The state of cancer in Somalia: a comprehensive six-year retrospective study

Abstract

Cancer incidence and mortality rates are increasing globally. Approximately 20 million new cancer cases and 10 million cancer-related deaths were recorded in 2022. Cancer incidence is projected to reach 35 million new cases by 2050. Cancer incidence in Africa constituted only 5.9% of global cancer; however, Africa has the highest cancer mortality rate (64.4%) compared to all other continents. Cancer mortality rate in Sub-Saharan Africa is alarmingly high compared to other World Health Organization African Region. In Somalia, due to the lack of cancer registries, cancer incidence and mortality rates from neighboring countries are used, and the true cancer burden in the country remains known.

In this study, we performed a retrospective cross-sectional study and reviewed records of patients with histologically or radiologically confirmed cancer between January 2020 and July 2025. Patient records from the five major diagnostic centers in Mogadishu and Hargeisa, the two most-populous cities in the country, were selected and analyzed descriptively for this study. Mogadishu is in the southern part of the country, whereas Hargeisa – the second largest city in Somalia, is in the northwestern part of the country.

In the study period, 2417 registered cancer cases, 1354 (56%) were reported in women, and 1063 (44%) were reported in men. The primary cancer types were esophageal cancer, which was diagnosed among 898 (37.2%) patients, of which 522 (58%) were women, and 376 (42%) were men. Breast cancer was the second most frequently diagnosed cancer after esophageal, 238 patients (9.8%), followed by prostate with 178 (7.4%) cases, leukemia with 156 (6.5%) cases, thyroid with 123 (5.1%) cases, liver with 123 (5.1%) cases, and colorectal cancer with 120 (5.0%) cases.

Our multicenter study across Mogadishu and Hargeisa, Somalia, sheds light on the prevalence of cancer in Somalia and the dire need for accessible and affordable oncology services in Somalia. Although several institutions in the country provide oncology-related services, their service is limited to chemotherapy and surgery. The study also reveals the urgent to need to establish national or population-based cancer registries to determine cancer incidence, identify risk factors, and create national plan for cancer prevention, control, and treatment.

Background

Cancer incidence and mortality are on the rise globally and cancer remains the second leading cause of death in the world [1, 2]. In 2022, there were almost 20 million new cancer cases, including non-melanoma skin cancers (NMSCs) in the world [1, 3, 4]. Approximately 10.3 million cases were diagnosed in men, and 9.7 million cases were diagnosed in women. There were an estimated 9.74 million cancer-related deaths, including NMSCs in the world – 5.4 million in men, and 4.3 million in women [1]. In Africa, there were approximately 1.2 million new cancer cases and 763,843 cancer-related death in in 2022, including NMSCs – 346,945 in men, and 416,89 in women [3, 5–7]. In Eastern Africa, which comprises 17 nations (including Somalia), and the Union Island, there were approximately 349,500 new cancer cases in 2022, including NMSCs – 134,942 in men, and 214,558 in women [3, 5, 8]. There were 236,904 cancer-related deaths in East Africa, including NMSCs – 94,529 in men, and 142,375 in women [3, 5, 8]. Prostate, esophageal, and liver cancers ranked the top three common causes of cancer deaths for East African men, whereas cervical, breast and esophageal cancers ranked the top three common causes of cancer deaths for East African women [1, 3, 5, 8].

In Somalia, cancer is a significant public health concern similar to most countries in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) [3, 5, 9–11]. Currently, there are ten oncologists practicing in the country, eight medical oncologists and two surgical oncologists. There is also one clinical oncology pharmacist in Mogadishu. These oncologists are scattered in Mogadishu and Hargeisa and see patients in need of oncology services. The hospitals these oncologists work at include Horyaal Hospital, Oasis Cancer Hospital, University of Somalia Hospital, Dr. Sumait Hospital SIMAD University in Mogadishu, Needle Hospital and Nageeye Cancer Clinic in Hargeisa. Approximately 66% of the population either do not have the means or the resources to travel and seek oncology care for suspected cancer cases. We estimated that about 30% of cancer cases would be captured by existing hospitals in collaboration with diagnostic centers in Mogadishu and Hargeisa, a partnership that has been growing successfully [12–16].

The Global Cancer Observatory (GLOBOCAN) 2022 estimates, produced by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) estimates the number of new cancer cases in Somalia to be 10,681, including NMSCs – 3998 in men, and 6683 in women [3, 5, 9]. There were an estimated 8038 cancer-related deaths in Somalia, including NMSCs – 3104 in men, and 4934 in women [3, 5, 9]. Breast, cervical, and colorectal cancers ranked the top three diagnosed cancers as well as causes of cancer-related deaths for Somali women, with 1811, 1167, and 755 cases, and 1165, 919, and 623 deaths, respectively [3, 5, 9]. Prostate, colorectal, and leukemia ranked the top three most frequently diagnosed cancers and cause of cancer-related deaths for Somali men. However, cancer incidence and mortality rates in Somalia are estimates made by IARC [9] as the country lacks any cancer registry, population or national, similar to many other SSA nations [17–21]. Data estimates are modeled and based after neighboring countries with cancer registries.

Population-based cancer incidence in the country is not known, making it difficult to get exact numbers or even get representative data. Previously published studies to evaluate cancer incidence in the country are limited to major cities, such as Mogadishu and Hargeisa [22–31]. The most common cancers found in these studies include esophageal, liver, breast, prostate, kidney, and non-Hodgkin lymphoma [17–33]. Although these are important findings in a resource limited country, some of these publications present data or case studies from a single source, such as a local hospital or a diagnostic center either in Mogadishu or Hargeisa. To address this problem, it is critical to obtain comprehensive, reliable cancer data from all cancer diagnosis centers in the country, including hospitals and diagnostic centers. This report collected data from major radiology and pathology-based centers and hospitals that provide cancer treatment services in the country.

Methods

Study design and settings

The study used a cross-sectional design using hospital and facility-based retrospective records review. Medical records of patients diagnosed with cancer between January 2020 to July 2025 at five major diagnostic centers in Somalia. Nova Diagnostics & Research, Sagal Pathology Center, Kamil Diagnostic Center, and Sahan Diagnostic Center in Mogadishu – Southern Somalia, and Nageeye Medical Center in Hargeisa – Northern Somalia. These diagnostic centers are the leading referral centers in the country for radiological [Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Computed Tomography (CT) scans] and pathological diagnosis.

Study population

The study included patients of all ages with confirmed diagnosis of any type of cancer (radiological or pathological diagnosis) from January 2020 to July 2025. Patients with incomplete or missing medical records (age, sex, year of diagnosis) were excluded.

Data collection

Data were extracted from medical records using a standardized abstraction tool. Variables of interest include the following: Demographics (age, sex), year of diagnosis (date or month of diagnosis was not recorded), histological subtype (squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, invasive ductal carcinoma), and metastatic site for metastatic cancer.

Data management and analysis

All data were anonymized before entry into SPSS v. 31.0 (IBM SPSS Statistics Version 31.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp.) software for analysis. Age and gender were expressed as mean ± standard deviation and data were presented in graphs and tables.

Ethical considerations

This study was approved by the Jamhuriya University of Science and Technology Institutional Review Board (Certificate number: JUREC0106/FMHS 319/212025). Due to the retrospective study design, the requirement for informed consent by the ethics committee was waived. All of the diagnostic centers granted permission to conduct this retrospective study.

Results

Between 2020 and 2025, 2417 patients were diagnosed with cancer. Of the 2417 cancer patients, 56% (n = 1354) were female, and 44% (n = 1063) were male (Fig. 1A). The mean age of the patients was 54.6 ± 19.3 years. Of the cases, 3.6% ( n = 88) were pediatric (0–17 years), 49.3% (n = 1192) were 18–59 years, and 47% (n = 1137) were over 60 (Fig. 1B). The mean age at the time of the diagnosis was 52.2 ± 17.8 years for women and 57.6 ± 20.6 years for men. Most cancer diagnoses occurred in 2024 with 760 cases (31.4%), followed by 2023 and 2025 (until July) with 550 (22.8%) and 452 (18.7%) cases respectively (Fig. 1C). The year 2020 saw the fewest recorded cancer cases, with only 68 registered cancer cases (2.8%).

Fig. 1.

General characteristics of patients (N = 2417) in Mogadishu and Hargeisa, Somalia, during 2020–2025. A A pie chart showing cancer diagnosis in Somalia by sex. B Distribution of cancer by six different age groups. C Distribution of cancer by year of diagnosis, from January 2020 to July 2025

All cancer types and their distribution among both genders are listed in Table 1. Esophageal, breast, and prostate cancers rank the top three cancers with the highest incidence in the country overall from 2020 to 2025, with 898 cases (37.2%), 238 cases (9.8%), and 178 cases (7.4%), respectively. The ten most common cancers in both genders are shown in Fig. 2. Esophageal cancer was the most common cancer in both genders, 376 cases (35.4%) in men, and 522 cases (38.6%) in women. The incidence of esophageal cancer was 1.4 times higher in women than men (Fig. 2). Among men, prostate cancer (178 cases, 16.7%) and liver cancer (91 cases, 8.6%) ranked second and third. Among women, breast cancer (231 cases, 17.1%) and thyroid cancer (107 cases, 7.9%) ranked second and third.

Table 1.

Cancer distribution among gender (N = 2417) in Mogadishu and Hargeisa, Somalia, during 2020–2025

Cancer Type	Total n (%)	Men n (%)	Women n (%)
Esophageal Cancer	898 (37.2)	376 (35.4)	522 (38.6)
Breast Cancer	231 (9.6)	7 (0.7)	231 (17.1)
Prostate Cancer	178 (7.4)	178 (16.7)	0 (0)
Leukemia	156 (6.5)	81 (7.6)	75 (5.5)
Liver Cancer	123 (5.1)	91 (8.9)	32 (2.4)
Thyroid Cancer	123 (5.1)	16 (1.5)	107 (7.9)
Colorectal Cancer	120 (5.0)	51 (4.8)	69 (5.1)
Kidney Cancer	40 (1.7)	21 (2.0)	19 (1.4)
Oral Cavity Cancer	36 (1.5)	18 (1.7)	18 (1.3)
Nasopharyngeal Cancer	33 (1.4)	17 (1.6)	16 (1.2)
Endometrial Cancer	33 (1.4)	0 (0)	33 (2.4)
Ovarian Cancer	29 (1.2)	0 (0)	29 (2.1)
Gastric Cancer	26 (1.1)	26 (2.4)	7 (0.5)
Skin Cancer	25 (1.0)	13 (1.2)	12 (0.9)
Cervical Cancer	24 (1.0)	0 (0)	24 (1.8)
Bladder Cancer	22 (0.9)	12 (1.1)	10 (0.7)
Laryngeal Cancer	13 (0.5)	13 (1.2)	9 (0.7)
Glioma	11 (0.5)	11 (1.0)	7 (0.5)
Peritoneal Carcinoma	10 (0.4)	1 (0.1)	10 (0.7)
Ocular Cancer	9 (0.4)	9 (0.8)	2 (0.1)
Other Types of Cancer	277 (11.5)	122 (11.5)	122 (9.0)
Total	2417	1063	1354

Fig. 2.

The most common 15 cancers seen in both genders in Somalia

The overall cancer incidence in both genders was highest among those aged 60–69 years, 491 (20.3%) cases, followed by those in their fifth (431 cases, 17.8%) and seventh decades (377 cases, 15.6%) respectively (Fig. 3). Cancer incidence was lowest among children aged 17 or younger, and pediatric cancer cases were 86 (3.6%) out of the total 2417 cases identified in this study.

Fig. 3.

Cancer distribution among age groups stratified by gender (N = 2417) in Somalia during 2020–2025

Among the five most common cancers in Somalia, prostate cancer diagnosis was higher among those aged 80 or older, whereas esophageal and colorectal cancers, the incidence was highest among those in their sixth decade (Fig. 4A-E). For breast cancer, the incidence peaked equally in the fourth and fifth decades (Fig. 4C). The highest cases of leukemia, two-fold or higher, was observed among children 17 years or younger (Fig. 4D). Of the 156 childhood leukemia cases, 35% (n = 55) had chronic myeloid leukemia (CML), 33% (n = 52) had acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL), 16% (n = 25) had acute myeloid leukemia (AML), and 11% (n = 17) had chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). The types and prevalence of cancer in pediatric cases are shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 4.

Distribution of the top five cancers among age groups stratified by gender in Somalia during 2020–2025. A bar chart showing age groups and the total number of cancer cases of the top five cancers in Somalia: A esophageal cancer, B prostate cancer, C breast cancer, D leukemia, and E colorectal cancer

Fig. 5.

Distribution of the most common pediatric cancer types (n = 2096) in Mogadishu and Hargeisa, Somalia during 2020–2025

Histopathological type analysis revealed that most cancers in this study were of squamous cell carcinoma, which originates from squamous cells (n = 819, 39.1%), followed by adenocarcinoma (n = 406, 19.4%) and other types of cancer (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6.

Cancer distribution according to histopathological types (n = 2096) in Mogadishu and Hargeisa, Somalia during 2020–2025

For esophageal cancer, the most common histopathological subtype was squamous cell carcinoma (n = 808, 90%), followed by adenocarcinoma (n = 21, 2.3%) and other types of cancer (Fig. 7). Metastatic cancer was found among 230 (9.5%) patients (Table 2). Of the 230 patients with metastasized cancer, 106 (46.1%) were men, and 124 (53.9%) were women. Major metastatic organs include the lungs (n = 53, 25.2%), lymph nodes (n = 35, 16.7%), liver (n = 24, 11.4%), and bones (n = 20, 9.5%) (Table 3). Other metastatic sites and organs are summarized in Table 3.

Fig. 7.

Distribution of esophageal cancer by type of cell (n = 898)

Table 2.

Cancer diagnosis with metastatic cancer (N = 2417) in Mogadishu and Hargeisa, Somalia, during 2020–2025

Metastatic	Frequency	%
Yes	230	9.5
No	2187	90.5
Total	2417	100%
Gender with metastasis
Male	106	46.1
Female	124	53.9
Total	230	100%

Table 3.

Metastatic site among cancer patients (N = 230) in Mogadishu and Hargeisa, Somalia during 2020–2025

Metastatic site	Frequency	%
Lungs	53	25.2
Lungs and lymph nodes	5	2.4
Lungs and bones	2	1.0
Lungs and Abdominal wall	1	0.5
Lungs, liver and lymph nodes	3	1.4
Lungs, liver, perigastric and peripancreatic	1	0.5
Lungs, lymph nodes, adrenal gland and abdominal wall	1	0.5
Lungs and spine	1	0.5
Lungs, liver, spleen and left adrenal gland	1	0.5
Lymph node	35	16.7
Lymph node and bones	5	2.4
Lymph nodes, bones and lungs	2	1.0
Lymph node, bladder and colon	1	0.5
Lymph node and mesenteric	1	0.5
Lymph node, Peritoneal and pelvic	1	0.5
Lymph node, pelvic and bones	1	0.5
Liver	24	11.4
Liver and lungs	7	3.3
Liver, bones and lungs	4	1.9
Liver and bones	4	1.9
Liver and common bile duct	1	0.5
Liver & peritoneal	1	0.5
Liver, bone & peritoneal	1	0.5
Liver, lung, bone & peritoneal	1	0.5
Liver, spine and pelvic	1	0.5
Abdominal wall	4	1.9
Adrenal gland and lymph node	1	0.5
Pelvic	1	0.5
Pelvic and abdominal wall	1	0.5
Bones	20	9.5
Bone, lungs, pelvic, and lymph node	1	0.5
Brain	1	0.5
Kidneys, bones and adrenal gland	1	0.5
Pancreas	1	0.5
Peritoneal and umbilical	1	0.5
Peritoneal, mesenteric and right ovarian	1	0.5
Pleural nodules, lymph nodes and lungs	1	0.5
Skeletal	1	0.5
Spine	3	1.4
Spine, pelvic bones, and lungs	1	0.5
Spleen	1	0.5
Uterus	1	0.5
Unknown sites	31	14.8
Total	230	100%

Discussion

This was the first major comprehensive study in Somalia, describing the distribution of cancer in the country. The study collected data from Mogadishu in the south, and Hargeisa in the North, and found 2417 cancer cases diagnosed in the country from 2020 to 2025. The data was collected from diagnostic centers and hospitals that offer cancer care in Mogadishu and Hargeisa. Since there are no cancer registries in the country, the true incidence of cancer and mortality rates are not known. The country also does not have vital statistics, such as death certificates, to identify cancer-related deaths. This study reveals an increasing trend of cancer prevalence in Somalia. The five most common cancers in men are: esophageal, prostate, liver, leukemia, and colorectal cancers. For women, the five most common cancers are: esophageal, breast, thyroid, leukemia, and colorectal cancers. Esophageal cancer was the most prevalent type of cancer in the country, followed by breast, prostate, leukemia, thyroid, liver, and colorectal cancers.

Esophageal cancer ranks 11th on cancer incidence and 7th on cancer mortality in the world [3–5]. IARC Globocan 2020 data estimates rank esophageal cancer as 7th in incidence and 6th in mortality in Somalia [9]. Our comprehensive multicenter study, however, reveals esophageal cancer as the most common cancer in the country, for the overall data and for both men and women. Esophageal cancer incidence was observed in all age groups, but was highest for those in their sixties (60–69 years), and lowest in children (0–17 years). Previous studies in the region reported similar findings of esophageal cancer, where median age at diagnosis was 58 years [34].

The incidence and trend of esophageal cancer in the East African countries is increasing, yet, our findings differ strikingly to those in the East African region. In Kenya, for example, esophageal cancer is the fourth most frequently diagnosed cancer [3, 5, 35–38], and ranks third as the leading cause of cancer deaths in Kenya [3, 5]. Esophageal cancer remains the top five cancer types both in incidence and mortality for about half of the East African countries, including Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, Zambia, and Malawi [3, 5, 35–46]. Previous studies have suggested environmental factors and nutritional habits, such as frequent hot beverage and food intakes [23, 30, 47–50]. Our findings on esophageal cancer in Somalia highlight a different trend from those in East and SSA, and warrant further studies to investigate the cause and prevalence of esophageal cancer in Somalia.

Breast cancer is the 2nd most diagnosed cancer in the world, after lung cancer, and ranked 4th in mortality [3–5]. IARC Globocan 2020 data estimates rank breast cancer as 1st in both incidence and mortality in Somalia [9]. In contrast, our study found breast cancer as the second most common cancer in the overall data, and the most common gynecological cancer. Cancer incidence was observed in all age groups, but the highest cases were observed in women in their forties and fifties, followed by those in their sixties and seventies.

Interestingly, our findings on breast cancer in Somalia include slightly higher proportions of early-onset breast cancer (OEBC), defined as < 45 years, compared to Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (48.7 years) [51]. OEBC has worse outcomes compared to late-onset breast cancer cases [52–54]. Although the younger population age in the country can partially be associated with the higher proportions of EOBC, especially those in their 30–39 years, environmental, genetic, and socioeconomic factors can be attributed to the EOBC in Somalia.

Globally, there are already established screening guidelines for some of the most common cancers in Somalia, such as breast, colorectal, and prostate cancers, to help detect cancer early and improve patient outcomes [55–59] and quality of life. Screening programs in resource-limited settings challenging because of existing barriers in low- and middle-income countries. These include high costs related to setting up screening programs, implementing screening procedures, and prioritizing other pressing health conditions such as HIV, malaria, and tuberculosis than cancer. Another challenge to screening programs in resource-limited settings is the lack of health systems with a capacity to manage cancer [60, 61]. The capability to diagnose early, stage cancer, and offer treatment including surgery, radiotherapy, or chemotherapy without delay are critical to any successful screening program, and their absence often renders screening programs ineffective. Although screening programs in resource-limited settings are challenging [54–63], small-scale screening programs can be established in Somalia and can be beneficial. One organization that is taking an active role in raising public awareness and championing cancer screening is the Somali Medical Association. SMA in collaboration with the ministry of health and local hospitals offers free cancer screening programs, especially breast, prostate and leukemia, to commemorate world cancer day on February 4th. Also, primary care providers can play a central role in cancer screening, and there are already existing tests and equipment, such as mammograms and breast MRI, that can be used to conduct cancer screening. Selective cancer screening in Somalia can be achieved through a practical primary care-based interventions to detect cancer, reduce preventable deaths, and improve survival outcomes [64–68].

Since Somalia does not have any facility that offers radiation therapy, hospitals that provide oncology care, such as Horyaal Hospital and the newly established Oasis Cancer Hospital, have a collaboration with overseas hospitals where patients can receive radiotherapy as part of their treatment plan. However, this can take weeks as patients need to secure visas and obtain travel documents for their overseas travel. As the country is rebuilding, healthcare facilities in Somalia should champion the addition of radiotherapy to their treatment options, an initiative that should be spearheaded by the ministry of health in collaboration with major hospitals in the country.

Limitations

An important limitation of the study with respect to the retrospective part is that some recorded cases from most diagnostic centers were missing important data such as cancer stage and place of residency (current or former), important clinical and demographic data, which can directly affect creation of national plan for cancer prevention, control, and treatment. Another limitation of the study is that it consists both radiologically and pathologically diagnosed cancer cases. Although this was done to capture the whole cancer landscape and overall scope of the disease in Somalia, excluding radiologically diagnosed cases would have meant losing 13% of the actual data in the country. Furthermore, although the study collected data from most major diagnostic centers and hospitals, new centers with less than one year of operation were not included.

Conclusion

Our study shed light on the prevalence of cancer in Somalia and the dire need for accessible and affordable oncology services. Our comprehensive study found esophageal, breast, and prostate cancers to be the most frequently diagnosed cancers in the country. Esophageal, prostate, liver, leukemia, and colorectal cancers are the five most common types diagnosed in men. Esophageal, breast, thyroid, leukemia, and colorectal cancers are the five most common types diagnosed in women. Although several hospitals in the country provide oncology-related services, their service is mainly limited to chemotherapy, or surgery. Additionally, there are no radiotherapy facilities in the country, although some hospitals like Horyaal in Mogadishu, collaborate with foreign-based medical centers to allow Somali cancer patients to travel abroad and receive radiation therapy as part of their ongoing cancer treatment. Other challenges in the country include lack of coordinated or comprehensive care plan, involving primary care providers, surgeons, and medical oncologists.

Somalia also suffers from lack of PBCRs. Cancer registries are essential not only to track cancer cases but to use the data for crafting cancer control plans and policies, as well as allocating funding to build infrastructure and train cancer care providers to tackle the growing cancer burden in Somalia. To make an informed decision about the state of cancer in the country, it is crucial to establish regional cancer registries nationwide. PBCRs are not the only approach to create a plan for cancer prevention. National screening programs for certain cancers like breast, colorectal, and prostate can be used as another approach to cancer prevention. However, there are currently no national screening programs for breast, or colorectal cancer in Somalia [23, 52, 53, 56]. Screening for breast, colorectal, prostate, or other types of cancer remain largely opportunistic and isolated, similar to most East African nations [69–72], as patients come to hospitals for other medical conditions and subsequently get diagnosed with cancer. This is due to the economic conditions of consumers, which hampers patients and their families from seeking health prevention and promotion care and instead resort to curative care at a later stage where the disease might have metastasized and progressed to a terminal stage. Knowledge, attitude, and awareness of certain risk factors, especially nutritional risk factors, are critical for colorectal cancer prevention [73–75] and screening programs. Although a team of doctors and entrepreneurs have established a well-equipped diagnostic center all over the country, only few hospitals provide limited oncology care to Somali patients. There is also a huge shortage of cancer care providers and oncology professionals, as there are only ten oncologists operating in the country, especially in Mogadishu and Hargeisa. To overcome this challenge, Somalia needs to establish oncology training institutions – which can be achieved through a strong collaboration between ministries of health and higher education, higher education institutes, and international partners (WHO, World Bank, European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO), American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO). Concurrently, Somalia needs to send health professionals, including physicians, technicians, and nurses, to receive training overseas, particularly at well-established East African oncology training institutions in Kenya and Uganda.

Abbreviations

WHO

World Health Organization

NMSCs

Non-Melanoma Skin Cancers

SSA

Sub-Saharan Africa

IARC

International Agency for Research on Cancer

GLOBOCAN

Global Cancer Observatory

PBCRs

Population-Based Cancer Registries

MRI

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

CT

Computed Tomography

ESMO

European Society for Medical Oncology

ASCO

American Society of Clinical Oncology

SMA

Somali Medical Association

OEBC

Early-Onset Breast Cancer

CML

Chronic Myeloid Leukemia

ALL

Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia

AML

Acute Myeloid Leukemia

CLL

Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia

Author’s contributions

AMH: Conceptualization, design, investigation, collection & assembly of data, writing – original draft, methodology, validation, visualization, data analysis & interpretation, writing – review and editing.

Funding

The authors have not received any funding for this study.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, A.M.H, upon reasonable request.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This retrospective and descriptive study was conducted according to the guidelines laid down in the Declaration of Helsinki and ethical approval was obtained from the research ethics committee of Jamhuriya University of Science and Technology (Certificate number: JUREC0106/FMHS 319/212025). Due to the retrospective study design, the requirement for informed consent by the ethics committee was waived. All of the diagnostic centers granted permission to conduct this retrospective study.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.