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. 2026 Oct 1;11(40):60897–60903. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.6c04350

Formation of Laser-Induced Graphene on Smart Wearable Kevlar-Based Cloth as Flexible Electronics Applications

Himanshi Awasthi †,‡, Thomas Thundat §, Sanket Goel †,‡,*
PMCID: PMC13670339  PMID: 42889975

Abstract

The rapid advancement of wearable electronics has driven the need for flexible and conductive substrates capable of supporting integrated energy storage and sensing systems, particularly in sports and fitness monitoring applications. Kevlar fabric presents a unique opportunity among various substrate materials due to its inherent flexibility, durability, and high tensile strength. Traditionally used in protective gear such as bulletproof vests for its exceptional ballistic resistance, Kevlar can be effectively transformed into a functional electronic platform when modified with conductive materials. In this context, Laser-induced graphene (LIG) is a conductive electrode, making it appropriate for energy storage and sensing applications. Electrochemical performance characterizations of supercapacitors fabricated from Kevlar are conducted using cyclic voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and galvanostatic charge–discharge characterization. The CV investigation reveals these electrodes operate at an elevated scan rate of 800 mV/s. This higher scan rate also demonstrates the manifestation of electrical double-layer capacitor characteristics in the supercapacitor. A notable finding is that an areal capacitance of 87.79 mF/cm2 is measured at a scan rate 5 mV/s. In the electrical characterization of the physical sensor, it has demonstrated excellent potential as a highly sensitive touch sensor. These results indicate that laser-induced graphene on textiles has the potential to streamline the production of textile electronics with tailored designs for various applications.

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1. Introduction

Wearable technology has garnered significant interest due to its transformative potential, necessitating thorough research that aligns with market needs and demands. As a subdomain of flexible technology, wearable electronics thrive on advancements in material innovation, which serve as pivotal enablers of progress in this field. While the market has seen remarkable growth in foldable devices, such as smartphones and adaptive displays, the reliance on rigid power sources remains a limiting factor. To achieve full flexibility, the development of flexible batteries and supercapacitors emerges as a critical area of focus, offering immense scope for innovation and addressing a pressing need in the industry. , The critical considerations in this area of research include flexibility, durability, and lightweight design, coupled with wearability and comfort. Additionally, many other attributes, such as high conductivity, thermal stability, and mechanical adaptability are essential for ensuring optimal performance and practical integration. Focused research on micro-flexible supercapacitors offers a compelling pathway for advancing dynamic energy storage systems, addressing current limitations while meeting essential requirements. , These electrodes serve as an ideal bridge, seamlessly integrating flexibility with enhanced energy storage capabilities.

Extensive research efforts in this domain have relentlessly explored suitable materials for energy storage applications. Traditionally, metal and metal-based electrodes have dominated the field of energy storage. However, graphene has emerged as a standout candidate, offering a superior and more innovative alternative to conventional metal electrodes. Graphene and its derivates are known for its superior mechanical stability, chemical resistance, and electrical conductivity. Many techniques have been developed during the last 20 years to synthesize graphene. As a substitute material with remarkable properties, the synthesis of LIG has drawn a lot of study interest. This process utilizes direct laser writing to convert various carbon-based precursors into graphene through photothermal transformation induced by laser scanning. Its chemical-free laser patterning, flexible design, and maskless production are its unique selling propositions (USPs). Various materials such as polyimide (PI), wood, leaves, and paper have been used as precursors for synthesizing LIG on their surfaces. These materials are converted into LIG, which is then employed in the fabrication of LIG-based actuators, sensors, and energy storage systems.

Textiles, inherently flexible by nature, offer an excellent platform for integrating electronic devices into materials such as cotton, wool, etc. This approach ensures seamless functionality without compromising user comfort, eliminating the discomfort associated with foreign or intrusive objects. , Kevlar, a high-tensile-strength aramid fiber characterized by multiple benzene rings, is well-known for its outstanding mechanical strength, heat resistance, and corrosion resistancequalities that make it ideal for military and firefighting applications. Integrating graphene-based materials with Kevlar opens up promising possibilities for advanced and multifunctional applications. Daubert et al. modified the Kevlar yarns with conductive platinum metal and pseudocapacitive V2O5 films, resulting in a capacitance of 18.4 mF cm–2 with solid PVA-LiCl gel electrolyte. Ahirrao et al. synthesized polyaniline (PANI) on conductive carbon cloth using in situ oxidative polymerization. Flexible supercapacitors were designed utilizing stainless steel sheets and PANI–CC flexible electrodes. Performance analysis in 1M sulfuric acid revealed pseudocapacitive behavior, achieving a specific capacitance of 575 F/g at 1 A/g with a 72% retention rate under a 140-degree bending angle.

Keawploy et al. introduced an eco-friendly method for producing conductive textiles by screen-printing silver powder onto cotton fabric. The authors used inks containing carbon-based materials such as CNTs, graphene, and activated carbon. Among these, activated carbon demonstrated superior performance when utilized in supercapacitors with an alkaline KOH electrolyte, achieving an areal-specific capacitance of 3288 mF/cm2 at a scan rate of 5 mV/s and exhibiting 130% capacitive retention. Table summarizes some more reported literature. Although there is substantial literature on the chemical treatment of raw materials such as fabrics and papers prior to the production of LIG, this approach may not be practical for the e-textile market. Chemically treated textiles may raise concerns regarding skin compatibility during prolonged use, highlighting the need for developing directly printable e-textiles on untreated raw materials.

1. Reported Literature Table With the Specification.

electrode material substrate type electrolyte electrode/device type areal capacitance scan rate/current density ref
reduced graphene oxide microribbon textile electrode textile-based rGO microribbon 1 M H2SO4 microsupercapacitor configuration 14.4 mF cm–2 5 mV s–1
LIG and MWCNT coatings flexible LIG/MWCNT-coated substrate PVA/H2SO4 gel flexible supercapacitor device 19.47 mF cm–2 2 mV s–1
densified laser-induced graphene dimpled polyimide PVA-H2SO4 gel full device 52.7 mF cm–2 10 mV s–1
laser-induced graphene–Ag nanoparticle composite LIG composite electrode Gel polymer electrolyte IDE Device 118 mF cm–2 10 mV s–1
sputtered thin-film deposited laser-induced graphene thin-film modified LIG substrate PVA-H2SO4 gel micro-supercapacitor device 6.4 mF cm–2 5 mV s–1
laser-induced graphene on Kevlar cloth Kevlar cloth textile 1 M H2SO4 electrode-level 87.79 mF cm–2 5 mV s–1 present work
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In this work, the electrochemical characterization of Kevlar coated with LIG for energy storage and sensing applications is reported. First, LIG was fabricated on wax-modified Kevlar using a blue light laser (wavelength 450 nm). This method was specifically designed for the creation of flexible and wearable electrical components such as supercapacitors and physical sensors. The electrochemical and electrical characterization were used to characterize the supercapacitor electrode.

This approach is particularly advantageous as it completely avoids the use of hazardous or toxic chemicals, thereby ensuring the safety of both the production process and the resulting conductive graphitized material. Moreover, this technique eliminates the need for prolonged waiting periods and intricate procedures associated with conventional chemical and thermal approaches. An electrochemical method was utilized to test the performance of the electrode as a supercapacitor. Various electrical characterizations were employed to conduct a more extensive investigation of the physical sensors.

2. Materials Preparation and Electrode Fabrication

The flexible electrode was fabricated on a textile substrate by direct laser engraving of Kevlar fabric obtained from Amazon India. Before laser processing, the Kevlar fabric was cleaned with isopropyl alcohol (IPA) to remove surface impurities and dried under ambient conditions. During LIG fabrication, paraffin wax was applied only on the reverse side of the Kevlar fabric to prevent thread dispersion and maintain structural integrity during laser ablation. The laser irradiation was performed from the exposed Kevlar side; therefore, the formation of LIG is mainly attributed to laser-induced graphitization of the Kevlar aramid fibers rather than direct conversion of paraffin wax. The backside paraffin layer primarily served as a mechanical stabilizer and support. Since Kevlar is a woven textile, individual fibers can separate during laser ablation, which may interrupt the continuity of the laser-induced conductive pathway. The paraffin backing helped hold the threads together and supported the formation of continuous bridge-like LIG networks between neighboring fibers, as also observed in SEM morphology. Although paraffin is carbon-rich, it was not used as the primary carbon precursor in this work. However, its secondary influence on fibre contact, local heat confinement, laser–substrate interaction, and porosity cannot be completely excluded. The design was created using Autodesk Fusion360 software. The Voxelizer 2.0 software was utilized to determine the hatch angle and spacing, as well as to convert the file from DXF format to G code. The utilization of the blue diode laser in the ablation process on flexible substrates demonstrates an effective technique for generating LIG. The DI water used for electrolyte preparation was made from Milli-Q (18.2) MΩ cm.

In this study, a blue laser diode system (ZMorph VX, Wroclaw, Poland) operating at a wavelength of 450 nm and a power output of 2.8 W was employed. The laser scribing technique on fabric was performed by directly patterning with optimized power and speed settings of 30% and 100%, respectively, as seen in Figure . The selection of these customized characteristics was based on a series of ongoing experiments and optimized, which consistently yielded the identification of a porous graphene substrate with the highest conductivity. ,

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Formation of LIG by engraving a flexible Kevlar cloth substrate. Paraffin wax-laminated Kevlar cloth was laser-engraved at a specific power and speed to fabricate LIG.

3. Results and Discussion

Characterization procedures are essential for the morphological and compositional examination of materials, as they determine elemental presence, structural formation, percentage composition, and elemental phases. Following comprehensive material testing and validation, the performance evaluation for applications is addressed. Electrochemical techniques are utilized to assess the energy storage capacities of supercapacitor materials.

3.1. Material Characterization

3.1.1. Scanning Electron Microscopy And EDX

SEM was employed to investigate the surface morphology of the pristine Kevlar cloth and the laser-treated Kevlar-LIG region, while EDAX was used to examine the elemental composition. As shown in Figure a, the pristine Kevlar cloth exhibits a well-defined woven fibre architecture with closely packed and aligned yarns. After laser irradiation, the surface morphology changes significantly, as shown in Figure b–d. The laser-treated region shows a highly rough, porous, and interconnected carbonized network, confirming the formation of laser-induced graphitic structures on the Kevlar fabric. At lower magnification, Figure b shows continuous porous LIG formation along the Kevlar fibre surface. Higher-magnification SEM images, Figure c,d, reveal the presence of pores and interconnected structures within the laser-engraved region. These porous features can provide improved electrolyte accessibility and a larger active surface area, which are beneficial for electrochemical charge storage. In addition, the continuous bridge-like morphology observed between neighbouring fibers suggests that the laser-induced carbon network remains connected across the textile structure. This indicates that the Kevlar-LIG electrode maintains structural continuity after laser processing. The morphology of the LIG electrode was found to be reasonably uniform within the laser-engraved region, indicating that the laser parameters used in this study were suitable for producing a continuous conductive graphitic network on Kevlar cloth. Additionally, elemental analysis was conducted using EDAX to achieve a thorough understanding of the presence of various elements in the material. Figure a provides an overview of the mapping for all the elements. Furthermore, Figure b illustrates the composition of the bare LIG, showing a high carbon content of 93.68% and a minor oxygen content of 6.32%.

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SEM images of Kevlar-LIG morphology: (a) pristine woven Kevlar LIG formation, (b) laser-treated Kevlar showing porous LIG formation, (c) higher-magnification image showing interconnected porous, and (d) enlarged view showing pores and bridge-like graphitic formation.

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Elemental Analysis: (a) Color mapping showing the distribution of carbon and oxygen; (b) EDAX analysis displaying the atomic percentage of the detected elements.

3.1.2. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy

Figure a illustrates the XPS spectra of LIG. Analysis of the spectra reveals the presence of a carbon peak at 298.08 eV, with a higher intensity in the C 1s peak compared to the O 1s peak at 545.08 eV. This disparity in peak intensities suggests a higher concentration of carbon content relative to oxygen in the sample. The adopted methodology results in a low oxygen content, thereby confirming the characteristics of LIG. Figure b,c depicts the C 1s and O 1s spectra, illustrating the functional groups present in LIG. The binding energy of 284 eV is attributed to C–C bonding, while binding energies of 286 and 288 eV are assigned to C–O and CO bonding, respectively. This verifies that the laser-induced mechanism led to the production of LIG.

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XPS and Raman analysis (a) general XPS spectrum, (b) C 1s XPS spectra, (c) O 1s XPS spectra, (d) Raman spectra.

3.1.3. Raman Spectroscopy Analysis

To understand the chemical and structural changes induced by laser engraving on the Kevlar aramid surface, Raman spectroscopy was carried out on the laser-treated region. As shown in Figure d, the Kevlar-LIG sample exhibits three characteristic Raman peaks corresponding to the D band, G band, and 2D band at approximately 1351, 1584, and 2724 cm–1, respectively. The presence of these bands confirms the formation of a graphitic carbon network on the Kevlar fabric after laser irradiation. The G band is associated with the in-plane vibration of sp2-bonded carbon atoms, while the D band is related to defects, edge sites, and disorder in the graphitic structure. The 2D band, which arises from the second-order Raman scattering process, further supports the formation of few-layer graphitic/graphene-like domains within the laser-engraved region.

The calculated I D/I G ratio of 1.18 indicates a relatively defect-rich graphitic structure. Such defect density is expected in laser-induced graphene formed on a woven aramid textile because rapid localized heating and carbonization can generate pores, edges, vacancies, and disordered sp2 carbon domains. From an electrochemical perspective, these defects can be beneficial because they provide additional active sites for ion adsorption/desorption and improve electrolyte accessibility within the porous LIG network. This defect-rich and porous morphology can therefore contribute to the observed areal capacitance of the Kevlar-LIG electrode.

However, the defect density must be balanced with sufficient graphitic continuity. Excessive disorder can interrupt sp2 carbon pathways, increase resistance, and negatively affect charge transport and long-term cycling stability. In the present Kevlar-LIG electrode, the simultaneous presence of a clear G band and 2D band, together with the porous morphology observed in SEM, suggests that the laser process produced a conductive but defect-rich graphitic network. The observed I G /I 2D ratio of 0.58 further indicates the formation of few-layer graphitic domains. Therefore, the Raman results suggest that the Kevlar-LIG electrode contains both conductive graphitic regions and electrochemically active defect sites, which together support its electrode-level capacitive performance.

3.2. Electrochemical Characterization of Supercapacitor Application

A cloth-based electrode was prepared using engraving from a 450 nm blue light source. The electrochemical analysis were carried out in a 1 M H2SO4 electrolyte solution. During testing, the scan rate varied from 5 to 800 mV/s across a voltage window ranging from 0 to 0.8 V. For all electrochemical tests, an Ag/AgCl electrode functioned as the reference, with platinum as the counter electrode, and a laser-induced graphene (LIG) electrode as the working electrode.

To evaluate the performance of the supercapacitor materials, various techniques such as cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) tests were employed. These methods help provide a detailed understanding of the behavior of the electrode. As illustrated in Figure a, CV curves were recorded at scan rates between 5 and 800 mV/s. The nearly rectangular shape of the curves, particularly at higher scan rates (up to 800 mV/s), indicates ideal capacitive behavior. This quasi-rectangular pattern reflects the dominance of electric double-layer capacitance (EDLC), confirming the efficient performance of the electrode material. The appropriateness of this material for energy storage electrode is demonstrated by the uniform CV response at various scan rates. Moreover, the areal capacitance was extracted from the CV curves using the following relation

C=∫v1v2IdV/SΔVA 1

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Electrochemical characterization (a) cyclic voltammetry scan rate effect (b) areal capacitance by C–V at different scan rates (c) GCD analysis at different current densities (d) EIS analysis and (e) cyclic capacitance retention analysis.

The areal capacitance from the discharge curve of GCD curves according to eq

C=(I.△tA.△V) 2

here, v1 and v2 represent the initial and final potentials, respectively, and I is the current. IdV refers to the integral area of the C–V curve, while A represents the surface area of the SC electrode. ΔV represents the potential window, which is calculated as the difference between v1 and v2. Lastly, S denotes the scan rate. Δt is discharging time at different current densities.

Figure b displays the plot showing the area capacitance vs scan rate. The areal capacitance varied from 87.79 mF/cm2 at a 5 mV/s scan rate to 1.6 mF/cm2 at an 800 mV/s scan rate. Moreover, GCD has been tested at several current densities. The corresponding areal capacitance values are found to be 7.75 mF/cm2 and 4.5 mF/cm2. Figure c shows that the GCD analysis varies across current densities ranging from 0.5 to 1.2 mA/cm2. The Nyquist plot in EIS, shown in Figure d, provided insight into the mechanism underlying electrode performance in the supercapacitor. For the energy storage capacitance and ESR value, in the low-frequency region, more parallel Nyquist plots indicated improved capacitive performance. At higher frequencies, an impedance of approximately 3.34 Ω is measured by applying a 1 mA steady current during this characterization.

Further cycle analysis for capacitance and retention has been done throughout the cycling process, covering the cycling range from 1 to 5000 cycles. The analysis electrode shows stable cyclic performance with capacitance retention of 91.3%, as shown in Figure e. Nevertheless, the electrode maintained stable capacitive behaviour over extended cycling, confirming the improved durability of the Kevlar-LIG electrode compared with the previously shown short-term cycling test. These results demonstrate that the Kevlar-LIG electrode possesses promising electrode-level cycling stability for future flexible energy-storage applications.

3.3. Electrical Characterization for Physical Sensors

The integration of laser-induced graphene (LIG) patterns on Kevlar fabric demonstrates the potential of this material platform for future wearable physical sensing applications. Kevlar is widely used in protective textiles due to its mechanical robustness, and the formation of conductive LIG directly on its surface may enable multifunctional protective fabrics with added sensing capability. However, in the present work, the touch-response study is presented only as a preliminary proof-of-concept demonstration, rather than a fully optimized or calibrated touch/pressure sensor. Therefore, application-related claims have been revised and limited to the possible future use of Kevlar-LIG in protective garments, physical sensing platforms, and wearable electronic interfaces after detailed sensor validation.

Most conventional touch sensors are commonly based on conductive materials such as indium tin oxide (ITO), metal networks, triboelectric structures, or printed conductive nanomaterials on rigid or flexible substrates. In contrast, the present work explores the possibility of using Kevlar cloth itself as a textile substrate for direct LIG formation. The conductive Kevlar-LIG region can respond to touch-induced contact variation, resulting in a measurable electrical signal. Therefore, Kevlar-LIG may serve as a promising textile-compatible electrode material for future physical sensor development.

Figure presents the electrical response of the proof-of-concept Kevlar-LIG touch-responsive electrode during repeated touch events. Upon touch, the electrical response changes due to variation in contact resistance/impedance within the conductive LIG network. To examine repeatability, the touch experiment was repeated five times. A similar response trend was observed in repeated trials, where the current increased during touch and returned toward the baseline after release, indicating reproducible touch-responsive behaviour at the preliminary demonstration stage (see Figure ).

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Electrical characterization of touch sensor.

As shown in the inset of Figure , the touch and no-touch regions are clearly distinguished. In the touch-active region, a noticeable change in current is observed, whereas in the no-touch region, the signal remains comparatively stable, indicating the ability of the Kevlar-LIG electrode to detect simple touch events.

It should be noted that specific pressure values were not applied or calibrated in this initial study. Therefore, quantitative sensor parameters such as sensitivity, gauge factor, response time, recovery time, detection limit, and minimum detectable pressure are not reported here. The present analysis is limited to demonstrating the basic touch responsiveness of the Kevlar-LIG material. Detailed studies using controlled pressure loading, calibration curves, response/recovery time analysis, and comparison with existing flexible touch sensors will be carried out in future work to fully evaluate the sensing performance.

4. Conclusion

This work delves into fabricating LIG on Kevlar fabric coated with parafilm wax. The LIG-fabricated Kevlar, which SEM and EDX characterize, shows uniform coverage of graphene. CV and GCD procedures have been utilized to analyze their electrochemical performance as supercapacitors for their potential energy storage applications. In CV, it has been shown that the system is able to operate at a higher scan rate. One significant finding is the determination of an areal capacitance with a value of 87.79 mF/cm2 at a 5 mV/s scan rate. It has also been demonstrated that LIG-fabricated Kevlar can function as a very sensitive touch sensor. The integration of laser-induced graphene into textiles has the potential to enhance the efficiency of textile electronics manufacturing and provide tailored designs suitable for many applications. The Kevlar fabric-based LIG electrode shows potential as a flexible textile-compatible electrode platform for future wearable energy-storage systems, including integration with protective garments, physical sensing platforms, and flexible electronic interfaces, after proper two-electrode device-level validation. Moreover, this research will involve modifying the substrate with nanoparticles or doping for diverse applications, such as supercapacitors and physical and biological sensors.

Acknowledgments

The author sincerely acknowledges the CAL facility at BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, for supporting material characterization.

CRediT Himanshi Awasthi: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Writingoriginal draft. Thomas Thundat: Supervision, Writing, Reviewing, and Editing. Sanket Goel: Supervision, WritingReviewing and Editing.

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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