Abstract
慢性创面因存在持续炎症、血管生成障碍、细胞功能失调及感染等因素, 阻碍了自身正常愈合进程, 不仅严重影响患者生活质量, 也增加了社会经济负担。针对该类创面, 传统疗法效果有限, 且存在治疗周期长、费用高等问题。近年来, 干细胞及其衍生物在创面修复领域的研究发展迅速。干细胞主要依赖其强大的旁分泌与免疫调节功能, 辅以多向分化潜能, 协同调控炎症反应、促进血管新生及胶原重塑, 从而加速创面愈合。同时, 基因修饰、三维培养及材料递送等工程化策略显著提升了干细胞的生物活性及环境适应性。此外, 干细胞衍生物, 尤其是外泌体, 因具有低免疫原性、高稳定性、富含多种活性因子及易于工程化改造等优势, 正成为新一代“无细胞治疗”策略, 为复杂创面的精准再生提供了新思路。该文旨在综述慢性创面的病理机制、应用干细胞及其衍生物进行治疗的研究进展、相关工程化策略及临床应用挑战, 以期为该领域提供参考。
Keywords: 干细胞, 外泌体, 组织工程, 干细胞衍生物, 慢性创面, 工程化疗法, 递送
Abstract
Chronic wounds are characterised by factors including persistent inflammation, impaired angiogenesis, cellular dysfunction, and infection, which hinder the normal healing process, thereby not only severely compromising patients' quality of life but also imposing a substantial socioeconomic burden. For this type of wounds, conventional treatments are often limited in efficacy and associated with issues such as prolonged treatment duration and high costs. Recently, research on stem cells and their derivatives in the field of wound repair has been developing rapidly. Stem cells accelerate wound healing primarily through potent paracrine effects and immunomodulatory functions, complemented by multilineage differentiation potential, which synergistically modulate inflammation, promote angiogenesis, and facilitate collagen remodeling. Furthermore, engineering strategies including genetic modification, three-dimensional culture, and biomaterial-based delivery have significantly improved stem cell bioactivity and adaptability to the wound microenvironment. Concurrently, stem cell derivatives, particularly exosomes, have attracted increasing attention as a next-generation "cell-free" therapeutic strategy owing to their low immunogenicity, high stability, abundance of bioactive factors, and capacity for bioengineering modification. It offers a new approach to the precise regeneration of complex wounds. This review aims to review the pathological mechanisms underlying chronic wounds, research progress on therapeutic application of stem cells and their derivatives, engineering strategies, and translational challenges in clinical application, providing a reference for future research in the field.
Keywords: Stem cells, Exosomes, Tissue engineering, Stem cell derivatives, Chronic wounds, Engineering therapy, Delivery
慢性创面是临床常见的难愈性组织损伤之一, 常由创伤、感染、血管性疾病、代谢异常或放射性损伤等因素引起。与急性创面不同, 慢性创面长期停滞于炎症期, 其长期不愈不仅加重患者及其家庭负担, 也对社会经济造成巨大压力。传统疗法虽可在一定程度上改善局部微环境, 但疗效有限。因此, 如何在复杂微环境中激活机体内源性修复潜能, 已成为慢性创面研究领域的核心问题。
近年来, 再生医学与组织工程学的发展使干细胞及其衍生物疗法在组织修复再生领域展现出广阔前景。干细胞不仅具备多向分化潜能, 还能通过旁分泌途径释放多种活性物质, 调节炎症反应等组织修复过程。凭借低免疫原性及可工程化修饰的优势, 干细胞衍生物正逐步成为慢性创面修复与组织再生的重要研究方向。本文旨在综述慢性创面的病理机制、应用干细胞及其衍生物进行治疗的研究进展、相关工程化策略及临床应用挑战, 以期为该领域提供参考。
1. 慢性创面的病理机制及治疗现状
正常皮肤创面愈合包括4个连续且相互重叠的阶段:止血期、炎症期、增殖期和重塑期[1], 任一环节失衡, 均可能引起创面愈合障碍, 形成超过4周难以愈合的慢性创面, 如糖尿病性溃疡、压力性损伤等[2]。
慢性创面病理机制复杂, 以持续炎症、氧化应激、血管生成障碍及细胞衰老为核心特征[3]。持续炎症可引发免疫细胞浸润及促炎性细胞因子大量释放, 进而诱导基质金属蛋白酶(matrix metalloproteinase, MMP)异常高表达, 导致ECM过度降解, 阻碍肉芽组织形成与上皮化;同时, 活性氧积累加剧细胞凋亡与衰老, 形成“炎症—氧化应激—细胞衰老”的恶性循环[4]。此外, 血管生成不足与局部缺氧所致营养匮乏, 共同使创面愈合长期停滞, 最终难以愈合[5]。
慢性创面的传统治疗手段包括病因控制、创面床准备及手术等。这些疗法虽能改善局部微环境, 但在促进功能性再生方面仍存在局限[6-7]。目前, 创面修复理念正逐步从结构愈合向精准修复与功能重建转变。干细胞凭借多向分化与强大的旁分泌功能, 为慢性创面的再生治疗提供了新思路。
2. 干细胞的研究和应用概述
2.1. 干细胞种类
干细胞是一类具备自我更新与多向分化潜能的原始细胞, 是组织再生与修复的重要基础。在慢性创面治疗中, 干细胞主要通过旁分泌作用释放细胞因子、生长因子及细胞外囊泡(extracellular vesicle, EV), 以调控创面微环境[8]。根据来源及分化潜能的不同, 干细胞主要分为胚胎干细胞(embryonic stem cell, ESC)、诱导多能干细胞(induced pluripotent stem cell, iPSC)及成体干细胞(adult stem cell, ASC)[8]。ESC源自早期胚胎内细胞团, 具有完全多能性, 可分化为所有类型成体组织细胞[9];iPSC则是通过向体细胞中导入特定转录因子进行表观遗传重编程, 以获得与ESC相似的自我更新能力与多向分化潜能[10-11];而ASC广泛存在于成体组织中, 分化潜能有限但类型丰富[12], 包括造血干细胞、神经干细胞、表皮干细胞及毛囊干细胞等[13-17]。不同来源的ASC具有特征性表面标志物, 需结合多种细胞特征进行综合鉴定。在这一范畴中, 间充质干细胞(mesenchymal stem cell, MSC)最受关注。
根据国际细胞与基因治疗协会的建议及Cell Stem Cell等权威期刊的学术共识, 为更准确地反映其成体细胞属性, MSC现亦被定义为间充质基质细胞[18-20]。MSC因来源广泛、获取相对简便且无伦理争议, 兼具自我更新与多向分化能力以及显著的旁分泌与免疫调节功能, 是再生医学及创面修复研究中应用最广的ASC类型[21]。不同组织(如骨髓、脂肪及脐带)来源的MSC在生物学功能与分泌特性方面存在差异(表 1), 为治疗提供了多样化的选择[22-23]。
表 1.
3种不同来源间充质干细胞的特性
| 间充质干细胞类型 | 优势 | 不足 | 主要分泌因子 |
| 注:VEGF为血管内皮生长因子, FGF为成纤维细胞生长因子, Ang-1为血管生成素-1, PGE2为前列腺素-E2, IDO为吲哚胺2, 3-双加氧酶, IL为白细胞介素, MCP-1为单核细胞趋化蛋白-1, HGF为肝细胞生长因子, TGF-β1为转化生长因子-β1, TNF-α为肿瘤坏死因子-α, TSG-6为TNF刺激基因-6, TIMP为组织金属蛋白酶抑制剂 | |||
| 骨髓来源的间充质干细胞 | 自我更新能力强, 具有多向、长期分化潜能 | 需要侵入性获取, 可及性有限, 易被感染 | VEGF、FGF、Ang-1、PGE2、IDO、IL-1RA、IL-8、IL-10、MCP-1 |
| 脂肪来源的间充质干细胞 | 可通过微创获取且产量高, 具有低免疫原性、高细胞活力 | 自我更新能力有限, 细胞干性受供体年龄影响, 易发生复制性衰老, 成骨与成软骨分化潜能较低 | VEGF、HGF、TGF-β1、IL-10、FGF |
| 脐带来源的间充质干细胞 | 为非侵入性获取, 具有低免疫原性、低致瘤性, 且不易被感染 | 获取途径受限, 体内存活率低, 成脂分化潜能尚存争议, 成骨分化潜能较低 | IL-1、IL-6、TNF-α、TSG-6、TIMP-1、TIMP-2、FGF、HGF |
2.2. 干细胞在生物医学中的应用
干细胞在组织再生与修复、免疫及神经系统疾病治疗、疾病模型构建及药物筛选等方面均发挥着关键作用[8]。截至2025年底, 全球已有20余种主流干细胞药物在不同国家或地区正式获批或进入临床前研究。干细胞的临床应用方式多样, 主要包括静脉或局部注射、系统性给药、组织工程支架内植入以及干细胞来源EV的应用等。不同给药方式在细胞归巢、迁移、存活与移植效率、滞留时间、生物活性维持以及对组织微环境的适应性等方面各具优势与局限。因此, 深入评估干细胞在创面修复中的作用机制、治疗方案、给药方式及其安全性与有效性, 是推动其临床转化的关键。部分MSC产品的应用情况, 见表 2。
表 2.
部分间充质干细胞产品及其临床应用
| 间充质干细胞类型 | 批准国家或部门 | 产品名称 | 适应证 |
| 注:本表仅列举部分间充质干细胞产品及其公开信息, 具体批准状态以相关监管机构最新信息为准 | |||
| 骨髓来源的间充质干细胞 | 美国 | Ryoncil | 儿科类固醇难治性急性移植物抗宿主病 |
| 韩国 | Hearticellgram®-AMI | 急性心肌梗死 | |
| 日本 | Stemirac | 脊髓损伤 | |
| 印度 | Stempeucel | 严重肢体缺血 | |
| 伊朗 | Mesestrocell | 骨关节炎 | |
| 脂肪来源的间充质干细胞 | 韩国 | Queencell | 皮下组织缺陷 |
| 欧洲药品管理局 | Alofisel | 克罗恩病 | |
| 日本 | Angel stem cell therapy | 孤独症谱系障碍 | |
| 脐带来源的间充质干细胞 | 韩国 | Cartistem | 膝骨关节炎 |
| 伊朗 | AlloStemsin | 肌萎缩侧索硬化症 | |
| 中国 | 艾米迈托赛注射液 | 急性移植物抗宿主病 | |
3. 干细胞促进慢性创面修复的研究与进展
干细胞可通过分泌多种细胞因子、生长因子及EV调控创面微环境与细胞信号, 也可分化为KC、Fb或血管内皮细胞等, 直接参与组织重建[24]。
MSC已被广泛应用于各类创面修复研究[18, 25], 在创面修复的炎症期、增殖期及重塑期均发挥关键调控作用, 其修复效应主要归因于旁分泌与免疫调节功能。在炎症期, MSC通过分泌前列腺素E2、吲哚胺2, 3-双加氧酶、环氧合酶-2等介导的免疫调节作用抑制促炎细胞活化, 促进调节性T细胞增殖并诱导巨噬细胞向M2表型极化, 从而降低促炎性细胞因子表达水平, 上调抗炎细胞因子表达, 缓解局部过度炎症, 恢复组织微环境稳态及细胞间通讯, 促使创面顺利进入增殖期[26-27]。同时, MSC分泌的生长因子与细胞因子可促进血管新生及细胞迁移[28-29]。
在增殖期, MSC通过直接细胞接触及生长因子信号调控, 促进Fb与KC的增殖及迁移, 加速肉芽组织形成与上皮化, 从而加快创面闭合。在创面成熟与重塑期, MSC表现出显著的抗纤维化及ECM重塑调节功能。MSC可调节TGF-β1与TGF-β3的平衡, 抑制TGF-β1诱导的Fb向肌Fb过度分化、减少Ⅰ型胶原过度沉积, 从而减轻瘢痕形成。MSC还可调节MMP与MMP组织抑制剂的平衡, 促进胶原纤维重新排列及ECM结构优化, 恢复组织的功能与弹性[30]。综上所述, MSC通过多向分化、旁分泌及免疫调节等多重机制, 全面改善创面微环境失衡, 为慢性创面修复提供细胞学基础。
近年来, ASC在慢性创面治疗中应用的临床研究与试验数量呈现积极增长趋势。据统计, 在44项相关临床研究中, 脂肪来源的MSC因获取便捷、促血管生成能力强而成为优选细胞类型[31]。多项针对下肢溃疡、压力性损伤、放射性皮肤损伤的临床试验证实, 干细胞移植可提高创面愈合率、肉芽组织覆盖率并改善血管生成能力[31]。
4. 工程化干细胞疗法在复杂创面的应用与挑战
干细胞功能调控与追踪技术的发展, 有力推动了再生医学的进步。在此基础上, 工程化干细胞疗法通过基因工程、生物材料修饰及微环境调控等手段, 对干细胞进行工程化改造, 以提高其在复杂创面微环境中的存活率与再生效能, 进而推动干细胞治疗向精准化、可控化和智能化方向转型。
4.1. 干细胞体外培养及扩增
干细胞的体外高效扩增与干性维持能力是其实现治疗安全、有效的前提。传统的二维贴壁培养体系易导致干细胞扩增能力下降及干性流失。近年来, 研究者通过不断调整与优化培养体系, 发展出三维仿生培养系统。该系统通过模拟体内ECM微环境中的生理特征(如机械力、ECM成分、氧气信号等), 再现干细胞巢的微环境, 从而维持干细胞的干性与功能[32]。干细胞通常以细胞球体或多细胞聚集形式生长, 以增强细胞间相互作用[33], 维持低氧诱导因子-1α等存活因子的表达, 显著提升其再生潜能及生长因子的分泌能力[34]。相关研究表明, 三维培养的MSC在骨再生、血管生成[35-36]及慢性创面修复中的效果优于二维培养[37-38], 但目前仍面临球体尺寸不均、核心区域缺氧坏死及结构稳定性不足等挑战。
4.2. 基因修饰干细胞策略及其应用
慢性创面的持续炎症、缺氧与氧化应激易导致干细胞功能受损。基因工程技术通过外源基因导入、沉默或编辑, 可增强干细胞的归巢、存活及分泌能力。目前常用的基因修饰策略主要包括病毒载体(如腺病毒、慢病毒等)[39-40]或非病毒载体(如脂质体、阳离子复合载体、电穿孔等)[41]介导的基因转染及基因编辑[42]。在功能层面, 基因修饰策略主要聚焦于生长因子基因修饰[43-44]、抗炎与抗氧化修饰[45]、基因编辑调控[42, 46]以及追踪技术与响应系统的构建[47]。
综上, 基因修饰可显著增强干细胞的分泌及再生能力, 有效促进血管生成、抑制炎症、提高细胞存活率并加速创面愈合。然而, 体内递送效率、细胞存活率及功能维持仍是干细胞临床转化的关键瓶颈。近年来, 生物材料(尤其是水凝胶)辅助递送系统已成为干细胞治疗的有效策略, 可大幅提升治疗的稳定性与靶向性。
4.3. 水凝胶中干细胞与生物材料协同修复体系
组织工程与材料科学的发展使水凝胶成为干细胞递送的理想载体。水凝胶具有高含水量、多孔结构、良好的生物相容性与可降解性, 能够模拟天然ECM微环境, 在为干细胞提供三维培养空间的同时, 实现营养交换、物理支撑、免疫隔离及生物活性因子的缓控释。与传统注射方式相比, 水凝胶可显著提高细胞的滞留率与存活率, 调控炎症反应, 促进血管及上皮再生。目前, 温敏水凝胶可实现室温注射、体温原位成胶, 形成三维仿生培养或递送支架, 有效提升干细胞的滞留率、存活率及增殖能力[48]。响应性水凝胶是一类具备环境感知与自适应能力的功能化材料, 能够对创面局部微环境变化做出响应, 从而发挥活性氧清除、酸碱度调节等功能[49-50]。此外, DNA水凝胶、胶原蛋白-纳米复合水凝胶及拓扑结构优化支架可进一步改善干细胞存活、旁分泌与修复效能, 加速创面愈合[51-52]。综上, 工程化干细胞疗法已从单一细胞优化转向多维度协同调控。其核心治疗效应源于旁分泌活性物质与信号调控, 因此, 干细胞衍生物的可控分泌与递送正逐步成为无细胞精准再生干预的重要发展方向。
5. 干细胞衍生物疗法
5.1. 干细胞衍生物疗法的生物学特征和优势
干细胞衍生物以干细胞分泌EV为核心, 主要包括外泌体、微囊泡及凋亡小体。其中, 直径为30~150 nm的外泌体因尺寸小、组织渗透性强、免疫原性低, 已成为无细胞疗法的核心载体。该类外泌体的脂质双层结构可携带核酸、蛋白等活性分子, 介导细胞间通讯, 从而调控免疫反应与组织修复[53]。差速超速离心等技术的改进, 促进了外泌体的高纯度分离[54]。干细胞来源外泌体在慢性创面修复中表现出多靶点修复潜力。不同种类干细胞的外泌体可通过促进血管新生、抗炎及调控自噬等途径加速创面愈合[53, 55-58]。这些外泌体中的活性分子可通过膜融合、内吞等途径被受体细胞摄取, 并借助标记技术进行体内示踪。然而, 直接给药面临体内滞留时间短、靶向性差等局限, 需通过工程化修饰及载体递送予以优化。
5.2. 工程化外泌体策略
天然外泌体已展现出良好的修复能力, 基于此, 研究者提出对其进行工程化修饰, 以提高其稳定性、靶向性及治疗活性[59]。工程化修饰主要分为供体细胞改造修饰与外泌体直接修饰2类。对供体细胞改造修饰主要指通过质粒或病毒转染使干细胞过表达目标蛋白或RNA, 进而收集相应外泌体[60]。此外, 还可通过缺氧处理、炎症因子刺激、小分子干预或三维培养等方式预处理干细胞, 调控其外泌体内容物的组成, 从而改变干细胞的生物学效应[61-64]。供体细胞改造修饰策略可实现外泌体的大规模生产, 其优势在于产量高、均一性好、膜结构完整, 并可进行多重改造以获得多功能外泌体, 适用于慢性创面等需要长期、多因子协同作用的疾病, 技术路线清晰, 具备规模化应用潜力。但供体细胞改造修饰策略主要不足在于靶向性相对较弱、生产周期较长, 且所负载的分子种类有限。对外泌体进行工程化修饰是在外泌体分离纯化后, 直接对其膜表面或内容物进行修饰。膜表面修饰常借助基因工程、化学偶联或代谢标记技术, 引入靶向肽、抗体或其他导向分子, 以提高其细胞或组织特异性[65-66];内容物修饰指通过电穿孔、超声或直接孵育等方法, 将蛋白质、RNA或小分子药物导入外泌体内部, 赋予其新的治疗功能[67-68]。外泌体直接修饰策略具有精准度高、不受供体细胞限制、迭代速度快等优点, 尤其适合靶向递送特定药物、基因编辑工具或实现肿瘤等疾病的主动靶向治疗。然而, 该修饰策略可能破坏外泌体膜结构, 存在装载效率差异及潜在安全性风险, 高效且不损伤外泌体完整性的精准装载技术仍在探索之中。
目前, 全球已启动多项干细胞来源外泌体治疗慢性创面的临床研究及试验。例如, 一项2025年发表的Ⅰ/Ⅱ期临床试验显示, 经创周注射脐带来源的MSC衍生物治疗糖尿病足溃疡后, 10例患者在平均4.2周内实现创面完全愈合, 且在24个月随访期内无复发[69]。此外, 国内多所医院关于脐带来源的MSC外泌体治疗慢性难愈性创面的多中心临床研究也已正式启动。上述临床研究的积极推进, 为未来干细胞衍生物的临床转化奠定了基础。为保护和维持外泌体的功能, 在应用时常将其与生物材料载体结合以实现精准递送。目前的递送形式包括水凝胶、微针、喷雾等, 这些递送方式可实现外泌体的长效滞留与缓释, 显著提高其在创面的稳定性、治疗效率及可控性[70]。
6. 总结与展望
干细胞及其衍生物疗法在慢性创面修复中优势显著, 正从单纯细胞移植向多维度工程化精准干预体系演进。干细胞通过旁分泌与分化的协同作用, 调控炎症反应, 促进血管生成与组织再生;工程化修饰及生物材料载体显著提升了其在复杂创面微环境中的存活率与功能稳定性。同时, 干细胞衍生物(如EV)因低免疫原性、高可控性及良好安全性, 已成为无细胞治疗的重要新方向。
目前, 干细胞及其衍生物疗法的研究与临床转化正处于关键发展阶段。成功实现临床应用需兼顾工程化的严谨设计及临床实际需求, 推动基础研究向安全有效的治疗方案转化。不同来源干细胞的差异核心在于其分泌谱与表观遗传记忆是否与创面微环境相匹配。未来的突破性工程化应转向赋予细胞多生态位适配能力及动态功能切换能力。当前面临的主要瓶颈包括标准化规模化扩增、严苛微环境下的功能维持, 以及缺乏直接比较干细胞与外泌体疗效的高质量临床试验。未来应聚焦精准匹配适应证, 并推动头对头临床试验以提供循证医学证据。此外, 临床转化过程还面临标准化生产与质量监管的挑战, 涉及细胞来源、培养流程、鉴定检测及剂量设定的全流程控制, 亟须建立与临床疗效相关联的效价测定体系。从成本效益角度看, 立足终身治疗与社会经济视角, 干细胞及其衍生物是否具有长期成本效益, 仍需要结合其疗效持续性、安全性及生产成本开展系统评价。
Funding Statement
国家自然科学基金青年科学基金项目(82503047);浙江省领军型创新创业团队(2023R01002)
Youth Fund of the National Natural Science Foundation of China (82503047); The Leading Innovative and Entrepreneur Team Introduction Program of Zhejiang (2023R01002)
Footnotes
利益冲突 所有作者声明不存在利益冲突
References
- 1.Rodrigues M, Kosaric N, Bonham CA, et al. Wound healing: a cellular perspective. Physiol Rev. 2019;99(1):665–706. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00067.2017. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 2.中华医学会烧伤外科学分会, 《中华烧伤与创面修复杂志》编辑委员会 慢性创面外用生长因子的临床专家共识(2025版) 中华烧伤与创面修复杂志. 2025;41(8):711–724. doi: 10.3760/cma.j.cn501225-20250426-00191. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 3.Peña OA, Martin P. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of skin wound healing. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2024;25(8):599–616. doi: 10.1038/s41580-024-00715-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 4.Pilkington SM, Bulfone-Paus S, Griffiths C, et al. Inflammaging and the skin. J Invest Dermatol. 2021;141(4 Suppl):1087–1095. doi: 10.1016/j.jid.2020.11.006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 5.Eming SA, Martin P, Tomic-Canic M. Wound repair and regeneration: mechanisms, signaling, and translation. Sci Transl Med. 2014;6(265):265sr6. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3009337. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 6.Fahma F, Firmanda A, Cabral J, et al. Three-dimensional printed cellulose for wound dressing applications. 3D Print Addit Manuf. 2023;10(5):1015–1035. doi: 10.1089/3dp.2021.0327. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 7.Henry S, Mapula S, Grevious M, et al. Maximizing wound coverage in full-thickness skin defects: a randomized-controlled trial of autologous skin cell suspension and widely meshed autograft versus standard autografting. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2024;96(1):85–93. doi: 10.1097/TA.0000000000004120. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 8.Hoang DM, Pham PT, Bach TQ, et al. Stem cell-based therapy for human diseases. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2022;7(1):272. doi: 10.1038/s41392-022-01134-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 9.Rippon HJ, Bishop AE. Embryonic stem cells. Cell Prolif. 2004;37(1):23–34. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2184.2004.00298.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 10.Bellin M, Marchetto MC, Gage FH, et al. Induced pluripotent stem cells: the new patient? Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2012;13(11):713–726. doi: 10.1038/nrm3448. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 11.Gorecka J, Kostiuk V, Fereydooni A, et al. The potential and limitations of induced pluripotent stem cells to achieve wound healing. Stem Cell Res Ther. 2019;10(1):87. doi: 10.1186/s13287-019-1185-1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 12.Clevers H. What is an adult stem cell? Science. 2015;350(6266):1319–1320. doi: 10.1126/science.aad7016. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 13.Urao N, Liu J, Takahashi K, et al. Hematopoietic stem cells in wound healing response. Adv Wound Care (New Rochelle) 2022;11(11):598–621. doi: 10.1089/wound.2021.0065. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 14.Wagers AJ, Weissman IL. Plasticity of adult stem cells. Cell. 2004;116(5):639–648. doi: 10.1016/s0092-8674(04)00208-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 15.Liu W, Chen W, Xie M, et al. Traumatic brain injury stimulates sympathetic tone-mediated bone marrow myelopoiesis to favor fracture healing. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2023;8(1):260. doi: 10.1038/s41392-023-01457-w. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 16.Mann M, Mehta A, de Boer CG, et al. Heterogeneous responses of hematopoietic stem cells to inflammatory stimuli are altered with age. Cell Rep. 2018;25(11):2992–3005.e5. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.11.056. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 17.Qin Y, Ge G, Yang P, et al. An update on adipose-derived stem cells for regenerative medicine: where challenge meets opportunity. Adv Sci (Weinh) 2023;10(20):e2207334. doi: 10.1002/advs.202207334. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 18.Phinney DG, Hwa Lee R, Boregowda SV. Revisiting the mesenchymal "stem vs.stromal" cell dichotomy and its implications for development of improved potency metrics. Stem Cells. 2023;41(5):444–452. doi: 10.1093/stmcls/sxad019. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 19.Galipeau J, Sensébé L. Mesenchymal stromal cells: clinical challenges and therapeutic opportunities. Cell Stem Cell. 2018;22(6):824–833. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2018.05.004. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 20.Keating A. Mesenchymal stromal cells: new directions. Cell Stem Cell. 2012;10(6):709–716. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2012.05.015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 21.Bianco P, Robey PG, Simmons PJ. Mesenchymal stem cells: revisiting history, concepts, and assays. Cell Stem Cell. 2008;2(4):313–319. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2008.03.002. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 22.Gao F, Chiu SM, Motan DA, et al. Mesenchymal stem cells and immunomodulation: current status and future prospects. Cell Death Dis. 2016;7(1):e2062. doi: 10.1038/cddis.2015.327. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 23.Aliniay-Sharafshadehi S, Yousefi MH, Ghodratie M, et al. Exploring the therapeutic potential of different sources of mesenchymal stem cells: a novel approach to combat burn wound infections. Front Microbiol. 2024;15:1495011. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1495011. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 24.Ayavoo T, Murugesan K, Gnanasekaran A. Roles and mechanisms of stem cell in wound healing. Stem Cell Investig. 2021;8:4. doi: 10.21037/sci-2020-027. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 25.Wang Y, Fang J, Liu B, et al. Reciprocal regulation of mesenchymal stem cells and immune responses. Cell Stem Cell. 2022;29(11):1515–1530. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2022.10.001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 26.Ortiz-Virumbrales M, Menta R, Pérez LM, et al. Human adipose mesenchymal stem cells modulate myeloid cells toward an anti-inflammatory and reparative phenotype: role of IL-6 and PGE2. Stem Cell Res Ther. 2020;11(1):462. doi: 10.1186/s13287-020-01975-2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 27.Pourjafar M, Saidijam M, Mansouri K, et al. All-trans retinoic acid preconditioning enhances proliferation, angiogenesis and migration of mesenchymal stem cell in vitro and enhances wound repair in vivo. Cell Prolif. 2017;50(1):e12315. doi: 10.1111/cpr.12315. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 28.Tamama K, Kerpedjieva SS. Acceleration of wound healing by multiple growth factors and cytokines secreted from multipotential stromal cells/mesenchymal stem cells. Adv Wound Care (New Rochelle) 2012;1(4):177–182. doi: 10.1089/wound.2011.0296. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 29.Wu Y, Chen L, Scott PG, et al. Mesenchymal stem cells enhance wound healing through differentiation and angiogenesis. Stem Cells. 2007;25(10):2648–2659. doi: 10.1634/stemcells.2007-0226. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 30.Li M, Luan F, Zhao Y, et al. Mesenchymal stem cell-conditioned medium accelerates wound healing with fewer scars. Int Wound J. 2017;14(1):64–73. doi: 10.1111/iwj.12551. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 31.Farabi B, Roster K, Hirani R, et al. The efficacy of stem cells in wound healing: a systematic review. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(5):3006. doi: 10.3390/ijms25053006. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 32.Krasnova O, Kovaleva A, Saveleva A, et al. Mesenchymal stem cells lose the senescent phenotype under 3D cultivation. Stem Cell Res Ther. 2023;14(1):373. doi: 10.1186/s13287-023-03599-8. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 33.Kim W, Gwon Y, Park S, et al. Therapeutic strategies of three-dimensional stem cell spheroids and organoids for tissue repair and regeneration. Bioact Mater. 2023;19:50–74. doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2022.03.039. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 34.Yang K, Park HJ, Han S, et al. Recapitulation of in vivo-like paracrine signals of human mesenchymal stem cells for functional neuronal differentiation of human neural stem cells in a 3D microfluidic system. Biomaterials. 2015;63:177–188. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2015.06.011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 35.Lee JH, Han YS, Lee SH. Long-duration three-dimensional spheroid culture promotes angiogenic activities of adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2016;24(3):260–267. doi: 10.4062/biomolther.2015.146. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 36.Ohori-Morita Y, Niibe K, Limraksasin P, et al. Novel mesenchymal stem cell spheroids with enhanced stem cell characteristics and bone regeneration ability. Stem Cells Transl Med. 2022;11(4):434–449. doi: 10.1093/stcltm/szab030. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 37.Xiao S, Zhao T, Wang J, et al. Gelatin methacrylate (GelMA) -based hydrogels for cell transplantation: an effective strategy for tissue engineering. Stem Cell Rev Rep. 2019;15(5):664–679. doi: 10.1007/s12015-019-09893-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 38.Xia S, Weng T, Jin R, et al. Curcumin-incorporated 3D bioprinting gelatin methacryloyl hydrogel reduces reactive oxygen species-induced adipose-derived stem cell apoptosis and improves implanting survival in diabetic wounds[J/OL]. Burns Trauma, 2022, 10: tkac001[2025-11-10]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35291229/. DOI: 10.1093/burnst/tkac001.
- 39.Wang P, Huang S, Hu Z, et al. In situ formed anti-inflammatory hydrogel loading plasmid DNA encoding VEGF for burn wound healing. Acta Biomater. 2019;100:191–201. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2019.10.004. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 40.Zhu Y, Liao Y, Zhang Y, et al. Novel nanofibrous membrane-supporting stem cell sheets for plasmid delivery and cell activation to accelerate wound healing. Bioeng Transl Med. 2022;7(1):e10244. doi: 10.1002/btm2.10244. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 41.Yang F, Cho SW, Son SM, et al. Genetic engineering of human stem cells for enhanced angiogenesis using biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010;107(8):3317–3322. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0905432106. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 42.Hendriks D, Clevers H, Artegiani B. CRISPR-cas tools and their application in genetic engineering of human stem cells and organoids. Cell Stem Cell. 2020;27(5):705–731. doi: 10.1016/j.stem.2020.10.014. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 43.Cressman A, Le B, Morales D, et al. Investigational new drug-enabling studies to use genetically modified mesenchymal stromal cells in patients with critical limb ischemia. Stem Cells Transl Med. 2025;14(2):szae094. doi: 10.1093/stcltm/szae094. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 44.Qiu Y, Yu B, Jiang C, et al. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells overexpressing FGF-2 loaded onto a decellularized extracellular matrix hydrogel for the treatment of osteoarthritis. Biomater Sci. 2026;14(1):9–30. doi: 10.1039/d5bm00920k. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 45.Wang X, Zhao T, Huang W, et al. Hsp20-engineered mesenchymal stem cells are resistant to oxidative stress via enhanced activation of Akt and increased secretion of growth factors. Stem Cells. 2009;27(12):3021–3031. doi: 10.1002/stem.230. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 46.Srifa W, Kosaric N, Amorin A, et al. Cas9-AAV6-engineered human mesenchymal stromal cells improved cutaneous wound healing in diabetic mice. Nat Commun. 2020;11(1):2470. doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-16065-3. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 47.Pourfath MR, Behzad-Behbahani A, Hashemi SS, et al. Monitoring wound healing of burn in rat model using human Wharton's jelly mesenchymal stem cells containing cGFP integrated by lentiviral vectors. Iran J Basic Med Sci. 2018;21(1):70–76. doi: 10.22038/IJBMS.2017.19783.5212. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 48.Liang W, Bhatia S, Reisbeck F, et al. Thermoresponsive hydrogels as microniches for growth and controlled release of induced pluripotent stem cells. Adv Funct Mater. 2021;31:2010630. doi: 10.1002/adfm.202010630. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 49.Er P, Zhang Z, Chen Y, et al. ROS-scavenging hybrid hydrogel for genetically engineered stem cell delivery and limb ischemia therapy. Chem Eng J. 2021;425:131504. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2021.131504. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 50.Han Z, Yuan M, Liu L, et al. pH-responsive wound dressings: advances and prospects. Nanoscale Horiz. 2023;8(4):422–440. doi: 10.1039/d2nh00574c. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 51.Zhou L, Zeng Z, Liu S, et al. Multifunctional DNA hydrogel enhances stemness of adipose-derived stem cells to activate immune pathways for guidance burn wound regeneration. Adv Funct Mater. 2022;32:2207466. doi: 10.1002/adfm.202207466. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- 52.Zhang Q, Li J, Jia J, et al. Topology scaffolds-enhanced paracrine of BMSCs through mechanotransduction-related metabolism reprogramming for burn wounds healing. Biomaterials. 2026;324:123518. doi: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2025.123518. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 53.Ding JY, Chen MJ, Wu LF, et al. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles in skin wound healing: roles, opportunities and challenges. Mil Med Res. 2023;10(1):36. doi: 10.1186/s40779-023-00472-w. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 54.Rezaie J, Feghhi M, Etemadi T. A review on exosomes application in clinical trials: perspective, questions, and challenges. Cell Commun Signal. 2022;20(1):145. doi: 10.1186/s12964-022-00959-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 55.Wang P, Theocharidis G, Vlachos IS, et al. Exosomes derived from epidermal stem cells improve diabetic wound healing. J Invest Dermatol. 2022;142(9):2508–2517.e13. doi: 10.1016/j.jid.2022.01.030. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 56.Song Y, You Y, Xu X, et al. Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes biopotentiated extracellular matrix hydrogels accelerate diabetic wound healing and skin regeneration. Adv Sci (Weinh) 2023;10(30):e2304023. doi: 10.1002/advs.202304023. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 57.Li J, Gao H, Xiong Y, et al. Enhancing cutaneous wound healing based on human induced neural stem cell-derived exosomes. Int J Nanomedicine. 2022;17:5991–6006. doi: 10.2147/IJN.S377502. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 58.Ren H, Su P, Zhao F, et al. Adipose mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes promote skin wound healing in diabetic mice by regulating epidermal autophagy[J/OL]. Burns Trauma, 2024, 12: tkae001[2025-11-10]. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38434722/. DOI: 10.1093/burnst/tkae001.
- 59.Herrmann IK, Wood M, Fuhrmann G. Extracellular vesicles as a next-generation drug delivery platform. Nat Nanotechnol. 2021;16(7):748–759. doi: 10.1038/s41565-021-00931-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 60.He L, Zhu C, Jia J, et al. ADSC-Exos containing MALAT1 promotes wound healing by targeting miR-124 through activating Wnt/β -catenin pathway. Biosci Rep. 2020;40(5):BSR20192549. doi: 10.1042/BSR20192549. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 61.Hu N, Cai Z, Jiang X, et al. Hypoxia-pretreated ADSC-derived exosome-embedded hydrogels promote angiogenesis and accelerate diabetic wound healing. Acta Biomater. 2023;157:175–186. doi: 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.11.057. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 62.Li C, Li X, Shi Z, et al. Exosomes from LPS-preconditioned bone marrow MSCs accelerated peripheral nerve regeneration via M2 macrophage polarization: involvement of TSG-6/NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling pathway. Exp Neurol. 2022;356:114139. doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2022.114139. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 63.Wang J, Wu H, Peng Y, et al. Hypoxia adipose stem cell-derived exosomes promote high-quality healing of diabetic wound involves activation of PI3K/Akt pathways. J Nanobiotechnology. 2021;19(1):202. doi: 10.1186/s12951-021-00942-0. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 64.Chu Z, Huang Q, Ma K, et al. Novel neutrophil extracellular trap-related mechanisms in diabetic wounds inspire a promising treatment strategy with hypoxia-challenged small extracellular vesicles. Bioact Mater. 2023;27:257–270. doi: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2023.04.007. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 65.Li L, Wang F, Zhu D, et al. Engineering exosomes and exosome-like nanovesicles for improving tissue targeting and retention. Fundam Res. 2025;5(2):851–867. doi: 10.1016/j.fmre.2024.03.025. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 66.Yang J, Wu S, He M. Engineered exosome-based senolytic therapy alleviates stroke by targeting p21+CD86+ microglia. Exploration (Beijing) 2025;5(3):20240349. doi: 10.1002/EXP.20240349. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 67.Yang Q, Li S, Ou H, et al. Exosome-based delivery strategies for tumor therapy: an update on modification, loading, and clinical application. J Nanobiotechnology. 2024;22(1):41. doi: 10.1186/s12951-024-02298-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 68.Wan T, Zhong J, Pan Q, et al. Exosome-mediated delivery of Cas9 ribonucleoprotein complexes for tissue-specific gene therapy of liver diseases. Sci Adv. 2022;8(37):eabp9435. doi: 10.1126/sciadv.abp9435. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 69.Jafar H, Almousa R, Alhawari H, et al. Human umbilical cord mesenchymal stromal cells derivatives in treating diabetic foot ulcers: a phase Ⅰ/Ⅱ safety and efficacy trial. Stem Cell Res Ther. 2025;16(1):657. doi: 10.1186/s13287-025-04736-1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- 70.Zhou C, Zhang B, Yang Y, et al. Stem cell-derived exosomes: emerging therapeutic opportunities for wound healing. Stem Cell Res Ther. 2023;14(1):107. doi: 10.1186/s13287-023-03345-0. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
