (Kjeldahl) |
| Fat | 6.30 | 4.70 | 5.90 | 6.60 | 6.50 | In‐house (gravimetry) |
| Dietary fibre a | 0.90 | 1.00 | < 0.50 | < 0.50 | 1.30 | In‐house (enzymatic) |
| Ash | 1.10 | 1.10 | 1.10 | 1.20 | 1.10 | In‐house (gravimetry) |
| Total carbohydrate | 1.00 | 3.39 | 4.95 | 0.65 | 0.21 | By calculation b |
| Sugars c | 0.3 | < 0.2 | < 0.2 | < 0.2 | < 0.2 | In‐house (IC‐PAD) |
| Starch | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.6 | In‐house (enzymatic) |
| Energy value (kJ/100 g) | 473 | 449 | 545 | 489 | 463 | Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 |
Abbreviation: IC‐PAD, ion chromatography‐pulsed amperometric detection.
The term is used as a synonym of non‐digestible carbohydrates and does not reflect the additional requirement of having a beneficial physiological effect demonstrated by generally accepted scientific evidence laid down in Annex I of Regulation (EC) 1169/2011.
Total carbohydrate: 100 − (moisture + crude protein + fat + ash).
Sum of mono‐ and disaccharides.
Given the possible variations in rearing conditions (feed, developmental stage at the time of harvesting, ambient conditions, Oonincx et al., 2015; Rumpold & Schlüter, 2013) and the use of whole insects, the Panel considers that the variation of compositional values is acceptable.
The Panel notes that the crude protein content reported in Table 1 was calculated using the conventional nitrogen‐to‐protein conversion factor of 6.25. It is well documented in the scientific literature that the use of this conventional factor overestimates the true protein content of insects due to the presence of non‐protein nitrogen, predominantly originating from chitin. This issue will be addressed in detail in Section 3.9 Nutritional information.
After cellulose, chitin is the second most abundant natural biopolymer, predominantly present in the shells of crustaceans, the cell walls of fungi and the exoskeletons of insects (Muthukrishnan et al., 2020). The Panel notes that no nationally or internationally recognised reference method exists for the quantification of chitin in insects. The applicant provided analytical data on the content of chitin in five independently produced batches of the NF (Table 2) using the protocol described by Hahn et al. (2018). Based on this method, which uses chemical treatment with acid detergent fibre–acid detergent lignin (ADF‐ADL) to estimate chitin content, the NF yielded an average chitin content of 2.8 g/100 g.
TABLE 2.
Chitin content of the NF, on a product basis.
| Parameter (g/100 g) | Batch number | Analytical method | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| #1 | #2 | #3 | #4 | #5 | ||
| Acid detergent fibre | 3.20 | 3.90 | 3.40 | 3.00 | 3.80 | Hahn et al. (2018) |
| Acid detergent lignin | 0.50 | 0.90 | 0.60 | 0.70 | 0.80 | |
| Chitin | 2.70 | 3.00 | 2.80 | 2.30 | 3.00 | |
The Panel considers that the differences between the content of dietary fibres (Table 1) and chitin (Table 2) are due to different analytical methods utilised.
3.4.2. Metals and other elements
Content of metals and other elements in the NF are reported in Table 3.
TABLE 3.
Concentration of metals and other elements in the NF.
| Metals and other elements (mg/kg) | Batch number | Analytical method | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| #1 | #2 | #3 | #4 | #5 | ||
| Arsenic (As) | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.04 | ICP‐MS (digestion according to NEN‐EN 13805) |
| Mercury (Hg) | < 0.01 | < 0.01 | < 0.01 | < 0.01 | < 0.01 | |
| Lead (Pb) | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.06 | 0.07 | |
| Cadmium (Cd) | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | < 0.01 | 0.01 | |
Abbreviation: ICP‐MS, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.
The content of metals reported for the NF are below maximum levels set for other foods (meat, fish, crustaceans, rice) (Commission Regulation (EU) 2023/915) and are similar to the content previously reported and assessed for foods derived from whole insects (EFSA NDA Panel, 2021b, 2021c, 2021d).
3.4.3. Mycotoxins
The results of analyses of mycotoxins in the NF are reported in Table 4.
TABLE 4.
Mycotoxins, process contaminants, environmental contaminants, chemical contaminants and pesticide residues in the NF.
| Mycotoxins (μg/kg) | Batch number | Analytical method | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| #1 | #2 | #3 | #4 | #5 | ||
| Aflatoxin B1 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | LC–MS/MS (in‐house) |
| Aflatoxin B2 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | |
| Aflatoxin G1 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | |
| Aflatoxin G2 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | < 0.1 | |
| Aflatoxins (sum of B1, B2, G1, G2) | < 0.4 | < 0.4 | < 0.4 | < 0.4 | < 0.4 | |
| Ochratoxin A | < 0.2 | < 0.2 | < 0.2 | < 0.2 | < 0.2 | |
| Deoxynivalenol | < 20 | < 20 | < 20 | < 20 | < 20 | |
| Zearalenone | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | |
| Fumonisin B1 (FB1) | < 20 | < 20 | < 20 | < 20 | < 20 | |
| Fumonisin B2 (FB2) | < 20 | < 20 | < 20 | < 20 | < 20 | |
| Total Fumonisins (sum of FB1 and FB2) | < 40 | < 40 | < 40 | < 40 | < 40 | |
Abbreviation: LC‐MS/MS, liquid chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry.
The values of mycotoxins are below the limit of quantification (LOQ) for all analysed batches. The LOQ values are lower than the maximum levels (ML) set for any other food commodity as in Regulation (EU) 2023/915. The Panel notes that, in the current EU legislation, no MLs of mycotoxins are set for insects as food.
3.4.4. Contaminants
The applicant provided analytical data on the concentration of several contaminants in the NF (Table 5) including process contaminants, environmental contaminants, chemical contaminants, pesticides and biogenic amines.
TABLE 5.
Concentration of process contaminants, environmental contaminants, chemical contaminants, pesticide residues and biogenic amines in the NF.
| Parameter | Unit | Batch number | Analytical method | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| #1 | #2 | #3 | #4 | #5 | |||
| Process contaminants | |||||||
| 2‐MCPD (2‐monochloropropanediol) | μg/kg | < 5.0 | < 5.0 | < 5.0 | < 5.0 | < 5.0 | In‐house (GC‐MS/MS) |
| 3‐MCPD (3‐monochloropropanediol) | μg/kg | < 5.0 | < 5.0 | < 5.0 | < 5.0 | < 5.0 | In‐house (GC‐MS/MS) |
| Sum of 4 PAHs a | μg/kg | < 0.5 | < 0.5 | < 0.5 | < 0.5 | < 0.5 | In‐house (APGC‐MS/MS) |
| Environmental contaminants | |||||||
| Dioxins & PCBs | |||||||
| Sum PCDD/F (WHO 17) & PCB (WHO 12) b (upper bound) | pg/g fat | 0.96 | 0.67 | 0.60 | 0.85 | 0.73 | Conform: EC2017/644, EC2017/771 |
| PCB (ICES6) c (upper bound) | ng/g fat | 2.70 | 2.23 | 2.05 | 2.12 | 2.05 | Conform: EC2017/644, EC2017/771 |
| PFAS | |||||||
| Sum of PFOS, PFOA, PFNA and PFHxS | μg/kg | < 0.100 | < 0.100 | < 0.100 | < 0.100 | < 0.100 | In‐house (LC‐MS/MS) |
| Chemical contaminants – Inorganic | |||||||
| HCN (total hydrogen cyanide) | mg/kg | < 1.0 | < 1.0 | < 1.0 | < 1.0 | < 1.0 | ISO/IEC 17025:2018 (HS‐GC‐NPD) |
| Pesticides | |||||||
| Multi‐residue pesticide screening | mg/kg | < LOQ | < LOQ | < LOQ | < LOQ | < LOQ | In‐house (LC and GC‐MS/MS) |
| Biogenic amines | |||||||
| Histamine | mg/kg | < 1.0 | < 1.0 | < 1.0 | < 1.0 | < 1.0 | LC‐UV (Dansyl) Czech J. Food Sci. Vol.21 |
Abbreviations: APGC‐MS/MS, atmospheric pressure gas chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry; GC‐MS/MS, gas chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry; HCN, hydrogen cyanide; HS‐GC‐NPD, headspace‐gas chromatography‐nitrogen‐phosphorus detection; ISO/IEC, international standards from the International Organization for Standardization and the International Electrotechnical Commission; LC‐MS/MS, liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry; LC‐UV, Liquid chromatography‐ultraviolet spectrophotometry; MCPD, monochloropropanediol; PAHs, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; PCBs, polychlorinated biphenyls; PCDD/F, polychlorinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans; PFAS, per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances; PFHxS, perfluorohexane sulfonic acid; PFNA, perfluorononanoic acid; PFOA, perfluorooctanoic acid; PFOS, perfluorooctane sulfonate.
Sum of 4 PAHs: benzo(a)pyrene, benz(a)anthracene, benzo(b)fluoranthene and chrysene.
WHO(2005)‐PCDD/F + PCB TEQ.
Total 6 ndl‐PCB.
Process and Environmental contaminants: The Panel notes that, in the current EU legislation, no MLs for these compounds are set for insects as food. Contaminants were lower than the MLs set for different food commodities under Regulation (EU) 2023/915, and comparable to those previously reported and assessed for other foods derived from whole insects (EFSA NDA Panel, 2021a, 2021b, 2021c, 2021d).
Chemical contaminants – inorganic: The concentration of hydrogen cyanide in the NF was below the LOQ of the analytical method used, and below the limit of hydrocyanic acid (including hydrocyanic acid bound in cyanogenic glycosides) set for other food commodities in Regulation (EU) 2023/915.
Pesticides: Results show that all screened pesticides were below their respective LOQs (from 0.01 to 0.05 mg/kg).
Biogenic amines: The concentrations of histamine were below the regulatory limit of 200 mg/kg set for fishery products under Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005. No regulatory limits have been established for other biogenic amines detected in the NF.
Given the plant origin of the feeding substrate and the absence of prion or prion‐related encoding genes in insects, the development of specific prion diseases due to the consumption of the NF is not expected (EFSA Scientific Committee, 2015).
3.4.5. Microbiological profile
The applicant provided microbiological data on 10 independently produced batches of the NF (Table 6) to confirm that the production process is consistent and adequate to produce the NF at commercial scale. The Panel notes that the microbiological values of the analysed samples do not exceed the given specification limits.
TABLE 6.
Microbiological analyses of the NF.
| Parameter | Unit | Batch number | Analytical method | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| #11 | #12 | #13 | #14 | #15 | #21 | #22 | #23 | #24 | #25 | |||
| Aerobic plate count | cfu/g | 550 | 570 | 510 | 440 | 500 | 50 a | 50 a | < 40 | 50 a | < 40 | ISO4833‐1 |
| Yeasts (osmophilic) | cfu/g | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | ISO21527‐1 |
| Moulds (xerophilic) | cfu/g | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | ISO21527‐1 |
| Enterobacteriaceae | cfu/g | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | AFNOR 3M01/06‐09/97 |
| E. coli | cfu/g | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | BRD07/01‐07/93 |
| Aerobic mesophilic spores | cfu/g | 290 | 350 | 370 | 350 | 230 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | In‐house (Enumeration, cultural technique) |
| Sulfite‐reducing anaerobes | cfu/g | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | ISO15213 |
| Coagulase‐positive Staphylococcus | cfu/g | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | ISO6888‐2 |
| Bacillus cereus | cfu/g | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | ISO7932 |
| Clostridium perfringens | cfu/g | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | ISO7937 |
| Salmonella spp. | in 25 g | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | AFNOR EGS38/01‐03/15 |
| Listeria monocytogenes | in 25 g | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | BRD07/04‐09/98 |
Abbreviations: AFNOR, Association Française de Normalisation (French Standardization Association); BRD, Bio‐Rad; cfu, colony forming units; ISO, International Organization for Standardization; ND, not detected.
Estimated value: colony count below the quantification threshold.
The Panel considers that the information provided on the composition is sufficient for characterising the NF and does not raise safety concerns.
3.4.6. Stability of the novel food
The applicant proposed a shelf‐life of 6 months for the NF.
For testing, the NF was stored in sealed bags at −18°C for 6 months. Microbiological status was monitored at the end of the proposed shelf‐life (Table 7). Compared to the microbiological profile determined in the batch‐to‐batch analysis (Table 6), the microbial load remained low during the shelf‐life testing period.
TABLE 7.
Microbiological status of the NF at the end of the proposed shelf‐life (6 months).
| Parameter | Unit | Batch number | Analytical method | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| #16 | #17 | #18 | #19 | #20 | #26 | #27 | #28 | #29 | #30 | |||
| Aerobic plate count | cfu/g | 50 | 70 | 80 | 40 | 60 | 80 a | 80 a | 100 | 120 | 120 | ISO4833‐1 |
| Yeasts (osmophilic) | cfu/g | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | ISO21527‐1 |
| Moulds (xerophilic) | cfu/g | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | ISO21527‐1 |
| Enterobacteriaceae | cfu/g | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | AFNOR 3M01/06‐09/97 |
| E. coli | cfu/g | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | BRD07/01‐07/93 |
| Aerobic mesophilic spores | cfu/g | < 10 | < 40 a | < 40 a | < 40 a | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | In‐house (Enumeration, cultural technique) |
| Sulfite‐reducing anaerobes | cfu/g | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | ISO15213 |
| Coagulase‐positive Staphylococcus | cfu/g | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | ISO6888‐2 |
| Bacillus cereus | cfu/g | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | < 100 | ISO7932 |
| Clostridium perfringens | cfu/g | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | < 10 | ISO7937 |
| Salmonella spp . | in 25 g | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | AFNOR EGS38/01‐03/15 |
| Listeria monocytogenes | in 25 g | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | BRD07/04‐09/98 |
Abbreviations: AFNOR, Association Française de Normalisation (French Standardization Association); BRD, Bio‐Rad; cfu, colony forming units; ISO, International Organization for Standardization; ND, not detected.
Estimated value: colony count below the quantification threshold.
The Panel notes that the microbiological values do not exceed the given specification limits.
3.4.7. Stability of the intended‐for‐use matrices
The applicant investigated the stability of the NF when used as an ingredient in the intended‐for‐use foods. Specifically, the applicant investigated the microbiological load, lipid oxidation and the potential formation of processing contaminants in a hamburger prepared with the NF as an ingredient (Table 8).
TABLE 8.
Stability of the intended‐for‐use food.
| Parameter | Unit | Hamburger with NF | Hamburger without NF | Analytical method |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Microbiological | ||||
| Total plate count (aerobic) | CFU/g | 150 | < 40 | ISO4833‐1 |
| Yeasts (osmophilic) | cfu/g | < 100 | < 100 | ISO21527‐2 |
| Moulds (xerophilic) | cfu/g | < 400 | < 100 | ISO21527‐2 |
| Enterobacteriaceae | cfu/g | < 10 | < 10 | 3M01/06‐09/97 |
| E. coli | cfu/g | < 10 | < 10 | BRD07/01‐07/93 |
| Aerobic mesophilic spores | cfu/g | 310 | < 10 | E‐Cultural technique (non‐chromogenic media)[BCP Agar30°C‐72H+/‐3H] |
| Sulfite‐reducing anaerobes | cfu/g | < 10 | < 100 | ISO15213 |
| Coagulase‐positive Staphylococcus | cfu/g | < 10 | < 10 | ISO6888‐2 |
| Bacillus cereus | cfu/g | < 100 | < 100 | ISO7932 |
| Salmonella spp. | in 25 g | ND | ND | AFNOR EGS38/01‐03/15 |
| Listeria monocytogenes | in 25 g | ND | ND | BRD07/04‐09/98 |
| Clostridium perfringens | CFU/g | < 10 | < 10 | ISO7937 |
| Fat oxidation | ||||
| Free fatty acids | % of fat | 1.93 | NA | ISO 660:2009 |
| Peroxide value | meq/kg fat | 6.4 | 3.6 | ISO 27107:2009 |
| Biogenic amines | ||||
| Histamine | mg/kg | < 1 | < 1 | (Dansyl) Czech J. Food Sci. Vol.21 |
| Process contaminants | ||||
| Furan | μg/kg | < 5 | < 5 | USFDA/CFSAN 2006‐10 |
| Sum of PFOS, PFOA, PFNA and PFHxS (PFAS) | μg/kg | < 0.4 | < 0.4 | LC‐MS/MS |
| Acrylamide | μg/kg | < 30 | < 30 | LC‐MS/MS |
| Sum of 4 PAHs | μg/kg | < 0.5 | < 0.5 | APGC‐MS/MS |
| Sum PCDD/F(WHO17)& PCB(WHO12)(upper bound) | pg/g fat | 0.459 | 1.02 | EC2017/644, EC2017/771 |
| PCB(ICES6) (upper bound) | ng/g fat | 0.687 | 1.4 | EC2017/644, EC2017/771 |
| 2‐MCPD (2‐monochloropropanediol) | μg/kg | < 5 | < 5 | Internal method, GC‐MS |
| 3‐MCPD (3‐monochloropropanediol) | μg/kg | < 5 | < 5 | Internal method, GC‐MS |
Abbreviations: AFNOR, Association Française de Normalisation (French Standardization Association); APGC‐MS/MS, atmospheric pressure gas chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry; BRD, Bio‐Rad; cfu, colony‐forming units; CNBP, could not be performed due to too little fat extraction; GC‐MS, gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry; ISO, International Organization for Standardization; LC‐MS/MS, liquid chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry; MCPD, monochloropropanediol; NA, not analysed; ND, not detected; USFDA/CFSAN, United States Food and Drug Administration/Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition.
The tested hamburger was prepared by incorporating the NF at an inclusion level of 50% and was compared with a control hamburger prepared using the same ingredients but without the NF. Both products were stored frozen at −18°C and subsequently subjected to a thermal treatment (frying at 180°C) prior to analysis.
The Panel notes that the analytical data regarding the putative formation of contaminants, lipid oxidation and microbiological load following the use of the NF as an ingredient in a hamburger are limited to a single sample.
The Panel also notes that this food category is not included in the proposed uses (Table 10). Consequently, the Panel considers these analytical results only as supportive information, as they cannot entirely demonstrate the stability of the NF across the intended food categories.
TABLE 10.
Food categories and maximum use levels intended by the applicant.
| FoodEx2 level | FoodEx2 code | Food category | Max use level (g NF/100 g) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 3 | A005Y | Crackers and breadsticks | 20 |
| 3 | A007D | Pasta and similar products | 20 |
| 3 | A009V | Biscuits | 20 |
| 2 | A024F | Sausages | 20 |
| 3 | A03VC | Dishes excluding pasta or rice dishes, sandwiches and pizza | 40 |
| 3 | A03YY | Sandwiches, pizza and other stuffed bread‐like cereal products | 20 |
| 4 | A040N | Pasta‐based dishes, cooked | 20 |
| 4 | A040Z | Rice‐based dishes, cooked | 20 |
| 3 | A04LH | Breakfast cereals, plain | 20 |
| 3 | A04MN | Fruit/vegetable spreads and similar | 10 |
| 4 | A0EQS | Chocolate/cocoa‐based products | 10 |
| 3 | A0EQY | Chips, crisps, fries and dough‐based analogues | 10 |
| 3 | A0ERB | Bread alternative | 20 |
The Panel further notes that food items containing the NF must comply with currently established legislative limits (e.g. microbiological criteria set in Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005; benchmark levels for acrylamide in foods established by Regulation (EU) 2017/2158).
Provided that the specifications are met also at the end of the shelf‐life, and that products containing the NF comply with applicable legislative limits for processing contaminants, the Panel considers that the stability of the NF in the intended‐for‐use foods does not raise safety concerns.
3.5. Specifications
The specifications of the NF are indicated in Table 9.
TABLE 9.
Specifications of the NF.
| Description: Frozen paste of blanched, ground, whole Locusta migratoria sub‐adults (with legs and wings) | ||
|---|---|---|
| Source: [Locusta migratoria] | ||
| Parameter | Unit | Specification |
| Water (moisture) | g/100 g | 70.0–80.0 |
| Crude protein (N × 6.25) | g/100 g | 12.0–15.0 |
| Fat | g/100 g | 4.0–7.0 |
| Of which saturated | g/100 g | 1.4–2.0 |
| Dietary fibre | g/100 g | 0.5–3.0 |
| Chitin | g/100 g | ≤ 3.0 |
| Ash | g/100 g | 1.1–1.2 |
| Metals and other elements | ||
| Lead | mg/kg | ≤ 0.07 |
| Cadmium | mg/kg | ≤ 0.05 |
| Mercury | mg/kg | ≤ 0.01 |
| Arsenic | mg/kg | ≤ 0.05 |
| Minerals | ||
| Manganese | mg/kg | ≤ 1.8 |
| Mycotoxins | ||
| Total aflatoxin (sum of B1, B2, G1, G2) | μg/kg | ≤ 0.4 |
| Aflatoxin B1 | μg/kg | ≤ 0.1 |
| Ochratoxin A | μg/kg | ≤ 0.2 |
| Deoxynivalenol | μg/kg | ≤ 20 |
| Zearalenone | μg/kg | ≤ 10 |
| Total Fumonisins (sum B1, B2) | μg/kg | ≤ 40 |
| Microbiological parameters | ||
| TAMC | cfu/g | 104 |
| Enterobacteriaceae | cfu/g | ≤ 10 |
| Escherichia coli | cfu/g | ≤ 10 |
| Listeria monocytogenes | in 25 g | Not detected |
| Salmonella spp. | in 25 g | Not detected |
| Bacillus cereus | cfu/g | ≤ 100 |
| Coagulase‐positive staphylococci | cfu/g | ≤ 10 |
| Sulfite‐reducing anaerobes | cfu/g | ≤ 10 |
| TYMC | cfu/g | ≤ 100 |
| Other contaminants | ||
| Histamine | mg/kg | ≤ 1.0 |
| Sum PCDD/F (WHO 17) & PCB (WHO 12) (upper bound) a | pg/g fat | ≤ 1.0 |
Abbreviations: cfu, colony forming units; TAMC, total aerobic microbial count; TYMC, total yeast and mould count.
WHO(2005)‐PCDD/F + PCB TEQ.
The Panel considers that the information provided on the specifications of the NF is sufficient and does not raise safety concerns.
3.6. History of use of the NF and of its source
The source of the NF is the migratory locust (Locusta migratoria). LM is consumed as part of the diet in several non‐EU countries. Human consumption of LM has largely been documented in Madagascar, Cameroun, Congo, Zimbabwe, Sudan, South Sudan, Papua New Guinea, Thailand, China and Morocco (Jongema, 2017). Species of locusts are considered the most consumed insect species in Central African Republic (Durst et al., 2010). Since 1 June 2021, certain food products from the same source (Locusta migratoria) are authorised in the EU market for human consumption [Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/1975]. 3
3.7. Proposed uses and use levels and anticipated intake
3.7.1. Target population
The target population of the NF is the general population, and the risk assessment data and the exposure assessment shall cover all population groups (Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2469, article 5(6)).
3.7.2. Proposed uses and use levels
The NF is proposed for use as an ingredient in several food products. The food categories defined using the FoodEx2 hierarchy (EFSA, 2015) and the maximum use levels are reported in Table 10.
3.7.3. Anticipated intake of the NF
EFSA estimated the anticipated daily intake of the NF based on the applicant's proposed uses and maximum use levels (Table 10), using the EFSA Dietary Exposure (DietEx) Tool, 4 which is based on individual data from the EFSA Comprehensive European Food Consumption Database (EFSA, 2011). The lowest and highest mean and 95th percentile anticipated daily intake of the NF (on an mg/kg body weight (bw) basis), among the EU dietary surveys, are presented in Table 11.
TABLE 11.
Intake estimate resulting from the use of the NF as an ingredient in the intended food categories at the maximum proposed use levels.
| Population group | Age (years) | Mean intake (mg/kg bw per day) | P95 intake (mg/kg bw per day) | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lowest a | Highest a | Lowest b | Highest b | ||
| Infants | < 1 | 109 | 1094 | 508 | 4300 |
| Young children c | 1 to < 3 | 389 | 1753 | 1168 | 5312 |
| Other children | 3 to < 10 | 340 | 3080 | 857 | 6179 |
| Adolescents | 10 to < 18 | 172 | 769 | 484 | 2129 |
| Adults d | ≥ 18 | 56 | 862 | 203 | 1890 |
Abbreviation: P95, 95th percentile.
Intakes are assessed for all EU dietary surveys available in the Comprehensive Food Consumption Database on 21 April 2026. The lowest and the highest averages observed among all EU surveys are reported in these columns.
Intakes are assessed for all EU dietary surveys available in the Comprehensive Food Consumption Database on 21 April 2026. The lowest and the highest P95 observed among all EU surveys are reported in these columns (P95 based on less than 60 individuals are not considered).
Referred as ‘toddlers’ in the EFSA food consumption comprehensive database (EFSA, 2011).
Includes elderly, very elderly, pregnant and lactating women.
The estimated daily intake of the NF for each population group from each EU dietary survey is available in the Excel file annexed to this scientific opinion (under Supporting Information).
3.7.4. Estimate of exposure to undesirable substances
Based on the highest P95 intake estimates (Table 11), EFSA calculated the exposure to undesirable substances (metals and other elements, mycotoxins and other contaminants) from the NF, for all population groups. The specification limits (Table 9) were used as maximum values for the concentrations of substances considered. When specification limits for a substance of possible concern have not been proposed, the maximum values reported for the analysed batches were used. The Panel considers that consumption of the NF under the proposed uses and use levels does not contribute substantially to the overall intake of undesirable substances through diet, and therefore, it is not of concern.
The risk of intestinal constipation caused by the large spines on the LM legs and chitinous material has been reported (FAO, 2013b). In the NF, the risk is reduced by grinding the NF to a fine paste through a micro grinder.
3.8. Absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME)
No ADME data were provided for this NF. Owing to the nature of the NF as a whole food (see Section 3.4.1), the Panel considers that ADME studies are not required.
3.9. Nutritional information
The applicant performed a nutritional analysis on five batches of the NF, which mainly consists of proteins, fats, dietary fibre (including chitin) and inorganic matter. The energy value of the NF ranged from 449 to 545 kJ/100 g (Table 1). Analytical data on the amino acid composition, the fatty acid content, minerals and vitamins in the NF were provided.
3.9.1. Protein content and quality
The NF contains crude protein (Kp = 6.25) in the range of 13.8–14.8 g/100 g. However, it is acknowledged that the use of the conventional factor (i.e. 6.25) overestimates the levels of true proteins in L. migratoria due to the presence of non‐protein nitrogen (for Locusta migratoria = 2.21–2.36 g/100 g) derived mostly from chitin (Boulos et al., 2020). When using the nitrogen‐to‐protein conversion factor of 4.18 reported in the literature (Boulos et al., 2020), the true protein content of the NF ranged from 9.24% to 9.86%. However, for regulatory purposes (nutritional labelling), protein is defined as the total nitrogen measured by the Kjeldahl method multiplied by a nitrogen‐to‐protein conversion factor of 6.25 [Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 on the provision of food information to consumers].
The applicant quantified amino acids in five batches of the NF according to ISO 13903:2005 and Regulation (EC) No 152/2009 for tryptophan (see Table A1). Results show that proteins from LM paste contain all the indispensable amino acids. Furthermore, the applicant investigated nitrogen solubility after pepsin treatment in the NF, using the method ISO 6655:1997. The method is based on the amount of total nitrogen and does not distinguish between nitrogen from protein and from other sources. While the applied in vitro method covers some of the general principles of in vitro protein‐digestion assays described by Butts et al. (2012), such assays require validation against appropriate in vivo measures when used to predict physiological protein or amino acid digestibility. The sample is incubated for 48 h at 40°C in a solution of pepsin in HCl. The sample solution is filtered, and the nitrogen content is determined by Kjeldahl. Casein (digestibility = 96.6%) was used as a reference. Results indicated that the in vitro protein digestibility of the NF was 85.4 ± 7.33%.
The Panel notes that estimates of soluble nitrogen cannot be used in scoring systems such as the protein digestibility‐corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) and the digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) to quantify protein quality, in line with the standards set by FAO and IAEA (2024). However, provided that the NF would not be the sole source of dietary protein, that it is integrated into a varied and mixed diet, and considering that the average protein intake in the EU population is high and frequently above the dietary reference values (DRVs) (EFSA NDA Panel, 2012), the consumption of the NF is not expected to negatively impact protein nutrition.
3.9.2. Fatty acids, vitamins and minerals
The major fatty acids (FA) in LM paste are palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and α‐linolenic acids (Table B1). On average, saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids (mostly α‐linolenic acid) constitute 32%, 24% and 44% of total fatty acids, respectively. A similar fatty acid profile for L. migratoria was reported in the scientific opinion (EFSA NDA Panel, 2021a) and in the relevant literature (Nam et al., 2025; Ochiai, 2025). The trans fatty acids' content of the NF is < 0.05% of FAs.
The applicant provided analytical data on the levels of minerals and vitamins (Table 12). Considering the highest micronutrient values reported in Table 12, the specifications (Table 9) and the estimated P95 of exposure to the NF, the Panel notes that none of the existing upper levels for the analysed micronutrients are exceeded from the NF intake alone, for any population group. The concentration of Mn in the NF according to Table 12, might reach up to 0.17 mg/100 g. The EFSA NDA Panel (2023) established a safe level of intake of Mn of 8 mg/day for adults ≥ 18 years, ranging between 2 and 7 mg/day for other population groups. As compared to the highest P95 background dietary intake established (EFSA NDA Panel, 2023), the maximum estimated intake of Mn from the NF would be 3.4% in infants, 2.7% in toddlers, 4.3% in other children, 2.7% in adolescents and 3.0% in adults. The Panel considers that such intake of Mn (< 5% of the highest P95 background dietary intake 5 ) from the NF is not of concern.
TABLE 12.
Content of micronutrients (essential minerals and vitamins) in the NF.
| Parameter | Batch #1 | Batch #2 | Batch #3 | Batch #4 | Batch #5 | Methods of analyses |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Minerals (mg/100 g) | ||||||
| Sodium (Na) | 52 | 46 | 46 | 45 | 43 | ICP‐OES (internal method) |
| Potassium (K) | 290 | 300 | 290 | 300 | 290 | ICP‐MS (internal method) |
| Calcium (Ca) | 16 | 18 | 15 | 14 | 13 | ICP‐MS (internal method) |
| Magnesium (Mg) | 24 | 26 | 22 | 23 | 24 | ICP‐MS (internal method) |
| Phosphorus (P) | 190 | 190 | 180 | 180 | 180 | ICP‐MS (internal method) |
| Selenium (Se) | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.004 | 0.004 | 0.004 | ICP‐MS (internal method) |
| Manganese (Mn) | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.17 | 0.14 | 0.16 | ICP‐MS (internal method) |
| Iron (Fe) | 4.70 | 4.60 | 4.10 | 4.20 | 4.50 | ICP‐MS (internal method) |
| Copper (Cu) | 0.86 | 0.83 | 0.80 | 0.79 | 0.87 | ICP‐MS (internal method) |
| Zinc (Zn) | 4.0 | 3.5 | 3.8 | 3.6 | 3.6 | ICP‐MS (internal method) |
| Molybdenum (Mo) | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.02 | 0.03 | ICP‐MS (internal method) |
| Vitamins (mg/100 g) | ||||||
| Thiamin (vitamin B1) | 0.035 | 0.034 | 0.027 | 0.026 | 0.035 | LC‐FLD (EN14122: 2014) |
| Riboflavin (vitamin B2) | 1.92 | 1.84 | 1.85 | 1.75 | 1.79 | LC‐FLD (EN14152: 2014 mod) |
| Niacin (vitamin B3) | 3.51 | 3.20 | 3.09 | 2.91 | 0.74 | HPLC (EN 15652: 2009) |
| (vitamin B6) | 0.092 | 0.087 | 0.082 | 0.084 | 0.112 | LC‐FLD (EN 14164:2014) |
| α‐Tocopherol (vitamin E) | 0.467 | 0.545 | 0.525 | 0.478 | 0.607 | LC‐FLD (EN 12822: 2014) |
| Vitamins (μg/100 g) | ||||||
| Folate (vitamin B9) | 51.3 | 67.2 | 36.1 | 36.3 | 56.3 | Nephelometry (NMKL 111:1985) |
| Retinol (vitamin A) | < 21 a | < 21 a | < 21 a | < 21 a | < 21 a | HPLC‐DAD (EN 12823‐1 2014) |
| Vitamin B12 | 0.371 | <0.25 a | 0.355 | 0.313 | 0.531 | HPLC‐DAD (AOAC 952.20) |
| Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) | 0.25 | < 0.25 a | < 0.25 a | < 0.25 a | < 0.25 a | LC‐DAD (EN12821: 2009 mod) |
Abbreviations: DAD, diode array detector, NMKL, LC‐DAD; HPLC, high‐pressure liquid chromatography; ICP‐MS, inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry; ICP‐OES, inductively coupled plasma – optical emission spectroscopy; LC‐FLD, liquid chromatography with a fluorescent detector; LOQ, limit of quantification.
LOQ.
3.9.3. Antinutrients
The applicant determined the concentrations of phytic acid, polyphenols, oxalic acid and oxalates, trypsin inhibitors and total hydrocyanic acid in five batches of the NF (Table 13).
TABLE 13.
Analysis of anti‐nutritional factors in the NF.
| Parameter (unit) | Batch #1 | Batch #2 | Batch #3 | Batch #4 | Batch #5 | Analytical method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phytic acid | < 0.14% a | < 0.14% a | < 0.14% a | < 0.14% a | < 0.14% a | ICP‐OES |
| Total Polyphenols (mg/100 g) b | 392 | 360 | 389 | 373 | 375 | Spectrophotometry (Folin–Ciocalteu method) |
| Oxalic acid (g/100 g) | ||||||
| Expressed as calcium oxalate | < 0.03 | < 0.03 | < 0.03 | < 0.03 | < 0.03 | IC‐EC (internal method) |
| Expressed as oxalic acid | < 0.02 | < 0.02 | < 0.02 | < 0.02 | < 0.02 | IC‐EC (internal method) |
| Trypsin inhibitor activity (mg/g) | < 0.2 a | < 0.2 a | < 0.2 a | < 0.2 a | < 0.2 a | Spectrophotometry (UV/VIS) (NEN‐EN‐ISO 14902:2001) |
| Total hydrocyanic acid (mg/kg) | < 1 a | < 1 a | < 1 a | < 1 a | < 1 a | HS‐GC‐NPD (internal method) |
Abbreviations: EGCG, epigallocatechin gallate; HS‐GC‐NPD, head space – gas chromatography – nitrogen‐phosphorus detector (NPD); IC‐EC, ion chromatography (IC) with electrical conductivity (EC) detection; LOQ, limit of quantification.
Limit of quantification.
Expressed as tannic acid equivalent.
The Panel noted that for phytic acid, oxalic acid and oxalates, trypsin inhibitor activity and total hydrocyanic acid, the reported values were below the LOQs for the analytical methods, whereas for total polyphenols, the measured values were comparable to those described in EFSA NDA Panel (2021a).
The Panel considers that chitin, being an insoluble fibre, is not expected to be digested in the small intestine to a significant degree. Chitin is also rather resistant to microbial fermentation, and therefore, it is assumed to be excreted mainly unchanged.
Taking into account the composition of the NF and the proposed conditions of use, the Panel considers the consumption of the NF not nutritionally disadvantageous.
3.10. Toxicological information
Some insect species may secrete chemical substances with potential toxic effects as part of their defence mechanisms when subjected to stress (Palottini et al., 2025). For L. migratoria, the production of such substances has not been reported in the literature.
No toxicological studies were provided for the NF under assessment. The applicant performed a literature search, and no relevant toxicological studies were retrieved.
The toxicological profile of L. migratoria has been previously assessed by the Panel (EFSA NDA Panel, 2021a). In that assessment, the Panel concluded that the available toxicity studies from the literature and the history of use did not raise safety concerns, and that no safety concerns arise from the compositional data of L. migratoria.
3.10.1. Genotoxicity
Genotoxicity studies were not performed by the applicant, who provided instead a literature review. The applicant identified the study of Turkez et al. (2014), who investigated the genotoxic potential of the aqueous extracts of freeze‐dried migratory locust (L. migratoria L.). The water extracts were tested on cultured human lymphocytes by sister chromatid exchange, chromosome aberration and micronucleus assays. The tests were performed without S9 and were negative at concentrations up to 1000 mg/L.
The Panel agreed with the earlier considerations made by EFSA NDA Panel (2021a), which noted that the study by Turkez et al. (2014) bears several limitations, including (i) poor reporting of the experimental conditions, (ii) inadequate characteristics of the test material (namely, insoluble water extracts) and (iii) a lack of information on the processing conditions.
Despite the above‐mentioned limitations, the Panel considers that genotoxicity studies are not needed for this NF, given that no safety concerns were identified from the compositional data (Section 3.4) and the production process (Section 3.3). The Panel also took into account the scientific opinion (EFSA NDA Panel, 2021a), which assessed the safety of similar formulations of L. migratoria, and did not identify genotoxic concerns. The Panel considers that the NF does not raise safety concerns with respect to genotoxicity.
3.10.2. Subacute and subchronic toxicity
Following a request from EFSA, 6 the applicant performed a literature review on the potential oral toxicity of locust powder after repeated administration, and two relevant studies were identified.
Kwak et al. (2020) evaluated the subacute toxicity of freeze‐dried powder of Locusta migratoria (fdLM), in male and female rats, after administration by gavage for 28 days at the following dosages: 0 (control), 750, 1500 and 3000 mg/kg bw per day. In this study, the toxicological assessments included observations on food consumption, body and organ weights, clinical signs, mortality, ophthalmologic tests, urinalyses, haematologic tests, clinical chemistry tests, gross findings and histopathology examinations. Results showed no adverse effects for the test substance when administered for 28 days, for both sexes, for all the doses used.
Based on the above study, Kim et al. (2023) investigated the potential oral toxicity of fdLM in rats following 90 days of administration. The dosages used in this study were 0 (control), 750, 1500 and 3000 mg/kg bw per day. Rats were observed daily for clinical signs such as mortality, general appearance and behavioural abnormality; observations on food consumption, body and organ weights, clinical signs, mortality, ophthalmologic tests, urinalyses, hematologic tests, clinical chemistry tests, gross findings, and histopathology examinations were also performed. Results from this study showed no toxicological changes in both sexes of rats at the given doses, and a NOAEL (no‐observe‐adverse‐effect‐level) was set at 3000 mg/kg per day, the highest dose tested.
The applicant noted that the above two studies investigated L. migratoria in the adult stage and in the form of dried powder, whereas the NF at issue is a paste prepared from blanched ground sub‐adult L. migratoria.
Considering all the above, the Panel noted that the differences in processing (dried powder vs. paste) and age period (adult vs. sub‐adult stages) of L. migratoria are unlikely to pose an additional toxicological concern. The Panel also took into account the scientific opinion (EFSA NDA Panel, 2021a), which assessed the safety of L. migratoria formulations and for which no subacute and subchronic toxicity concerns were identified or requested.
3.10.3. Human data
The Panel noted that no human studies with the NF were provided and considered these not necessary.
3.11. Allergenicity
Following a request from EFSA, the applicant performed a literature review to gather information regarding the allergenic potential of L. migratoria. Orthopteran insects, such as grasshoppers and locusts, are allergenic hazards because of the symptoms they can cause following exposure through inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact (González‐Pérez et al. 2025). Cases of allergies to the migratory locust are described in the scientific literature (De Marchi et al., 2021).
In view of the information available in the literature, the Panel considers that the consumption of the NF source (L. migratoria) might trigger allergic reactions and primary sensitisation in people. The Panel also considers that allergic reactions might occur in subjects allergic to crustaceans, dust mites or molluscs due to cross‐reactivity (Pali‐Schöll et al., 2019). Additionally, the Panel notes that allergens from the feed might still be present in the NF (e.g. soy, gluten, etc.). This might include allergens listed in Annex II of Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 (EFSA NDA Panel, 2021b, 2021c, 2023). The Panel considers that allergic reactions might occur upon consumption of the NF.
4. DISCUSSION
The NF which is the subject of the application is a frozen paste from blanched, whole migratory locusts (Locusta migratoria sub‐adults). The production process is sufficiently described and does not raise safety concerns. The Panel considers that the NF is sufficiently characterised. The NF consists mainly of water, protein, fat, dietary fibre (mainly chitin) and inorganic matter. The insect feed may largely contribute to the content of contaminants in the NF.
The Panel notes that there are no safety concerns regarding stability if the NF complies with the proposed specification limits throughout its entire shelf‐life of 6 months.
The applicant intends to market the NF as an ingredient in several food products. The target population is the general population. The highest intake estimate was calculated for other children (3 to < 10 years old) at 6179 mg NF/kg bw per day at the 95th percentile of the intake distribution.
The Panel notes that consumption of the NF under the proposed uses and use levels does not contribute substantially to the total dietary exposure of the analysed undesirable substances (metals and other elements, mycotoxins and process contaminants).
The Panel notes that the crude protein content of the NF is overestimated due to the presence of non‐protein nitrogen from chitin when the nitrogen‐to‐protein conversion factor of 6.25 is used. Provided that the NF is not intended to be the sole source of dietary protein, that it is consumed as part of a varied and mixed diet and considering that the average protein intakes in the EU population are high and frequently exceed the dietary reference values (DRVs), the consumption of the NF is not expected to negatively impact protein nutrition, despite uncertainty regarding its protein quality.
None of the existing upper levels for the analysed micronutrients are expected to be exceeded under the proposed uses and use levels. Specifically, the Panel notes that the maximum estimated intake of manganese from the NF (< 5% of the highest P95 background dietary intake) is not of concern. The reported concentrations of antinutritional factors in the NF are comparable to those in other foods. The Panel considers that chitin is not expected to be digested in the small intestine of humans to any significant degree and is assumed to be excreted mainly unchanged. Considering the composition of the NF and the proposed conditions of use, the Panel considers that the consumption of the NF is not nutritionally disadvantageous.
No toxicological studies with the NF were performed by the applicant. Instead, the applicant provided a literature review on relevant toxicological data of L. migratoria. The Panel notes that no safety concerns arise from the toxicological information available. Considering the nature of the NF, its composition, the production process and the available information, the Panel considers that no additional toxicological studies are required for this NF.
The Panel considers that the consumption of the NF might trigger primary sensitisation and allergic reactions to migratory locust proteins and might also elicit allergic reactions in subjects allergic to crustaceans, mites or molluscs due to cross‐reactivity. Additionally, the Panel notes that allergens from the feed (e.g. soy and gluten) might be present in the NF.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The Panel concludes that the NF is safe under the proposed conditions of use. In addition, the Panel notes that allergic reactions might occur upon consumption.
ABBREVIATIONS
- AA
amino acids
- ADME
absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion
- APGC‐MS/MS
atmospheric pressure gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry
- AVRG
average
- bw
body weight
- CFU
colony‐forming unit
- DAD
diode array detector
- DIAAS
Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score
- DietEx
dietary exposure tool
- DRVs
dietary reference values
- EGCG
epigallocatechin gallate
- FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization
- FAs
fatty acids
- GC‐FID
gas chromatography with flame ionisation detection
- GC‐MS
gas chromatography‐ mass spectrometry
- GC‐MS/MS
gas chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry
- GMP
good manufacturing practice
- HACCP
hazard analysis critical control points
- HCN
hydrogen cyanide
- HPLC
high pressure liquid chromatography
- HS‐GC‐NPD
headspace gas chromatography‐ nitrogen‐phosphorus detector
- IAEA
international atomic energy agency
- IC‐EC
ion chromatography with electrical conductivity detection
- ICES
international council for the exploration of the sea
- IC‐PAD
ion chromatographic‐pulsed amperometric method
- ICP‐MS
inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
- ICP‐OES
inductively coupled plasma – optical emission spectroscopy
- ISO
International Organization for Standardization
- ISO/IEC
International standards from the International Organization for Standardization and the International Electrotechnical Commission
- kp
nitrogen‐to‐protein conversion factor
- LC‐DAD
liquid chromatography‐diode array detector
- LC‐FLD
liquid chromatography with a fluorescent detector
- LC‐MS/MS
liquid chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry
- LC‐UV
liquid chromatography‐ultraviolet
- LM
Locusta migratoria
- LOQ
Limit of Quantification
- MCPD
monochloropropanediol
- Mn
manganese
- ND
not detected
- NDA
nutrition, novel foods and food allergens
- NF
novel food
- NMKL
Nordic Committee on Food Analysis (Nordisk Metodikkomité for Næringsmidler)
- NOAEL
no observed adverse effect level
- P95
95th percentile
- PAHs
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
- PCBs
polychlorinated biphenyls
- PCDD/F
polychlorinated dibenzo‐p‐dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans
- PFAS
per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances
- PFHxS
perfluorohexane sulfonic acid
- PFNA
perfluorononanoic acid
- PFOA
perfluorooctanoic acid
- PFOS
perfluorooctane sulfonate
- SAA
sulfur‐containing amino acids
- SD
standard deviation
- TAMC
total aerobic microbial count
- TYM
total yeast and mould
- UV/VIS
ultraviolet–visible
- WHO
World Health Organization
REQUESTOR
European Commission
QUESTION NUMBER
EFSA‐Q‐2018‐00513
COPYRIGHT FOR NON‐EFSA CONTENT
EFSA may include images or other content for which it does not hold copyright. In such cases, EFSA indicates the copyright holder and users should seek permission to reproduce the content from the original source.
PANEL MEMBERS
María de la Montaña Cámara Hurtado, Dominique Turck, Torsten Bohn, Jacqueline Castenmiller, Stefaan De Henauw, Karen Ildico Hirsch‐Ernst, Ángeles Mencia Jos Gallego, Alexandre Maciuk, Inge Mangelsdorf, Breige Mcnulty, Androniki Naska, Kristina Pentieva, Alfonso Siani and Frank Thies.
Supporting information
Annex A: Dietary exposure estimates to the Novel Food for each population group from each EU dietary survey
APPENDIX A.
TABLE A1.
Amino acid profile (g/100g of NF).
| Amino acids | Batch #1 | Batch #2 | Batch #3 | Batch #4 | Batch #5 | AVRG ± SD | FAO (2013a) a |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Non‐essential AA | |||||||
| Alanine | 0.801 | 0.849 | 0.836 | 0.869 | 0.808 | 0.83 ± 0.03 | |
| Arginine | 0.657 | 0.702 | 0.734 | 0.722 | 0.699 | 0.70 ± 0.03 | |
| Aspartic acid | 1.020 | 1.030 | 1.140 | 1.130 | 1.040 | 1.07 ± 0.06 | |
| Glutamic acid | 1.440 | 1.530 | 1.550 | 1.550 | 1.540 | 1.52 ± 0.05 | |
| Glycine | 0.639 | 0.641 | 0.662 | 0.669 | 0.605 | 0.64 ± 0.03 | |
| Proline | 0.581 | 0.645 | 0.642 | 0.633 | 0.589 | 0.62 ± 0.03 | |
| Serine | 0.512 | 0.531 | 0.575 | 0.552 | 0.537 | 0.54 ± 0.02 | |
| Cysteine | 0.118 | 0.131 | 0.122 | 0.121 | 0.122 | 0.12 ± 0.00 | |
| Tyrosine | 0.563 | 0.627 | 0.663 | 0.684 | 0.629 | 0.63 ± 0.05 | |
| Essential AA | |||||||
| Histidine | 0.285 | 0.306 | 0.307 | 0.315 | 0.298 | 0.30 ± 0.01 | 1.5 |
| Isoleucine | 0.427 | 0.473 | 0.480 | 0.472 | 0.431 | 0.46 ± 0.03 | 3.0 |
| Leucine | 0.787 | 0.858 | 0.875 | 0.885 | 0.845 | 0.85 ± 0.04 | 5.9 |
| Lysine | 0.734 | 0.838 | 0.829 | 0.836 | 0.797 | 0.81 ± 0.04 | 4.5 |
| Methionine | 0.168 | 0.172 | 0.171 | 0.180 | 0.172 | 0.17 ± 0.00 | 2.2 |
| Phenylalanine | 0.437 | 0.443 | 0.507 | 0.500 | 0.447 | 0.467 ± 0.03 | 3.8 |
| Threonine | 0.510 | 0.501 | 0.561 | 0.544 | 0.534 | 0.53 ± 0.02 | 2.3 |
| Tryptophane | 0.129 | 0.142 | 0.134 | 0.135 | 0.136 | 0.14 ± 0.00 | 0.6 |
| Valine | 0.623 | 0.705 | 0.623 | 0.663 | 0.700 | 0.67 ± 0.04 | 3.9 |
| Sum of all AAs | 10.4 | 11.1 | 11.4 | 11.5 | 10.9 | 11.1 ± 0.42 | |
Note: Analyses performed on five batches of the NF. All amino acids were measured through methods ISO 13903:2005, apart from tryptophane that was measured with method according to Regulation (EC) No EU 152/2009.
Abbreviations: AA, amino acids; AVRG, average; FAO, Food and Agriculture Organization; SD, standard deviation.
Expressed as mg/g protein.
APPENDIX B.
TABLE B1.
Major fatty acids (g/100 g NF) of the NF.
| Fatty acid | Batch #1 | Batch #2 | Batch #3 | Batch #4 | Batch #5 | AVRG ± SD | Analytical method |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total fats | 6.30 | 4.70 | 5.90 | 6.60 | 6.50 | 6.00 ± 0.77 | Gravimetry (Soxhlet) |
| Palmitic acid | 1.31 | 0.97 | 1.23 | 1.39 | 1.37 | 1.25 ± 0.17 | GC‐FID (EC 152/2009) |
| Stearic acid | 0.47 | 0.36 | 0.43 | 0.48 | 0.47 | 0.44 ± 0.05 | GC‐FID (EC 152/2009) |
| Oleic acid | 1.40 | 1.03 | 1.31 | 1.47 | 1.41 | 1.32 ± 0.17 | GC‐FID (EC 152/2009) |
| Linoleic acid | 0.93 | 0.69 | 0.84 | 1.00 | 0.95 | 0.88 ± 0.12 | GC‐FID (EC 152/2009) |
| α‐linolenic acid | 1.71 | 1.29 | 1.63 | 1.75 | 1.79 | 1.63 ± 0.2 | GC‐FID (EC 152/2009) |
| Saturated fatty acids | 1.91 | 1.43 | 1.79 | 2.01 | 1.97 | 1.82 ± 0.23 | |
| Monounsaturated fatty acids | 1.46 | 1.08 | 1.37 | 1.54 | 1.48 | 1.39 ± 0.18 | |
| Polyunsaturated fatty acids | 2.65 | 1.99 | 2.48 | 2.75 | 2.75 | 2.52 ± 0.32 | |
| Trans fatty acids | < 0.01 | < 0.01 | < 0.01 | < 0.01 | < 0.01 | ||
| Other fatty acids | < 0.01 | < 0.01 | < 0.01 | < 0.01 | < 0.01 | ||
| Omega‐3 fatty acids | 1.72 | 1.29 | 1.64 | 1.76 | 1.80 | 1.64 ± 0.21 | |
| Omega‐6 fatty acids | 0.93 | 0.69 | 0.84 | 1.00 | 0.95 | 0.88 ± 0.12 | |
| Omega‐6/omega‐3 | 0.54 | 0.54 | 0.51 | 0.57 | 0.53 | 0.54 ± 0.02 |
Note: Analyses performed on five batches of the NF.
Abbreviations: AVRG, average; GC‐FID, gas chromatography with flame ionisation detection; SD, standard deviation.
EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens) , Turck, D. , Bohn, T. , Cámara, M. , Castenmiller, J. , De Henauw, S. , Jos, Á. , Maciuk, A. , Mangelsdorf, I. , McNulty, B. , Naska, A. , Pentieva, K. , Siani, A. , Thies, F. , Gomez, M. A. , Frenzel, T. , Marcon, F. , McArdle, H. , Moldeus, P. , … Hirsch‐Ernst, K. I. (2026). Safety of frozen paste from blanched, whole migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. EFSA Journal, 24(10), e10317. 10.2903/j.efsa.2026.10317
Adopted: 31 August 2026
Correspondence: Ask a Question
The declarations of interest of all scientific experts active in EFSA's work are available at https://open.efsa.europa.eu/experts.
Notes
Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2469 of 20 December 2017 laying down administrative and scientific requirements for applications referred to in Article 10 of Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 of the European Parliament and of the Council on novel foods. OJ L 351, 30.12.2017, pp. 64–71.
Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food information to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 1924/2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 608/2004 Text with EEA relevance.
Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/1975 of 12 November 2021 authorising the placing on the market of frozen, dried and powder forms of Locusta migratoria as a novel food under Regulation (EU) 2015/2283 of the European Parliament and of the Council and amending Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/2470.
As reported by the published minutes of the 154th meeting of the working group on novel foods (WG NF, 2024), the WG considers that ‘for the purpose of the assessment of NFs, intakes that lead to a significant increase of manganese (Mn) intake as compared to the safe levels set by the EFSA NDA Panel (2023) are considered of concern. In the absence of adequate data to establish an UL, the EFSA NDA Panel (2023) established the safe levels of intake of Mn based on observed background intake of Mn among high consumers from the general population (P95 estimates). Based on experts' judgement and criteria set by the WHO/FAO's Codex Alimentarius Commission (2015) for selecting foods/food groups that contribute significantly to total dietary exposure of a contaminant or toxin, the WG concluded that Mn intake from the NF exceeding 5% of the highest P95 background dietary intake is considered as a significant contribution’.
Available at: https://open.efsa.europa.eu/questions/EFSA‐Q‐2018‐00513.
REFERENCES
- Boulos, S. , Tännler, A. , & Nyström, L. (2020). Nitrogen‐to‐protein conversion factors for edible insects on the Swiss market: T. molitor, A. domesticus and L. migratoria . Frontiers in Nutrition, 7, 89. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Butts, C. A. , Monro, J. A. , & Moughan, P. J. (2012). In vitro determination of dietary protein and amino acid digestibility for humans. British Journal of Nutrition, 108, S282–S287. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- De Marchi, L. , Wangorsch, A. , & Zoccatelli, G. (2021). Allergens from edible insects: Cross‐reactivity. Current Allergy and Asthma Reports, 21, 35. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Durst, P. B. , Johnson, D. V. , Leslie, R. N. , & Shono, K. (2010). Forest insects as food: Humans bite back. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. [Google Scholar]
- EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) . (2011). Use of the EFSA comprehensive European food consumption database in exposure assessment. EFSA Journal, 9(3), 2097, 34 pp. 10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2097 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) . (2015). The food classification and description system FoodEx2 (revision 2). EFSA Supporting Publications, 12(5), EN‐804, 90 pp. [Google Scholar]
- EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies) . (2010). Scientific opinion on dietary reference values for carbohydrates and dietary fibre. EFSA Journal, 8(3), 1462. 10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1462 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies) . (2012). Scientific opinion on dietary reference values for protein. EFSA Journal, 10(2), 2557. 10.2903/j.efsa.2012.2557 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies) . (2016). Guidance on the preparation and presentation of an application for authorisation of a novel food in the context of regulation (EU) 2015/2283. EFSA Journal, 14(11), 4594. 10.2903/j.efsa.2016.4594 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens) . (2021a). Scientific opinion on the safety of frozen and dried formulations from migratory locust (Locusta migratoria) as a novel food pursuant to regulation (EU) 2015/2283. EFSA Journal, 19(7), 6667. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens) . (2021b). Scientific opinion on the safety of dried yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor larva) as a novel food pursuant to regulation (EU) 2015/2283. EFSA Journal, 19(1), 6343. 10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6343 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens) . (2021c). Scientific Opinion on the safety of frozen and dried formulations from whole yellow mealworm (Tenebrio molitor larva) as a novel food pursuant to regulation (EU) 2015/2283. EFSA Journal, 19(8), 6778. 10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6778 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens) . (2021d). Scientific opinion on the safety of frozen and dried formulations from whole house crickets (Acheta domesticus) as a novel food pursuant to regulation (EU) 2015/2283. EFSA Journal, 19(8), 6779. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- EFSA NDA Panel (EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens) . (2023). Scientific opinion on the tolerable upper intake level for manganese. EFSA Journal, 21(11), 8413. 10.2903/j.efsa.2023.8413 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- EFSA Scientific Committee . (2011). Guidance on conducting repeated‐dose 90‐day oral toxicity study in rodents on whole food/feed. EFSA Journal, 9(12), 2438. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- EFSA Scientific Committee . (2015). Risk profile related to production and consumption of insects as food and feed. EFSA Journal, 13(10), 4257. 10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4257 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- FAO . (2013a). Edible insects: Future prospects for food and feed security. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. [Google Scholar]
- FAO . (2013b). Dietary protein quality evaluation in human nutrition. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. [Google Scholar]
- FAO, IAEA . (2024). Construction of a database on ileal digestibility of protein and amino acids in foods consumed by humans . Report of a joint FAO/IAEA meeting. Paris, France, 26–29 November 2024.
- GBIF Secretariat . (2023). GBIF Backbone Taxonomy. Checklist dataset 10.15468/39omei accessed via GBIF.org [DOI]
- González‐Pérez, R. , Poza‐Guedes, P. , Figueiras‐Rincón, M. A. , Colque‐Bayona, M. , & Sánchez‐Machín, I. (2025). The allergy crossroads of subtropical regions: Mites, crustaceans and the rise of edible insects. Nutrients, 17(9), 1405. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hahn, T. , Roth, A. , Febel, E. , Fijalkowska, M. , Schmitt, E. , Arsiwalla, T. , & Zibek, S. (2018). New methods for high‐accuracy insect chitin measurement. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 98, 5069–5073. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hinks, C. F. , & Erlandson, M. A. (1994). Rearing grasshoppers and locusts: Review, rationale and update. Journal of Orthoptera Research, 3, 1–10. 10.2307/3503403 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Jongema, Y. (2017). World list of edible insects. Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, S. Y. , Kwak, K. W. , Park, J. Y. , Park, E. S. , Nam, C. J. , An, K. S. , Kim, H. J. , Yoon, H. J. , Kim, Y. S. , Park, K. , Kim, E. , Ryu, H. Y. , & Kim, S. D. (2023). Evaluation of subchronic oral dose toxicity and allergen of freeze‐dried powder of Locusta migratoria (Orthoptera: Acrididae) as a novel food source. Toxicology Research, 39(2), 317–331. 10.1007/s43188-023-00171-7 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kwak, K. W. , Kim, S. Y. , An, K. S. , Kim, Y. S. , Park, K. , Kim, E. , Hwang, J. S. , Kim, M. A. , Ryu, H. Y. , & Yoon, H. J. (2020). Subacute oral toxicity evaluation of freeze‐dried powder of Locusta migratoria . Food Science of Animal Resources, 40(5), 795–812. 10.5851/kosfa.2020.e55 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lecocq, A. , Jensen, A. B. , & Eilenberg, J. (2018). Diseases of insects in European production systems: Diagnosis, prevention and management. Berliner und Münchener Tierärztliche Wochenschrift. 10.2376/0005-9366-18061 [DOI]
- Lecoq, M. (2023). Recent nomenclatural history of the genus Locusta . HAL Open Science, hal‐04097291. https://hal.science/hal‐04097291
- Lecoq, M. , & Zhang, L. (2019). Migratory locust Locusta migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758) (Acrididae). In Lecoq M. & Zhang L. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of pest orthoptera of the world (pp. 119–120). China Agricultural University Press. [Google Scholar]
- Ma, C. , & Kang, L. (2013). Population genetics and the subspecific taxonomy of the migratory locust. Chinese Journal of Applied Entomology, 50(1), 1–8. [Google Scholar]
- Muthukrishnan, S. , Mun, S. , Noh, M. Y. , Geisbrecht, E. R. , & Arakane, Y. (2020). Insect cuticular chitin contributes to form and function. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 26(29), 3530–3545. 10.2174/1381612826666200523175409 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nam, J.‐K. , Kwak, B.‐M. , & Jang, H. W. (2025). Optimization and comparative analysis of quality characteristics and volatile profiles in edible insect oils extracted using supercritical fluid extraction and ultrasound‐assisted extraction methods. Food Chemistry, 474. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2025.143237 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ochiai, M. (2025). Edible insects as novel food resources with functionality and nutritional value: Possibilities and problems. Food Science and Technology Research, 31(1), 1–15. 10.3136/fstr.FSTR-D-24-00093 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Oonincx, D. G. A. B. , Van Broekhoven, S. , Van Huis, A. , & van Loon, J. J. A. (2015). Feed conversion, survival and development, and composition of four insect species on diets composed of food by‐products. PLoS One, 10, e0144601. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pali‐Schöll, I. , Verhoeckx, K. , Mafra, I. , Bavaro, S. L. , Mills, E. N. C. , & Monaci, L. (2019). Allergenic and novel food proteins: State of the art and challenges in the allergenicity assessment. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 84, 45–48. 10.1016/j.tifs.2018.03.007 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Palottini, F. , Lucia, A. , Martínez, E. , & Balbuena, M. S. (2025). Volatile organic compounds release under threat in bumblebees: Chemical identification and antennal detection. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 51, 7. 10.1007/s10886-025-01627-w [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rumpold, B. A. , & Schlüter, O. K. (2013). Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research, 57, 802–823. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Turkez, H. , Incekara, U. , Güner, A. , Aydın, E. , Dirican, E. , & Togar, B. (2014). The cytogenetic effects of the aqueous extracts of migratory locust (Locusta migratoria L.) in vitro. Toxicology and Industrial Health, 30(3), 233–237. 10.1177/0748233712452610 [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- WG NF . (2024). Minutes of the 154th working group on novel foods, 2024. https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/science/scientific‐committee‐and‐panels/nda#working‐groups
Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Supplementary Materials
Annex A: Dietary exposure estimates to the Novel Food for each population group from each EU dietary survey