Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Food Chemistry: X logoLink to Food Chemistry: X
. 2026 Sep 24;39:104515. doi: 10.1016/j.fochx.2026.104515

Regulation of corn starch long-term retrogradation and dough functionality by grape polyphenols and HHP treatment with potential implications for dysphagia food development

Yuqian Zheng 1, Xiaoyan Qin 1, Wenyan Wang 1, Xinxin Wen 1, Peirou Ren 1, Fangqi Ren 1, Tong Liu 1, Sheng Li 1,⁎
PMCID: PMC13636338  PMID: 42835970

Abstract

This study investigated the synergistic effect of incorporating grape-derived polyphenols in combination with high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) treatment on the long-term retrogradation of corn starch (CS) and on the structural modulation of dough functionality. CS was complexed with three distinct grape-derived polyphenol preparations, grape seed oligomeric proanthocyanidins (GSOP), grape seed polyphenols (GSP), and grape skin anthocyanins (GSA), subjected to HHP treatment, and subsequently stored for 14 days. The interaction between CS and these polyphenols promoted the formation of short-range ordered structures, reduced gel hardness, and suppressed moisture migration—collectively contributing to enhanced structural stability. These physicochemical modifications effectively inhibited long-term starch retrogradation and improved the shelf-life stability. Moreover, selected HCS-polyphenol complexes conferred swallowability-oriented rheological behavior to cookie dough, thereby offering preliminary insights into potential mechanisms for tailoring starch-based foods for dysphagia-friendly applications.

Keywords: Corn starch, Grape polyphenols, High hydrostatic pressure, Long-term retrogradation, Dysphagia food

Highlights

  • •

    HCS-polyphenol complex demonstrated inhibited long-term retrogradation.

  • •

    The HCS-polyphenol cookie dough had a suitable texture for easy-to-swallow foods.

  • •

    The gel blocks of HCS-polyphenol complex met the IDDSI level 4 standard.

1. Introduction

Starch is an energy-dense nutrient that efficiently fuels human bodies. Starch retrogradation, caused by the reassociation and recrystallization of gelatinized amylose and amylopectin chains, promotes firming, syneresis, and sensory deterioration, thereby reducing the shelf-life of starch-based foods (Yang et al., 2017). There are many regulation methods for starch structure, thus controlling the retrogradation of starch (Nawaz et al., 2020). High hydrostatic pressure (HHP), a non-thermal physical processing technology, can influence the long-term retrogradation of starch. HHP treatment has been demonstrated to exert certain impacts on the physicochemical properties and short-term retrogradation of starch (Zheng & Zeng, 2025).

Grapes are rich in a variety of polyphenols, which are particularly abundant in grape seeds and grape skins. These polyphenols exhibit remarkable antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties and can interact with starch through non-covalent bonds(Kaur et al., 2025). Under HHP treatment, the native structure of starch is disrupted, facilitating the interaction between polyphenols and starch, thereby influencing both the physicochemical and nutritional properties of starch (Liu et al., 2025). However, the regulatory effects and underlying mechanisms of HHP treatment and polyphenol incorporation on the long-term retrogradation of starch remain largely unclear. In particular, the relationship between the structural evolution of starch–polyphenol systems and their anti-retrogradation performance during prolonged storage requires further investigation. Therefore, this study aims to elucidate the effects of HHP treatment and polyphenol addition on the retrogradation behavior of corn starch and to establish the correlations among structural characteristics, textural properties, and water migration behavior. After 14 d of retrogradation, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), texture profile analysis (TPA), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) spectroscopy were employed to characterize the changes in microstructure, mechanical properties, crystalline structure, short-range molecular ordering, and moisture distribution of starch and starch–polyphenol complexes. Furthermore, starch samples exhibiting enhanced anti-retrogradation properties were selected and incorporated into cookie dough to evaluate their effects on dough characteristics and product quality, thereby exploring their potential application in the development of starch-based foods with improved storage stability and swallowing suitability. This study provides new insights into the mechanism by which HHP treatment and polyphenol incorporation regulate starch retrogradation and offers a theoretical foundation for the rational design of functional starch-based foods, particularly those intended for individuals with dysphagia.

2. Material and methods

2.1. Material

Corn starch (CS) (Product code: RT1152; amylose content: 27.54%; moisture content: 15.41%) was obtained from Shanghai Yuanye Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Grape seed oligomeric proanthocyanidins (GSOP), primarily composed of a series of oligomeric mixtures formed by catechin, epicatechin, and their gallate derivatives (e.g., epicatechin gallate) linked via C—C bonds. Given that the most abundant components in the mixture are oligomeric proanthocyanidins with a degree of polymerization (DP) of 2 to 5, they are termed “oligomeric proanthocyanidins”. The molecular weight of approximately 3,000,000 Da mentioned in the manuscript refers to the total molecular weight of all oligomeric substances in the mixture. Grape seed polyphenols (GSP) were purchased from Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Their main components and molecular weights were characterized by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), with detailed information provided in the Supplementary Material. Grape skin anthocyanins (GSA) were extracted from the skin of Vitis amurensis cv. Beibinghong, with malvidin-3-glucoside identified as the primary component (Liu et al., 2021). The chemical structures and molecular weights of the major components of the three polyphenols are illustrated in Fig. S1.

3. Methods

3.1. Preparation of starch-polyphenol complexes

10 g of CS was mixed with three different polyphenols (GSOP, GSP, and GSA) at concentrations of 0%, 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, and 2.0% (w/w, based on CS dry weight), followed by the addition of deionized water to prepare a 15% (w/w) suspension. The mixture was vacuum sealed in a polythene bag and processed in a high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) apparatus (SHHP-5 L; Shanxi Leadford Technology Co., LTD., Taiyuan, China), treated at 600 MPa for 15 min. The HHP-treated samples were ground, mixed with water, and heated in a 95 °C water bath for 15 min to achieve complete starch gelatinization. These gelatinized starch gel samples were stored at 4 °C for 14 d, then placed at −80 °C for 24 h. Gel samples subsequently freeze-dried, sieved, and prepared for characterization. It should be noted that freeze-drying may induce structural artifacts that affect subsequent SEM and XRD analyses.

3.2. Determination of short-range ordered structure

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis was performed according to the method of Zhou et al. (2019). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (VERTEX 70, Bruker, Germany) was used to measure the IR spectra of each sample. Each sample was mixed with potassium bromide (KBr) at a ratio of 1:100 and pressed into a thin pellet. The spectra were recorded in the absorbance mode over a range of 400–4000 cm−1 with a resolution of 2 cm−1 and 64 scans per measurement. Spectral analysis was conducted at room temperature using the OMNIC software.

3.3. X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD)

The method of Ahangari et al. (2023) was modified and adopted using an X-ray diffractometer (TD-3700, Tongda, China) to analyze the starch crystal structure. Samples were scanned from 5° to 50° (2θ) using a Cu-Kα X-ray source, with a step size of 0.05° (2θ) and a scanning speed of 10°/min. The resulting diffraction patterns were analyzed with Jade 9.0 software.

3.4. Microstructure observation by scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

Approximately 1 mg of starch powder was deposited onto metal stubs pre-mounted with double-sided adhesive tape. The stubs were then sputter-coated with gold for 60 s using an ion sputter coater (Yan et al., 2024). Morphology was characterized using a scanning electron microscope (JSM-6701 F; Electron Optics Inc., Japan) at magnifications of 500× and 1000 × .

3.5. Determination of textural properties

The textural properties of all gel samples prepared in section 2.1 are slightly modified from the method of Zhong et al. (2020), using a Texture Analyzer (TA-XT, Stable Micro System, UK). Mechanical testing employed the following parameters: a pre-test and post-test velocity of 1.0 mm/s, a test distance of 10.0 mm, and a trigger force threshold of 5 g in auto-trigger mode.

3.6. Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) measurements

The transverse relaxation time (T2) and peak area percentage (A2) of samples were measured using a low-field nuclear magnetic resonance analyzer (MesoMR23-060H-I, Niumag Co. Ltd., China) (Yu et al., 2025). The detection employed the Carr–Purcell–Meiboom–Gill sequence. The resonance frequency was set at 20 MHz, with the temperature constantly maintained at 32 °C.

3.7. IDDSI test of gel samples

All starch-polyphenol gel formulations were classified based on the International Dysphagia Diet Standardization Initiative (IDDSI) framework (levels 0–7) according to the IDDSI testing methods (Cichero et al., 2020), and their feasibility as foods for individuals with dysphagia was validated. In this study, following the IDDSI testing protocol, gel samples were cut into approximately 1.5 cm × 1.5 cm cubes at room temperature. Cubes subsequently subjected to the fork pressure test, spoon tilt test, and fork drip test. Observations were made and compared with the IDDSI descriptors to assess the level of each gel.

3.8. Analysis of the processing characteristics of cookie dough

3.8.1. Preparation of cookie dough

The preparation of cookie dough was adhered to the standard formula of Barragán-Martínez et al. (2022) with minor adjustments. All raw materials (low-gluten wheat flour, granulated sugar, butter, and homogenized liquid whole egg were sourced from a local supermarket. The control formulation comprised low-gluten wheat flour (49 g/100 g), granulated sugar (11 g/100 g), butter (23 g/100 g), and homogenized liquid whole egg (17 g/100 g). In the experimental groups, 30% of the low-gluten wheat flour from the control formula was substituted with HCS, HCS-2% GSOP, HCS-2% GSP, or HCS-2% GSA. The resulting cookie samples were correspondingly designated as C-CK (control), C-CS, C-GSOP, C-GSP, and C-GSA.

3.8.2. FTIR analyze of cookie dough

The freeze-dried sample was ground with KBr powder at a ratio of 1:100 in an agate mortar and pressed into tablets. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (VERTEX 70, Bruker, Germany) was used to measure the IR spectra of each sample. The scanning spectrum was set in the range of 600 to 4000 cm−1 with a resolution of 4 cm−1 and a scanning frequency of 64 times.

3.8.3. Determination of the textural properties of dough

The textural properties of dough samples were analyzed using a Texture Analyzer (TA-XT, Stable Micro System, UK). The prepared dough was cut into a standard shape of 0.2 cm × 1 cm × 3 cm for texture profile analysis (TPA). A P/0.5R probe in TPA mode was used to test the hardness, springiness, cohesiveness, and resilience of the dough samples. The texture analyzer parameters included a test speed of 1 mm/s, a compression level of 50%, a dwell interval of 5 s, and a trigger value of 5 g. Each determination was performed in triplicate.

3.8.4. Determination of the rheological properties of dough

The determination of rheological properties was slightly modified based on the method of Liu et al. (2019), using a rheometer (MCR302, Anton Paar, Austria).

Frequency sweep measurements were conducted at a constant strain of 0.04%, a 2 mm gap, at 25 °C, with the frequency ranging from 0.1 to 10 Hz. The storage modulus (G'), loss modulus (G"), and tanδ (G"/G') of the dough were recorded. Creep-recovery tests were performed by applying a constant stress of 50 Pa for 60 s, followed by a 120 s recovery period after stress removal, using a 2 mm gap at 25 °C. The maximum creep strain and recovery strain were obtained.

3.8.5. Determination of moisture distribution in dough

The transverse relaxation time (T2) and peak area percentage (A2) of samples were measured using a low-field nuclear magnetic resonance analyzer (MesoMR23-060H-I, Niumag Co. Ltd., China). The Carr–Purcell–Meiboom–Gill (CPMG) sequence was employed for the analysis. A 1.5 g dough sample was placed into an NMR cuvette and positioned at the instrument's sampling location. Measurements were conducted with the following parameters: a spectral width (SW) of 200 kHz, a recycle delay (TW) of 3000 ms, 2000 echoes (NECH), an echo time (TE) of 0.18 ms, and 64 scans (NS). The relaxation time was iteratively fitted between 0.01 ms and 10,000 ms over 100,000 iterations. Each determination was performed in triplicate.

3.9. Statistical analysis of the data

Every experiment was run three times, with the findings expressed as mean ± SD and examined using SPSS 25.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Each image and graph were described by Origin 2018 software (Stat-Ease Inc., Minneapolis, MN, USA) and evaluated by Jade 9.0 software (Materials Data, Inc., USA). Differences between samples were compared using ANOVA with Tukey post hoc test. It was deemed statistically significant when p < 0.05.

4. Results and analysis

4.1. Short-range ordered structure analysis

Fig. 1 presents the FTIR spectra of the samples, reflecting their short-range molecular structure. The spectra of all samples exhibited similar characteristic absorption bands, with no new peaks appearing or existing peaks disappearing during storage, suggesting that long-term retrogradation did not involve the formation or cleavage of covalent chemical bonds but was primarily associated with molecular rearrangement and physical reorganization of the starch network. A broad absorption band centered at approximately 3400 cm−1, corresponding to the stretching vibration of hydroxyl (O—H) groups involved in hydrogen bonding, was observed in all samples. Compared with HCS, the polyphenol-treated samples exhibited a noticeably narrower O—H stretching band within the 3100–3700 cm−1 region. This change suggests that HHP promoted interactions between grape polyphenols and starch molecules, resulting in a more homogeneous hydrogen-bonding environment and altered intermolecular hydrogen-bond networks (Sun & Yoo, 2011). These interactions may regulate starch chain mobility and reassociation during retrogradation by modifying starch–starch and starch–water interactions. The resulting changes in molecular organization may contribute to the delayed formation of ordered structures, which is consistent with the reduced crystallinity and slower textural deterioration observed in the polyphenol-treated samples. The differences in microstructural characteristics observed by SEM further support the regulatory effects of polyphenols on starch network organization.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Open in a new tab

FTIR spectra (A-C) and deconvoluted spectra (D—F) of different samples after HHP treatment.

Compared with HCS, all samples stored at 4 °C for 14 d showed increased R1050/1022 values and decreased R990/1022 values (Table 1). The increased R1050/1022 values indicated enhanced short-range molecular ordering during storage, suggesting that HHP treatment combined with polyphenol incorporation promoted the formation of locally ordered starch structures. Meanwhile, the suppression of long-range crystalline ordering observed in XRD patterns suggested that polyphenols inhibited the development of highly ordered crystalline domains during long-term retrogradation. The decrease in R990/1022 values in the treated samples indicated a reduction in ordered double-helical structures within CS during extended storage. Compared with HCS, the R990/1022 values decreased by 14.46% (HCS-1.5% GSOP), 16.03% (HCS-2% GSP), and 16.48% (HCS-0.5% GSA), respectively. These results suggest that polyphenols interfered with the reassociation of starch chains and suppressed the formation of double-helical structures during retrogradation. During long-term retrogradation of HHP-treated samples, amylose chains may undergo conformational rearrangement and interact with polyphenols through hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding. The aromatic structures of polyphenols can be incorporated into the hydrophobic cavity of amylose single helices, potentially forming amylose-polyphenol inclusion structures, while their hydroxyl groups participate in intermolecular hydrogen bonding with starch molecules. These interactions restrict the alignment and reassociation of amylose chains, thereby inhibiting the formation of ordered double-helical structures (Deng et al., 2021). Among the three polyphenols, GSOP showed relatively weaker inhibition of double-helix formation, which may be associated with its lower phenolic hydroxyl content and different molecular characteristics compared with GSA and GSP.

Table 1.

Effect of different polyphenols (GSOP, GSP and GSA) on the short-range ordered structure of CS after HHP treatment and storage at 4 °C for 14 d.

Samples R1050/1022 R995/1022
HCS-14d 0.7025 ± 0.00e 1.1891 ± 0.00a
HCS-0.1% GSOP-14d 0.7696 ± 0.01c 1.1133 ± 0.01b
HCS-0.5% GSOP-14d 0.7428 ± 0.00d 1.0983 ± 0.01c
HCS-1% GSOP-14d 0.9535 ± 0.00a 1.0653 ± 0.02d
HCS-1.5% GSOP-14d 0.7779 ± 0.01c 1.0171 ± 0.01e
HCS-2% GSOP-14d 0.8034 ± 0.02b 1.0273 ± 0.01e
HCS-14d 0.7025 ± 0.00d 1.1891 ± 0.00a
HCS-0.1% GSP-14d 0.9438 ± 0.03a 1.1332 ± 0.01b
HCS-0.5% GSP-14d 0.9381 ± 0.01a 1.0223 ± 0.01d
HCS-1% GSP-14d 0.9314 ± 0.01a 1.0351 ± 0.01d
HCS-1.5% GSP-14d 0.9137 ± 0.01b 1.0603 ± 0.01c
HCS-2% GSP-14d 0.8784 ± 0.02c 1.0113 ± 0.01e
HCS-14d 0.7025 ± 0.00d 1.1891 ± 0.00a
HCS-0.1%GSA-14d 0.8909 ± 0.02a,b 1.104 ± 0.03b
HCS-0.5%GSA-14d 0.903 ± 0.02a,b 0.9931 ± 0.02d
HCS-1%GSA-14d 0.914 ± 0.03a 0.9875 ± 0.01d
HCS-1.5%GSA-14d 0.8577 ± 0.00c 0.9977 ± 0.00d
HCS-2%GSA-14d 0.8759 ± 0.01b,c 1.0205 ± 0.02c
Open in a new tab

Note: Different lowercase letters in the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).

4.2. XRD analysis

The XRD patterns of HHP-treated samples after 14 d of retrogradation at 4°C are presented in Fig. 2. Only strong absorption peaks at approximately 17° and 20° were observed in the XRD patterns, indicating that the original A-type crystalline structure of CS was completely lost during the long-term retrogradation process, while a V-type crystalline was formed. The formation of the V-type structure is attributed to the complexation between polyphenols and leached amylose. Studies have shown that the dissolution of amylose is facilitated under high-pressure conditions. A subsequent interaction occurs between the hydrophilic hydroxyl groups, which are abundant in polyphenols, and the free carbonyl moiety at the reducing end of the amylose chain. Consequently, the electron-deficient nature of the carbonyl group promotes its hydration, leading to a reconfiguration of the starch's double-helical structure (Heinemann et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2025). Wang et al. (2024) also found V-type structure formed between persimmon leaf polyphenols and high-amylose corn starch through hydrogen bonding. Compared with that at 0 d, the relative crystallinity (RC) of all samples exhibited an increasing trend during storage, which was consistent with the variation trend of the R1050/1022 ratio obtained from FTIR analysis. However, the increment in RC was significantly lower in HCS-polyphenol-14d samples than in HCS-14d, indicating that the incorporation of polyphenols retarded the formation of ordered crystalline structures during starch retrogradation. This phenomenon may be attributed to the non-covalent interactions between polyphenol molecules and starch chains, including hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions, which restricted the mobility and rearrangement of starch molecular chains. Consequently, the recrystallization process was delayed, resulting in a slower increase in RC during storage. These findings provide theoretical insights into the potential of polyphenol-starch interactions for improving the anti-retrogradation properties of starch-based foods under HHP treatment. Meanwhile, it should be noted that the obtained diffraction patterns represent the crystalline structure of the freeze-dried gel rather than the native hydrated gel. Freeze-drying may induce partial molecular rearrangement and starch retrogradation, thereby affecting the RC and diffraction peak intensity. However, when comparing different treatment groups, if all samples are subjected to identical freeze-drying conditions, the XRD results still retain good relative comparability.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Open in a new tab

XRD patterns and relative crystallinity (A–C), gel properties (D—F) and SEM images (G)of different samples treated with HHP after storage at 4 °C for 14 d. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences among samples (p < 0.05).

4.3. SEM analysis

Fig. 2(G) illustrates the micro-structure of HHP-treated samples after 14 d of storage at 4 °C. Compared with samples stored for 0 d, prolonged storage induced remarkable structural rearrangement of the starch gel network due to long-term retrogradation. During storage, starch chains underwent reassociation through hydrogen bonding, accompanied by water redistribution and the development of ordered crystalline regions. These molecular rearrangements promoted gel network contraction, increased aggregation of starch components, and resulted in a more compact microstructure. Compared with HCS, the incorporation of polyphenols markedly modified the morphology of starch gels, leading to the formation of a heterogeneous layered structure with visible cavities. One potential mechanism may explain these observations: Grape polyphenols may interact with starch chains through hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions, thereby modifying intermolecular associations and affecting starch chain rearrangement during gel formation and storage (Li, Shen, et al., 2023). There is also a conjecture regarding the formation of the cavity structure: The hydroxyl groups of grape polyphenols may interact with water molecules during gelatinization, thereby influencing water distribution and retention within the starch matrix. During the subsequent freeze-drying process, ice crystal formation and sublimation may generate additional pores within the dried gel network, resulting in increased cavity formation. These interactions may alter the microstructural organization of the starch network and resulted in the formation of fragmented regions and irregular pores observed in SEM images. Same phenomenon has also been observed in the study of Wang et al., 2018. The formation of amylose-polyphenol inclusion structures and V-type crystalline arrangements observed in XRD in our study could further provide structural evidence for confirmation.

4.4. Gel properties analysis

Hardness is a critical indicator of starch gel properties. Fig. 2 illustrates the changes in gel hardness following 14 d of retrogradation. Long-term retrogradation is primarily induced by the slow recrystallization of amylopectin. After 14 d of retrogradation, the gel hardness was significantly increased compared to that at 0 d. In contrast to the HCS-14d group, the gel hardness of HCS-polyphenol samples containing polyphenols exhibited a smaller increase, indicating a slower transition of the gelatinized samples from a disordered to an ordered state, along with reduced water exudation. This observation indirectly confirms that the complexes formed through starch-polyphenol interactions under HHP treatment inhibit long-term retrogradation of CS. The combined increased R1050/1022 value observed in the FTIR analysis and the emergence of characteristic diffraction peaks at 17° and 20° in our study (Fig. 2 A-C) suggest that the disruption of the granular structure likely promoted the leaching of amylose, which may have subsequently interacted with polyphenols within the helical cavity to form V-type inclusion complexes (Ren et al., 2022). Additionally, polyphenols may have crosslinked with the fragmented molecular chains of HCS (Rahman et al., 2023).

It should be noted that future studies employing molecular dynamics simulations, solid-state 13C NMR, or synchrotron X-ray scattering techniques are warranted to elucidate the precise molecular arrangement of polyphenol-amylose complexes.

4.5. LF-NMR analysis

During long-term starch retrogradation, water migration and redistribution play critical roles in determining gel structure and functional properties. As shown in Table 2, four water populations were identified in the samples: bound water (A21, T21 < 1 ms), weakly bound water (A22, T22 = 1–100 ms), free water (A23, T23 = 100–1000 ms), and almost unbound freezable free water (A24, T24 > 1000 ms). The relaxation time T2 reflects the time required for hydrogen protons (1H) to lose phase coherence under a magnetic field (Mikhaltsevitch, 2009). The rearrangement of starch chains and the formation of ordered structures restrict water mobility, resulting in a decrease in T22 values, during long-term retrogradation. Compared with HCS-14 d, the significantly higher T22 value observed in HCS-polyphenol-14 d samples indicated that water molecules retained greater mobility, suggesting that polyphenol incorporation delayed excessive water immobilization during retrogradation. This effect may be attributed to the synergistic influence of HHP treatment and polyphenol-starch interactions. HHP treatment disrupts the native crystalline regions of starch, while polyphenols interact with starch chains and water molecules through hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions, thereby limiting starch chain association and reducing the extent of retrogradation. Moreover, the presence of the T24 component (T2 > 1000 ms) after 14 d of storage indicated that a proportion of highly mobile water remained in the starch system. This suggests that the starch network formed in the presence of polyphenols exhibited a lower degree of structural contraction and water redistribution compared with untreated HCS. These results were consistent with the reduced RC and the slower increase in gel hardness observed during storage, further confirming the inhibitory effect of polyphenols on starch retrogradation.

Table 2.

Effect of different polyphenols (GSOP, GSP, and GSA) on the relaxation time and relaxation area of CS stored at 4 °C for 14 d under HHP treatment.

Samples T21 (ms) T22 (ms) T23 (ms) T24 (ms) A21 (%) A22 (%) A23 (%) A24 (%)
HCS-14d 0.08 ± 0.01a 6.38 ± 0.44d 194.22 ± 2.72b 2026.07 ± 0.98c 3.76 ± 0.63a,b 1.79 ± 0.22b,c 79.56 ± 1.20c,d 14.89 ± 0.85a,b
HCS-0.1% GSOP-14d 0.07 ± 0.01a 6.99 ± 0.28c,d 155.22 ± 0.00d 2173.15 ± 3.51b 4.25 ± 0.01a 1.74 ± 0.03c 78.39 ± 0.58d 15.63 ± 0.22a
HCS-0.5% GSOP-14d 0.07 ± 0.01a 6.83 ± 0.00c,d 209.82 ± 8.51a 2172.58 ± 2.53b 3.85 ± 0.41a,b 2.01 ± 0.08a,b,c 79.55 ± 1.02c,d 14.59 ± 0.68a,b
HCS-1% GSOP-14d 0.10 ± 0.01a 8.41 ± 0.00a 162.66 ± 6.44c,d 2172.58 ± 2.53b 3.03 ± 0.08b 2.13 ± 0.09a 83.17 ± 0.19a 11.67 ± 0.27d
HCS-1.5% GSOP-14d 0.07 ± 0.01a 8.22 ± 0.33a,b 191.164 ± 0.00b 2325.17 ± 3.51a 3.05 ± 0.24b 2.15 ± 0.26a 81.06 ± 0.31b,c 13.74 ± 0.30b,c
HCS-2% GSOP-14d 0.10 ± 0.03a 7.50 ± 0.59b,c 166.38 ± 0.00c 2173.15 ± 3.51b 3.02 ± 0.38b 2.05 ± 0.06a,b 82.03 ± 0.28a,b 12.90 ± 0.19c
HCS-14d 0.08 ± 0.01a 6.38 ± 0.44c 194.22 ± 2.72d 2026.07 ± 0.98e 3.76 ± 0.63a,b 1.79 ± 0.22b,c 79.56 ± 1.20c,d 14.89 ± 0.85a,b
HCS-0.1% GSP-14d 0.07 ± 0.00a 8.06 ± 0.87a,b 198.14 ± 6.87c,d 2495.03 ± 0.90b 4.25 ± 0.57a 1.74 ± 0.029c 78.39 ± 0.58d 15.63 ± 0.22a
HCS-0.5% GSP-14d 0.08 ± 0.01a 8.66 ± 1.21a 204.91 ± 0.00c 2465.93 ± 0.90d 3.85 ± 0.41a,b 2.01 ± 0.08a,b,c 79.55 ± 1.02c,d 14.59 ± 0.68b,c
HCS-1% GSP-14d 0.10 ± 0.04a 8.61 ± 0.35a 204.91 ± 0.00c 2670.73 ± 5.39a 3.03 ± 0.08b 2.13 ± 0.09a 83.17 ± 0.19a 11.67 ± 0.27e
HCS-1.5% GSP-14d 0.11 ± 0.04a 9.03 ± 0.63a 219.64 ± 0.00b 2673.84 ± 0.00a 3.05 ± 0.24b 2.15 ± 0.26a 81.06 ± 0.31b,c 13.74 ± 0.30c,d
HCS-2% GSP-14d 0.09 ± 0.02a 7.86 ± 0.55a,b 253.43 ± 0.00a 2480.94 ± 12.14c 3.02 ± 0.38b 2.05 ± 0.06a,b 82.03 ± 0.28a,b 12.90 ± 0.19d
HCS-14d 0.08 ± 0.01a 6.38 ± 0.44b 194.22 ± 2.72c 2026.07 ± 0.98d 2.96 ± 0.58a 1.05 ± 0.29b 3.79 ± 0.10a 92.21 ± 0.60a
HCS-0.1%GSA-14d 0.09 ± 0.01a 8.45 ± 0.98a,b 214.73 ± 8.51a,b 2680.73 ± 11.93b 2.04 ± 0.03a 1.32 ± 0.15a,b 3.33 ± 0.03c,d 93.02 ± 0.31a
HCS-0.5%GSA-14d 0.08 ± 0.01a 9.46 ± 0.77a 219.64 ± 0.00a 2492.07 ± 4.22c 3.41 ± 0.98a 1.30 ± 0.13a,b 3.28 ± 0.09d 91.88 ± 1.02a
HCS-1%GSA-14d 0.08 ± 0.01a 10.22 ± 1.75a 214.73 ± 8.51a,b 2868.88 ± 4.87a 2.13 ± 0.53a 1.47 ± 0.07a 3.49 ± 0.04b 92.91 ± 0.52a
HCS-1.5%GSA-14d 0.10 ± 0.04a 9.03 ± 0.63a 219.64 ± 0.00a 2870.67 ± 4.08a 2.57 ± 0.26a 1.40 ± 0.14a,b 3.44 ± 0.03b,c 92.59 ± 0.35a
HCS-2%GSA-14d 0.08 ± 0.01a 9.24 ± 0.72a 204.91 ± 0.00b,c 2680.15 ± 12.46b 2.05 ± 1.31a 1.40 ± 0.23a,b 3.51 ± 0.08b 93.03 ± 1.40a
Open in a new tab

Note: Different lowercase letters in the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).

A2 (the area percentage corresponding to the T2 peak) is an important parameter for evaluating the relative proportion of weakly bound water and water mobility within starch matrices. Its variation reflects changes in moisture distribution and the microstructural characteristics of the gel system. Generally, long-term retrogradation induces starch chain reassociation, resulting in water redistribution, decreased water retention, and increased mobility of free water fractions. In the present study, the A23 values of GSOP and GSP groups were significantly lower than that of the HCS-14 d group (p < 0.05), indicating that these polyphenol treatments effectively restricted water migration and maintained a more stable water distribution within the starch gel network. However, the A23 value of the GSA group showed no significant change, which may be related to the relatively weak interaction ability of methoxy-substituted structures with starch and water molecules.

MRI analysis (Fig. 3) further visualized the spatial distribution of water within the gel matrix through proton density mapping. In the MRI images, red regions represent areas with higher proton density, whereas blue regions indicate lower proton density (Zhang et al., 2023). Compared with the images obtained at 0 d, the increased intensity and more uniform distribution of red regions after storage suggested a redistribution of water molecules within the starch network during retrogradation. The MRI results further supported the changes observed in LF-NMR analysis, indicating that HHP treatment combined with polyphenols modulated water migration and contributed to the maintenance of a more stable gel structure.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

Open in a new tab

MRI visualization of the HCS and HCS-polyphenol gel samples stored at 4 °C for 0 d (A) and 14 d (B).

These results suggest that HHP treatment combined with polyphenol incorporation may improve the water retention ability of CS gels while modifying the mobility and distribution of water molecules within the gel matrix. From a molecular perspective, these changes may be associated with interactions between polyphenols and starch molecules. Previous studies have suggested that polyphenols can interact with starch helices through hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions (Ye et al., 2022). The formation of these interactions may restrict starch chain reassociation and regulate the binding environment of water molecules, thereby influencing the redistribution of different water populations during storage. However, further molecular-level investigations are required to clarify the specific mechanisms underlying starch-polyphenol-water interactions. Moreover, HHP treatment at 600 MPa may induce partial disruption of starch granular structures, resulting in modifications of the gel network architecture and consequently affecting water mobility. These structural alterations, together with polyphenol-starch interactions, may contribute to the maintenance of a dynamic water distribution within the gel matrix. The increased red regions observed in MRI images indicate enhanced proton density and a more homogeneous spatial distribution of water, further suggesting that HHP treatment and polyphenol addition altered moisture organization within the starch network. However, MRI signals mainly reflect proton density distribution and cannot directly distinguish specific water populations. In addition, polyphenols embedded within the starch matrix may interact with surrounding water molecules through phenolic hydroxyl groups, thereby modifying local hydration environments. Compared with other grape polyphenols, GSA contains hydrophobic methoxy groups, which may reduce its interaction capacity with water molecules and starch chains, resulting in differences in moisture distribution behavior. This may explain the weaker modulation effect of GSA on water redistribution compared with GSOP and GSP.

In conclusion, HHP treatment combined with polyphenol incorporation effectively delays starch retrogradation by regulating starch-water interactions and modifying water mobility within the gel matrix. These molecular interactions restrict excessive starch chain reassociation, maintain a more stable moisture distribution, and consequently contribute to improved structural stability and delayed texture deterioration during long-term storage.

4.6. Analysis of IDDSI test results for gel samples

The International Dysphagia Diet Standardization Initiative (IDDSI) framework provides a globally standardized classification system for individuals with dysphagia, using consistent terminology from Level 0 to Level 7 to categorize foods and beverages of different textures (Cichero et al., 2017). This framework includes simple, operationally practical testing methods to assess the swallowing suitability of samples. Fig. 4 shows the IDDSI test results for HHP-treated gel samples. The fork pressure test was performed by pressing each gel sample with a fork using the thumb until the distal portion of the thumb blanched, corresponding to a force of approximately 17 kPa. This pressure is comparable to that exerted by the tongue during swallowing. All samples were crushed under this force and failed to recover their original shape after release, indicating that both gels treated with HHP alone and those treated with HHP combined with polyphenols passed the fork pressure test. These results suggest that the samples can be disrupted by lingual forces during swallowing, thereby reducing swallowing resistance. The fork drip test primarily evaluates the ability of a sample to remain on the fork tines and its flow behavior through the gaps between the tines. The experimental results demonstrated that all gel samples could stably accumulate above the fork tines without exhibiting rapid passage through the gaps. This finding indicates that the gels possess appropriate consistency and structural stability, which may help maintain bolus integrity and reduce the risk of uncontrolled flow during swallowing.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

Open in a new tab

IDDSI test results of starch gels (1.5 cm × 1.5 cm) under HHP treatment: GSOP (A), GSP (B), GSA (C).

The spoon tilt test was used to further evaluate sample adhesiveness and cohesiveness. Results showed that, except for the HCS sample, all gel formulations slid off the spoon surface relatively intact upon tilting. This suggests that the gel system of the HCS-polyphenol samples exhibited improved adhesiveness while maintaining suitable cohesiveness, characteristics favorable for swallowing. These findings indicate that the incorporation of grape polyphenols positively regulated the textural behavior of CS gels under HHP treatment, thereby supporting their potential use in foods designed for individuals with dysphagia.

Based on the combined results of the fork pressure test, fork drip test, and spoon tilt test, the HCS–polyphenol composite gel samples generally satisfy the IDDSI criteria for Level 4 foods. These findings suggest that the composite gels have considerable potential as base materials for easy-to-swallow food systems and could serve as promising candidates for the development of specialized foods for individuals with dysphagia.

4.7. Analysis of the processing characteristics of cookie dough

4.7.1. FTIR analysis of cookie dough

FTIR technology was used to detect the changes in the secondary structure of gluten protein in dough. Typically, the amide I band (1600 cm−1 to 1700 cm−1) is employed to analyze the alterations in the secondary structure of protein. Within this range, the 1600–1640 cm−1 region corresponds to β-sheets, the 1640–1650 cm−1 region represents random coil, the 1650–1660 cm−1 region indicates α-helix, and the 1660–1700 cm−1 region signifies β-turn (Liang et al., 2024). The β-sheet and α-helix are relatively stable and ordered structures; higher concentrations of both indicate greater protein structural stability (Correa et al., 2014). The relevant values for the cookie dough are shown in Table 3. Compared with the C-CK, the treated dough samples (C-CS, C-GSOP, C-GSP, and C-GSA) exhibited a significant increase in ordered structure content and a significant decrease in random coil content. This indicates that the substitute addition of HCS and the HCS-polyphenol complexes enhanced the structural stability of the cookie dough, with this stabilizing effect being particularly pronounced in the C-GSP group, where β-sheet and α-helix content increased by 38.73% and 47.55%, respectively (Ishihara et al., 2011).

Table 3.

Value of secondary structure of gluten protein and texture properties in different cookie dough.

Samples β-sheet Random coil α-helix β-turn Hardness Adhesiveness Springiness Cohesiveness Chewiness
C-CK 16.32 ± 0.98e 24.74 ± 0.62a 18.55 ± 1.32d 40.39 ± 1.75a 328.18 ± 17.20a −3.27 ± 0.89a 0.46 ± 0.01a 0.17 ± 0.00c 27.93 ± 1.78a
C-CS 18.79 ± 0.44d 22.23 ± 0.95b 22.07 ± 1.32c 36.91 ± 0.84b 212.54 ± 9.89b −0.55 ± 0.10b 0.35 ± 0.04b 0.25 ± 0.04b 18.20 ± 2.87b
C-GSOP 22.64 ± 0.93c 20.16 ± 0.74c 25.03 ± 0.28b 32.17 ± 1.25c,d 172.03 ± 29.05a,b −0.15 ± 0.01b 0.25 ± 0.02c 0.32 ± 0.03a 13.88 ± 1.71b,c
C-GSP 25.43 ± 0.4a 17.37 ± 0.42d 27.37 ± 0.36a 29.83 ± 0.85d 166.06 ± 23.83b −0.15 ± 0.11b 0.30 ± 0.06b,c 0.25 ± 0.02b 12.13 ± 1.83c
C-GSA 24.23 ± 0.79a,b 16.44 ± 0.42d 25.87 ± 0.51a,b 33.46 ± 0.95c 170.75 ± 24.41a,b −0.39 ± 0.43b 0.36 ± 0.03b 0.25 ± 0.04b 15.21 ± 2.86b,c
Open in a new tab

Note: Different lowercase letters in the same column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).

4.7.2. Analysis of the textural properties of dough

Table 3 shows the textural properties of cookie dough. The hardness of the cookie dough in the treatment group was significantly lower than that in the control group (C-CK). Within the treatment group, samples containing added polyphenols showed notably lower hardness than C-CS. Softer dough can be chewed more easily, thereby reducing the number of chewing cycles and making swallowing less difficult. The reduced dough hardness observed in the treated groups may be mainly associated with structural changes induced by HHP treatment and the interactions between polyphenols and dough components. HHP treatment may cause partial gelatinization of starch granules and increase the porosity of the starch network, thereby decreasing the compactness of the dough matrix. Meanwhile, polyphenols may interact with starch molecules and other macromolecules through non-covalent interactions, potentially altering the intermolecular association and structural organization of the dough system. These combined effects may contribute to the decreased hardness of the treated samples.

Compared with the C-CK sample, the adhesiveness and cohesiveness of the cookie dough were increased, whereas the springiness decreased by approximately 45.65%. These textural modifications resulted in a softer and more cohesive structure that may be more suitable for individuals with swallowing difficulties. Moderate adhesiveness and cohesiveness can help maintain the integrity of the food bolus, reducing fragmentation and excessive adhesion during swallowing. Meanwhile, the reduced springiness decreases the elastic rebound of the dough, facilitating bolus formation and improving swallowing safety. Chewiness is defined as the product of hardness, springiness, and cohesiveness (Chewiness = Hardness × Springiness × Cohesiveness). Low chewiness is a key requirement for foods intended to be easily swallowed. In this study, the chewiness of the cookie dough in the treatment groups decreased significantly, with the most notable reduction (approximately 56.57%) observed in the C-GSP group. Furthermore, the texture optimize was greater in HCS-polyphenol samples than in the group with only HHP-treated starch.

Overall, the optimized texture facilitates easier oral processing and safer swallowing. These textural characteristics show the potential for foods designed to be easily swallowed.

4.7.3. Analysis of the rheological properties of dough

Rheological properties are one of the important indicators of dough processing characteristics, directly affecting the texture, mouthfeel, and final quality of cookies. As shown in Fig. 5 (A-C), in the frequency range of 0.1–10 Hz, both the storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G") increased with frequency, with G' consistently exceeding G". Zhao et al. (2026) observed analogous trends in IDDSI Level 3 foods. The tanδ (G"/G') values for all dough samples remained below. Based on the rheological criteria proposed by Ishihara et al. (2011), tanδ values between 0.1 and 1 have been used as an empirical reference range for evaluating the swallowing suitability of food boluses. Nevertheless, this criterion is not universally applicable, as swallowing performance depends on both rheological properties and physiological factors. The G' value decreased in formulated samples compared with the C-CK sample, indicating that the addition of HCS-polyphenol complexes in the optimized cookie formulation reduced the elasticity of the cookie dough. Similar changes were observed in the textural properties. The increase in G″ indicates enhanced viscous behavior of the dough following formulation optimization. Together with the decrease in G′, these results demonstrate a shift toward a less elastic and more viscous viscoelastic profile. Such rheological characteristics are considered beneficial for easy-to-swallow foods, as they may promote bolus cohesion while reducing resistance to deformation during swallowing, thereby facilitating smoother pharyngeal transit.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

Open in a new tab

Dynamic rheology (A, B, C) and creep recovery measurement (D) of different cookie doughs. (A) The variation of storage modulus (G') at different frequencies. (B) The variation of loss modulus (G") at different frequencies. (C) The variation of G'/G"(tan δ) ratio at different frequencies. (D) Creep recovery measurement.

Creep recovery refers to the deformation of dough under constant stress and its dynamic recovery process after the removal of the stress. This method is widely used to characterize the rheological properties of dough (Li, Sun, et al., 2023). The creep strain curve of dough consists of two distinct phases: the creep phase and the recovery phase (Fig. 5 D). During the creep phase, the treated groups exhibited lower creep compliance than the C-CS group, indicating greater resistance to deformation under a constant applied stress. After stress removal, the treated samples demonstrated enhanced elastic recovery, as evidenced by their higher recovery compliance in the C-GSOP, C-GSP, and C-GSA groups, compared with C-CS group. These findings suggest that polyphenol incorporation improved the balance between elastic recovery and deformation resistance, resulting in a more favorable viscoelastic profile. Such rheological behavior may promote bolus cohesiveness and structural stability during swallowing while reducing excessive deformation under oral processing. Therefore, the treated dough exhibits promising potential for use in texture-modified foods designed for individuals with dysphagia.

4.7.4. Analysis of moisture distribution in dough

The preparation of dough mainly involves complex interactions among water, proteins, and flour components, leading to the formation of a gluten-based network. LF-NMR provides insights into the distribution and mobility of water molecules within the dough matrix from a microscopic perspective. As shown in Table S1, three distinct water populations were identified in all samples: bound water (A21, T21 < 1 ms), weakly bound water (A22, T22 = 1–100 ms), and free water (A23, T23 = 100–1000 ms). For easy-to-swallow food products, an appropriate moisture profile is generally characterized by a higher proportion of bound and weakly bound water accompanied by a relatively low and uniform distribution of free water. This water distribution contributes to maintaining lubrication while preserving structural integrity, thereby reducing water separation and excessive fluidity during swallowing. Compared with the C-CK group, the treated cookie dough exhibited an increased proportion of bound water and a reduced proportion of free water. The higher bound water content suggested stronger water–matrix interactions and enhanced structural stability of the dough, which was consistent with the FTIR results indicating strengthened intermolecular interactions. Meanwhile, the lower free water content reduced water mobility and improved the cohesiveness of the dough, preventing excessive deformation or leakage during oral processing and swallowing.

5. Conclusion

This study systematically investigated the effects of HHP treatment combined with grape polyphenol addition on the long-term retrogradation of CS and explored the application potential of the resulting starch systems in dysphagia-oriented cookie dough. HHP combined with grape polyphenols promoted the formation of stable short-range ordered structures while suppressing excessive starch chain reorganization and long-range crystallization, resulting in reduced retrogradation, lower gel hardening, and improved water retention during storage. Among the polyphenols evaluated, GSP exhibited the greatest inhibitory effect on starch retrogradation, suggesting that differences in polyphenol characteristics, such as molecular size and chemical structure, may influence their interactions with starch and their effects on retrogradation behavior. Selected HCS-polyphenol systems also produced cookie dough that satisfied the qualitative requirements of IDDSI Level 4, demonstrating their potential as ingredients for texture-modified starch-based foods.

Although the retardation of retrogradation is likely associated with interactions between grape polyphenols and starch molecules, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain to be directly verified. In addition, the observed effects may reflect the combined influence of HHP pretreatment and subsequent thermal gelatinization rather than the independent contribution of HHP. Furthermore, swallowing safety and consumer acceptability were not evaluated. Therefore, future studies should employ advanced molecular characterization techniques, include appropriate thermal controls, and combine rheological, tribological, sensory, in vitro swallowing, and clinical evaluations to further validate the mechanisms and practical applicability of these formulations for dysphagia-oriented foods.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Yuqian Zheng: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Software, Data curation. Xiaoyan Qin: Software. Wenyan Wang: Software. Xinxin Wen: Software. Peirou Ren: Software. Fangqi Ren: Software. Tong Liu: Software. Sheng Li: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Conceptualization.

Ethics declaration

The author(s) declare(s) that the study does not involve humans nor animal subjects.

Submission declaration

The work described has not been published previously.

The article is not under consideration for publication elsewhere.

The article's publication is approved by all authors and tacitly or explicitly by the responsible authorities where the work was carried out.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by grants from the “Climbing plan projects of Changchun University” (ZKP202301), and the Natural Science Foundation of Jilin Province (YDZJ20261ZYTS338).

Footnotes

Appendix A

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2026.104515.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary material

mmc1.docx (266.8KB, docx)

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

References

  1. Ahangari M., Mostafaei J., Sayyah A., Mahmoudi E., Asghari E., Coruh A., Niaei A. Investigation of structural and electrochemical properties of SrFexCo1-xO3-δ perovskite oxides as a supercapacitor electrode material. Journal of Energy Storage. 2023;63 doi: 10.1016/j.est.2023.107034. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  2. Barragán-Martínez L.P., Román-Guerrero A., Vernon-Carter E.J., Alvarez-Ramirez J. Impact of fat replacement by a hybrid gel (canola oil/candelilla wax oleogel and gelatinized corn starch hydrogel) on dough viscoelasticity, color, texture, structure, and starch digestibility of sugar-snap cookies. International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science. 2022;29 doi: 10.1016/j.ijgfs.2022.100563. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  3. Cichero J.A.Y., Lam P., Steele C.M., Hanson B., Chen J., Dantas R.O., Stanschus S. Development of international terminology and definitions for texture-modified foods and thickened fluids used in dysphagia management: The IDDSI framework. Dysphagia. 2017;32(2):293–314. doi: 10.1007/s00455-016-9758-y. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Cichero J.A.Y., Lam P.T.L., Chen J., Dantas R.O., Duivestein J., Hanson B., Vanderwegen J. Release of updated international dysphagia diet standardisation initiative framework (IDDSI 2.0) Journal of Texture Studies. 2020;51(1):195–196. doi: 10.1111/jtxs.12481. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Correa M.J., Ferrer E., Añón M.C., Ferrero C. Interaction of modified celluloses and pectins with gluten proteins. Food Hydrocolloids. 2014;35:91–99. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.04.020. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  6. Deng N., Deng Z., Tang C., Liu C., Luo S., Chen T., Hu X. Formation, structure and properties of the starch-polyphenol inclusion complex: A review. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2021;112:667–675. doi: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.04.032. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  7. Heinemann C., Conde-Petit B., Nuessli J., Escher F. Evidence of starch inclusion complexation with lactones. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2001;49(3):1370–1376. doi: 10.1021/jf001079u. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Ishihara S., Nakauma M., Funami T., Odake S., Nishinari K. Swallowing profiles of food polysaccharide gels in relation to bolus rheology. Food Hydrocolloids. 2011;25(5):1016–1024. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2010.09.022. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  9. Kaur H., Mehta A., Kumar L. Starch-tannin interactions: Influence of grape tannins on structure, texture, and digestibility of starches from different botanical sources. Food Hydrocolloids. 2025;162 doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2024.111004. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  10. Li J., Shen M., Xiao W., Li Y., Pan W., Xie J. Regulating the physicochemical and structural properties of different starches by complexation with tea polyphenols. Food Hydrocolloids. 2023;142 doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2023.108836. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  11. Li W., Sun X., Du Y., Su A., Fang Y., Hu Q., Pei F. Effects of co-fermentation on the release of ferulic acid and the rheological properties of whole wheat dough. Journal of Cereal Science. 2023;111 doi: 10.1016/j.jcs.2023.103669. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  12. Liang W., Sun C., Shen H., Lin Q., Niu L., Liu X., Li W. Adequately increasing the wheat B-starch ratio can improve the structure-properties of dough during freeze-thaw cycles: Mechanisms and conformational relations. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2024;260 doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.129481. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Liu S., Jia R., Chen W., Chen W., Zheng B., Guo Z. Variations in structural and physicochemical properties of lotus seed starch-protein blends under various HHP treatment conditions. Food Chem X. 2025;26 doi: 10.1016/j.fochx.2025.102281. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Liu X., Li S., Wang Z., Wang X., He Y., Wen L. Ultrahigh pressure facilitates the acylation of Malvidin and Chlorogenic acid to increase the stability and protective effect of Malvidin derivatives on H2O2-induced ARPE-19 cells. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2021;69(46):13990–14003. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c03133. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Liu Y.-X., Cao M.-J., Liu G.-M. In: Evaluation Technologies for Food Quality. Zhong J., Wang X., editors. Woodhead Publishing; 2019. 17 - texture analyzers for food quality evaluation; pp. 441–463. [Google Scholar]
  16. Mikhaltsevitch V. Annual reports on NMR spectroscopy. Academic Press; 2009. Chapter 4 techniques used for 14N NQR studies; pp. 149–194. [Google Scholar]
  17. Nawaz H., Waheed R., Nawaz M., Shahwar D. In: Chemical properties of starch. Ochubiojo Emeje M.O., editor. IntechOpen; London: 2020. Physical and chemical modifications in starch structure and reactivity. [Google Scholar]
  18. Rahman M.H., Sun H.-N., Zhang M., Mu T.-H., Khan N.M. Effect of sucrose, trehalose, maltose and xylose on rheology, water mobility and microstructure of gluten-free model dough based on high hydrostatic pressure treated starches. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2023;231 doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.123184. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Ren X., Qin M., Zhang M., Zhang Y., Wang Z., Liang S. Highland barley polyphenol delayed the in vitro digestibility of starch and amylose by modifying their structural properties. Nutrients. 2022;14(18) doi: 10.3390/nu14183743. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Sun D.-S., Yoo B. Rheological and thermal properties of blend systems of rice flour and potato starch. Food Science and Biotechnology. 2011;20(6):1679–1684. doi: 10.1007/s10068-011-0231-2. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  21. Wang J., Yang H., Luo L., Ye H., Xu H., Sun Y., Yang H. Persimmon leaf polyphenols as potential ingredients for modulating starch digestibility: Effect of starch-polyphenol interaction. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2024;270 doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.132524. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Wang M., Shen Q., Hu L., Hu Y., Ye X., Liu D., Chen J. Physicochemical properties, structure and in vitro digestibility on complex of starch with lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) leaf flavonoids. Food Hydrocolloids. 2018;81:191–199. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.02.020. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  23. Wang R., Liu C., Zhang K., Sun R., Liu S., Chang X., Zhang J. Effect of high hydrostatic pressure on physicochemical and digestive properties of catechin–chestnut starch complexes. Food Chemistry. 2025;485 doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2025.144501. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Yan Q., Wang Y., Zhang W., Ma Y., Chen J. Impact of ultra-high pressure on the microstructure, emulsification, and physicochemical properties of rice starch. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2024;283 doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.137919. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Yang Z., Chaib S., Gu Q., Hemar Y. Impact of pressure on physicochemical properties of starch dispersions. Food Hydrocolloids. 2017;68(JUL.):164–177. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2016.08.032. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  26. Ye Y., Liu X., Bai W., Zhao W., Zhang Y., Dong H., Pan Z. Effect of microwave-ultrasonic combination treatment on heating-induced gel properties of low-sodium tilapia surimi during gel setting stage and comparative analysis. LWT. 2022;161 doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2022.113386. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  27. Yu Y., Su D., Xu H., Lv W., Song H., Li F., Guo Y. Unveiling lotus root processing under vacuum microwave: Starch–malic acid interactions based on moisture, structure, and in vitro digestibility. Food Chemistry. 2025;471 doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2025.142862. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Zhang X., Guo Q., Shi W. Ultrasound-assisted processing: Changes in gel properties, water-holding capacity, and protein aggregation of low-salt Hypophthalmichthys molitrix surimi by soy protein isolate. Ultrasonics Sonochemistry. 2023;92 doi: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2022.106258. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Zhao Z., Bouallegue A., Gao T., Chen J., Chen Y. Comparisons of the rheological, tribological and sensory properties of sodium alginate with commercial thickeners at different IDDSI levels for dysphagia management. Food Chemistry. 2026;515 doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2026.149248. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Zheng X., Zeng F. Inhibition of starch retrogradation: Advances in physical, chemical, and biological methods. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. 2025;306 doi: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.141390. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Zhong Y., Xiang X., Chen T., Zou P., Liu Y., Ye J., Liu C. Accelerated aging of rice by controlled microwave treatment. Food Chemistry. 2020;323 doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126853. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Zhou D., Ma Z., Yin X., Hu X., Boye J.I. Structural characteristics and physicochemical properties of field pea starch modified by physical, enzymatic, and acid treatments. Food Hydrocolloids. 2019;93:386–394. doi: 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2019.02.048. [DOI] [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

Supplementary material

mmc1.docx (266.8KB, docx)

Data Availability Statement

Data will be made available on request.

Articles from Food Chemistry: X are provided here courtesy of Elsevier

RESOURCES