A motivational model of sleep disturbance in winter athletes: the roles of motivational climate, basic psychological needs, and burnout

Abstract

The present research investigated the associations among motivational climates, basic psychological needs, burnout, and sleep disturbance in winter sports athletes guided by achievement goal theory and self-determination theory. It included 456 participants (263 males, 193 females, aged 18 to 25 years) from three sports universities across five winter sports events. Participants completed four psychological scales related to the study variables. The results indicated that task-involving climate was positively associated with basic psychological needs satisfaction, whereas ego-involving climate showed a negative association. In turn, basic psychological needs satisfaction was negatively related to burnout, which was positively associated with sleep disturbance. Overall, these findings underscore the sequential associations linking motivational climates, basic psychological needs, burnout, and sleep disturbance within a coherent motivational process model, supporting the inclusion of sleep disturbance as an outcome in the motivational model.

Introduction

Although sports participation offers numerous personal benefits, the intense demands faced by elite athletes in competitive sports can sometimes result in physical or mental issues [1, 2]. Notably, psychological problems are less visible and pose greater challenges for diagnosis compared to physical issues [3]. Burnout, characterized by emotional/physical exhaustion, reduced sense of accomplishment, and a devaluation of sport participation [4], is particularly prevalent among athletes. Moreover, sleep disorders are increasingly recognized as a critical concern in athletic populations. Sleep disturbances can negatively impact recovery, cognitive function, mood regulation, and overall health [5].

Winter sports athletes often face extreme environmental conditions, rigorous training schedules, and high-performance expectations. These unique stressors can exacerbate the risk of sleep disturbances, with studies showing that sleep problems increase significantly in winter compared to other seasons [6]. Previous studies have identified links between various motivational factors and burnout [7–9]. However, the correlation between these factors and sleep disorders has not been thoroughly investigated, particularly in the context of winter sports athletes. Therefore, the interplay between motivational climates, psychological needs satisfaction, and the subsequent impact on both burnout and sleep disturbances presents a complex picture that requires further understanding of these interrelationships.

The present research aims to fill this gap by systematically examining the relationships among motivational climates, basic psychological needs, burnout, and sleep disturbance in winter sports athletes. In this model, basic psychological needs are conceptualized as protective factors against burnout, whereas burnout serves as the immediate antecedent of sleep disturbance due to its emotional exhaustion and cognitive rumination. Although burnout and sleep disturbance have multiple determinants, the present research focuses specifically on the motivational framework derived from AGT and SDT. By integrating these variables into a motivational model, understanding these relationships is crucial for developing targeted interventions to enhance athlete mental health and performance in winter sports.

Theoretical implications of motivational climate in AGT

According to the specific view of the achievement goal theory (AGT), the motivational climate is influenced by the leaders, coaches, teammates, parents, etc. Within AGT, motivational climate refers to the implicit and explicit signals that define how success is conceptualized in achievement settings [10]. The perception of coaching behavior is a critical factor influencing the motivational climate in sports, although a variety of factors may have an influence on the motivation of athletes in the sport context, such as financial bonuses or scholarships [11]. The AGT served as the guiding framework and primarily focused on two distinct factors: task-involving climate and ego-involving climate [12]. It is the most commonly applied theory for conceptualizing motivational climate in sports research [13].

A central theoretical distinction in AGT lies in how success is defined, which differentiates task-involving and ego-involving climates. Specifically, a task-involving climate is one in which training or competition skill development, communication about the necessity of learning new skills, and acknowledgment of all team members’ current contributions are strongly valued and reinforced. It is characterized by emphasis on effort, personal improvement, mastery of skills, and the interpretation of mistakes as opportunities for learning rather than failure. It is more of an adaptive motivational process that encourages skill acquisition and development [14]. Research evidence suggests that task-involving climates are related to more adaptive motivational patterns, intrinsic motivation, and satisfaction and achievement in sport, whereas the opposite is found in ego-involving climates. It has also been demonstrated to be a good predictor of more self-directed motivation style [15]. Some studies investigated the relationship between the social environment created by coaches and the emotional responses of athletes, showing that coaches’ behaviors involving task-involving climate were positively correlated with the enjoyment of young ice hockey players [16], the pleasant state of soccer players [17], and the active engagement of young athletes [18].

In contrast, an ego-involving climate includes the use of norm-based assessments, social comparisons among participants, and an emphasis on competition. In this climate, success is defined in normative terms, where athletes are evaluated based on outperforming others rather than personal improvement. It has been suggested that a climate of ego-involvement is associated with antisocial behavior, feelings of stress, withdrawal from sports, and an overestimation of ability as a determinant of success [17]. The lack of adaptation to psychological stress is reflected in this maladaptive motivational pattern. Furthermore, extrinsic motivation and amotivation were both found to be favorably predicted by an ego-involving climate [19]. It has also been suggested that the perception of ego-involving climate is a predictor of worry, anxiety, unpleasant states, and reduced enjoyment [20, 21]. A previous study showed the interaction between motivational climate, motivation, and the functional and intensity impact of athletes’ emotions showed that ego-involving climate was positively related to control motivation, perceived effect, and the intensity of dysfunctional anger [22].

Theoretical implications of basic psychological needs in SDT

Basic psychological needs theory is an important component of the self-determination theory (SDT), which proposes that three basic psychological needs must be met in order to promote health and well-being. The three psychological needs of relatedness, competence, and autonomy are usually universal (i.e., applicable to situations and individuals) [23]. However, depending on experience, culture, and timing, certain needs could be more pressing than others at given moments and expressed in various ways. According to SDT, there are three innate needs that, if satisfied, allow for growth and ideal performance.

Firstly, perceived competence is a person’s assessment of his or her ability in a specific area. The need for competence refers to players’ natural desire to master tasks in order to feel more skilled at what they do. For example, when an athlete feels capable of meeting the coach’s expectations or feels a sense of improvement, it can be said that their needs for competence have been met [24]. Physical activity constitutes an environment that provides constant feedback and thus influences the athlete’s perception of competence [25]. Some studies have demonstrated the important role of competency satisfaction in facilitating various favorable outcomes. For example, it was found that athletes’ perceived need satisfaction with ability was positively related to their intrinsic motivation, which, in turn, predicted their adherence [26]. Furthermore, highly talented athletes’ competence satisfaction is positively associated with their well-being [27, 28].

Secondly, the expected motivational effects linked with more autonomy-supportive coaching actions have been confirmed by research undertaken in the sports setting [12]. Balaguer et al. found that the perception of coaches’ autonomy support connected to increase satisfaction of the needs for relatedness and autonomy in a study with competitive athletes from diverse sports [29]. Their study also found that the more capable, autonomous, and connected athletes felt, the higher their motivation for self-determination, which in turn increased their satisfaction. Moreover, coaches’ autonomy support was found to predict participants’ basic needs fulfillment for competence, autonomy, and relatedness in previous cross-sectional research [30–32]. As a result, contentment with basic psychological needs predicted markers of well-being.

Thirdly, a considerable part of human behavior is motivated by a need to be connected to others [33]. Humans may act in ways that they assume others will enjoy in order to feel connected to them, but their desire for relatedness will not be met unless they are acknowledged and confirmed. Deci and Ryan argued that although most research has focused on assessing the satisfaction of athlete competence and autonomy, relatedness is also considered extremely important in athletic performance. Although relatedness has received less attention in sports research, some meaningful findings do exist [34]. A study found that athletes experience feelings of isolation and loneliness when their environment poses a threat to their basic psychological need of relatedness [35]. Further, assistance in improving abilities and feeling encouraged as an athlete were crucial antecedents for the athletes’ demand for relatedness satisfaction [36].

Motivational factors and burnout

Burnout is a prevalent issue in sports, making it essential to understand the motivational mechanisms that influence it [37]. AGT and SDT provide valuable frameworks for exploring the intricate associations between diverse motivational factors and mental health [38]. Integrating them with the research on athletes’ burnout enhances our understanding of the factors that shape athletes’ performance outcomes, behaviors, and experience.

The concept of motivational climate is rooted in AGT and is integral to understanding athletes’ perceptions, behaviors, and performance in sports. Coaching behavior, in particular, serves a crucial role in shaping these perceptions [11]. A task-involving climate fosters greater enjoyment, satisfaction, and interest among individuals in a sport context. On the other hand, an ego-involving climate often fosters tension, pressure, and heightened performance anxiety [39]. According to a survey of high school athletes, higher engagement and lower burnout levels in environments where coaches and peers fostered a task-involving climate. Moreover, recent studies indicate a task-involving climate correlates negatively with a reduced sense of accomplishment, whereas an ego-involving climate predicts exhaustion and sport devaluation [40].

On the other hand, research in the field of sport psychology has increasingly recognized the importance of addressing basic psychological needs and burnout among athletes. Studies have shown that basic psychological need satisfaction, including relatedness, autonomy, and competence, plays a crucial role in preventing burnout symptoms in youth sport [41]. Additionally, Martinent et al. explored basic psychological need profiles among adolescent athletes in intensive training sessions and their associations with sports burnout and engagement, further highlighting the importance of addressing these needs in athletic contexts [42]. Moreover, the study by Yang et al. focused on the association between athletes’ burnout and their competitive anxiety, emphasizing the mediating roles of competence and autonomy in overall need satisfaction, as outlined in self-determination theory [43].

Collectively, the AGT and SDT perspectives suggest that athletes’ motivational experiences are shaped by both the social environment and the extent to which basic psychological needs are satisfied. These motivational processes appear particularly relevant for understanding burnout, which may represent a key psychological mechanism linking sport environments to broader health-related outcomes.

Determinants of sleep disturbance

Sleep disturbance in athletes is a prevalent issue that can be influenced by various determinants. Lifestyle habits such as waking up early, staying up late, and high interpersonal relationship stressors have been identified as risk elements for sleep disturbance among student athletes [44, 45]. Additionally, sport-specific and non-sport factors can also contribute to sleep disturbances in athletes. Research has shown that elite athletes are especially prone to sleep deficiencies, often marked by consistently short sleep duration and poor sleep quality [46]. Factors such as athletic retirement and off-training physical activity can also play a role in determining sleep patterns in athletes [47, 48]. Furthermore, a study on Korean esports athletes highlighted the importance of evaluating insomnia severity and daytime functioning in understanding sleep characteristics and risk factors in this population [49]. Overall, a range of factors, including lifestyle habits, sport-specific factors, and retirement transitions, can influence sleep disturbance in athletes, ultimately impacting their performance and overall well-being.

It is worth noting that athlete burnout is a significant concern in the sports community, with potential implications for mental health and overall well-being. In fact, research suggests that burnout may serve as a risk factor for sleep issues in athletes [50]. This dynamic interplay between burnout and sleep highlights the importance of addressing both issues to promote athlete health and performance. Burnout is not merely a correlate but a causal precursor of sleep disturbance, as exhaustion and rumination directly impair sleep quality. Accordingly, sleep disturbance is positioned as the distal outcome in the present motivational model, following burnout in the causal chain [51].

Studies have also explored the associations between burnout and sleep in different athlete populations. For example, a cross-lagged panel analysis found that burnout positively predicted self-reported insomnia symptoms [51]. Moreover, a study of 406 athletes found that a disempowering coach-created climate was associated with greater burnout symptoms and physical ill-health symptoms [52]. This suggests that interventions targeting burnout may also have a positive impact on sleep quality among athletes.

Although previous studies have independently examined motivational climate, basic psychological needs, burnout, and sleep-related outcomes, few studies have integrated these constructs within a single theoretical framework. Moreover, little is known about whether burnout serves as a psychological mechanism linking motivational experiences to sleep disturbance, particularly among winter sports athletes who are exposed to unique environmental and physiological demands. This gap limits our understanding of how motivational processes may influence both psychological functioning and sleep health in athletic populations.

The present research

Grounded in the aforementioned theoretical and empirical evidence, a quantitative cross-sectional survey was deemed appropriate for this study. This approach utilized an ordinal scale research instrument to collect data. Accordingly, an integrated examination of these relationships is warranted to determine whether motivational climate is associated with sleep disturbance indirectly through basic psychological needs satisfaction and burnout within a unified AGT–SDT framework. Rather than representing multiple independent predictors, each construct corresponds to a distinct theoretical stage within the proposed motivational process, allowing the sequential relationships hypothesized by AGT and SDT to be examined within a single coherent framework.

The present study aimed to examine this four-stage motivational process within the sport context. Specifically, structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to test the hypothesized pathway: motivational climate → basic psychological needs → burnout → sleep disturbance. SEM was selected because it enables the testing of the theoretically specified direct and indirect pathways within a single integrated motivational framework while preserving the conceptual integrity of the proposed model. The study hypotheses are as follows:

• Hypothesis 1: An ego-involving climate would be negatively correlated with basic psychological needs, whereas a task-involving climate would be positively correlated with basic psychological needs.

• Hypothesis 2: Basic psychological needs would be negatively correlated with burnout.

• Hypothesis 3: Burnout would be positively correlated with sleep disturbance.

• Hypothesis 4: Basic psychological need satisfaction and burnout will sequentially mediate the relationship between motivational climate (both task- and ego-involving) and sleep disturbance.

Method

Participants

The survey study included 456 winter sports players (57.7% male, 42.3% female) who were recruited via convenience sampling. The demographic information of subjects was shown in Table 1. Participants representing five winter sports were recruited in China: speed skating (n = 149, 32.7%), cross-country skiing (n = 87, 19.1%), snowboarding (n = 80, 17.5%), freestyle skiing (n = 45, 9.9%), and alpine skiing (n = 95, 20.8 %). Among participants aged 18 to 25 (M = 20.8，SD = 1.9), 81.4% of them had at least five years of training experience. 37.7% trained 2-3 times per week, 48.5% trained 4-5 times per week, and the remaining 13.8% trained 6 times per week, with the average training time for all participants was 120 min per session.

Table 1.

Demographic data of the participants

Demographic	Male (n = 263) n (%)	Female (n = 193) n (%)	Total (n = 456) n (%)
Age
18-19	70 (26.6)	56 (29.0)	126 (27.6)
20-21	105 (39.9)	68 (35.2)	173 (38.0)
22-23	73 (27.8)	42 (21.8)	115 (25.2)
24-25	15 (5.7)	27 (14.0)	42 (9.2)
Training frequency (120 min / session)
2-3 sessions/ week	103 (39.2)	69 (35.8)	172 (37.7)
4-5 sessions/ week	126 (47.9)	95 (49.2)	221 (48.5)
6 sessions/ week	34 (12.9)	29 (15.0)	63 (13.8)
Training experience
<5years	60 (22.8)	25 (13.0)	85 (18.6)
5-7years	119 (45.2)	87 (45.1)	206 (45.2)
8-10years	73 (27.8)	62 (32.1)	135 (29.6)
>10years	11 (4.2)	19 (9.8)	30 (6.6)
Sport events
Speed skating	88 (33.5)	61 (31.6)	149 (32.7)
Cross-country skiing	49 (18.6)	38 (19.7)	87 (19.1)
Snowboarding	50 (19.0)	30 (15.6)	80 (17.5)
Freestyle skiing	21 (8.0)	24 (12.4)	45 (9.9)
Alpine skiing	55 (20.9)	40 (20.7)	95 (20.8)

Measures

For this study, a survey consisting of 87 items from four sets of instruments were created specifically, including the measurement of motivational climates, basic psychological needs, burnout, and sleep disturbance. This survey sought to gather a diverse set of data to give a thorough comprehension of the participants’ experiences and opinions in a sporting context. The description of each inventory is as follows:

Perceived motivational climate in sport questionnaire-II

The Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire-II (PMCSQ-II), consisting of 33 items [53], was utilized to assess athletes’ impressions of the coaches and team. It evaluates individuals’ views of task-involving and ego-involving climates. The subscale was evaluated using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.87 for ego climate and 0.88 for task climate [53]. This instrument remains the most widely utilized for assessing motivational climate [15].

Basic need satisfaction in sport scale

This study employed the Basic Need Satisfaction in Sport Scale (BNSSS), a 20-item measure designed to assess athletes’ experiences of competence, autonomy, and relatedness during sports participation [54]. Athletes rated their basic need satisfaction on a seven-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 1 (Not at all true) to 7 (Very true). The scale demonstrated satisfactory reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the five subscales ranging from 0.61 to 0.82 [54].

Athlete burnout questionnaire

The Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ) [4], consisting of 15 items, evaluates three dimensions: reduced sense of accomplishment, emotional/physical exhaustion, and sport devaluation. Participants respond to statements reflecting their feelings in sports. Burnout levels were assessed using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Almost never) to 5 (Almost always). All three subscales demonstrated strong reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha coefficients exceeding 0.85 [4].

Pittsburgh sleep quality index

The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), comprising 19 items, evaluates various dimensions of sleep through seven component scores and one composite score [55]. The components include subjective sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, habitual sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, use of sleep medication, and daytime dysfunction. Each item on the PSQI is rated on a scale from 0 to 3, with a total score that ranges from 0 to 21. Lower scores reflect better sleep quality, while a global score exceeding 5 signifies poor sleep quality.

Translation procedures

The survey instruments utilized in the present research were initially developed in English. To ensure their applicability, the questionnaires were subjected to a validation process in Chinese before data collection. While the PMCSQ-II [56], BNSSS [57], ABQ [58], and PSQI [59] had already been validated and translated for Chinese-speaking populations, they were re-evaluated as part of the review process for the present research. To ensure the accuracy and validity of the questionnaires, two academic language experts fluent in Chinese and English were hired to review the original and translated versions of all questionnaires. Based on their feedback, the four questionnaires could be distributed using the published Chinese versions.

Data collection

The data collection phase started after obtaining the required permissions from the three universities in China and approval from the Research Ethics Committee (REC). Data were collected during the in-season competitive period for winter sports athletes, when participants were actively engaged in regular training and competition schedules. This timing was selected to ensure that responses reflected athletes’ typical psychological experiences under competitive demands, particularly with respect to motivational climate, burnout, and sleep-related functioning.

Before participation, all athletes received a detailed explanation of the study objectives, procedures, confidentiality protections, and their rights as research participants. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Participation was entirely voluntary, and athletes were informed that they could decline participation or withdraw from the study at any time without penalty or consequences for their training, team membership, or competitive status. Although coaches and team administrators assisted with logistical arrangements and access to athletes, they were not involved in the recruitment process, were not present during questionnaire completion, and had no access to individual responses.

Prior to distributing the questionnaires to the participants, the researcher communicated with the team coaches and organizational leaders to ensure that the distribution of the questionnaires went smoothly. When coaches were not present, surveys were filled out by participants with the assistance of the researcher and assistants. To ensure clarity and validity of the questionnaire, the researcher provided participants with standardized verbal and written instructions prior to receiving and completing the questionnaire. This was done to ensure that they understood the questions correctly and to increase their efficiency in answering the questions. The questionnaire package, consisting of 87 questions, took participants approximately 30 min to complete.

Data analysis

Prior to statistical analyses, the dataset was screened for missing values. A small number of participants (n = 5) had incomplete questionnaire responses. Given the very low proportion of missing data, missing values were replaced using person-mean imputation, whereby the mean of the participant’s non-missing items within the corresponding subscale was used to estimate the missing response [60].The data analysis in present research was conducted in three stages:

1. In the first stage, SPSS Statistics 26.0 was used to handle missing and range values, assess normality, and evaluate reliability. Internal consistency was determined through Cronbach’s alpha coefficients, with a threshold of 0.70 deemed acceptable [61].

2. The second stage involved descriptive statistics to summarize participants’ scale scores and Pearson’s correlation analysis to examine relationships among variables, categorized small (0.10), moderate (0.30), or large (0.50) [62].

3. In the final stage, SEM was employed to test the hypothesized structural relationships among motivational climate, basic psychological needs, burnout, and sleep disturbance. Following the establishment of an acceptable measurement model through CFA, the structural model was estimated. Basic Psychological Needs and Burnout were modeled as latent variables represented by their respective subdimensions, whereas task-involving climate, ego-involving climate, and sleep disturbance were modeled as observed composite variables. Use of composite indicators reduced model complexity while maintaining adequate statistical power and parameter stability.

Model fit was assessed based on GFI, CFI, and TLI values, with thresholds > 0.90 indicating a reasonable fit [63]. Model fit was assessed using SRMR and RMSEA values, with thresholds < 0.08 indicating an acceptable fit [64], and CMIN/DF values < 5 signifying a reasonable fit [65]. AMOS 26.0 was used for all SEM analyses. Standardized regression coefficients were utilized to evaluate the relationships between variables, with effect sizes classified as small (0.10), moderate (0.30), and large (0.50) [66].

Results

Preliminary analysis

The dataset underwent a thorough review to identify univariate and multivariate outliers. Based on Tabachnick and Fidell’s (2007) findings, standardized z-scores were deemed normal if they were within ± 3.29 [67], therefore no values that were out of range were identified in the sample. In addition, a bootstrapping procedure with 5000 iterations was applied to enhance the stability of parameter estimates in multivariate analyses [68].

The internal consistency of the questionnaires was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients (see Table 2), which ranged from 0.73 to 0.94: ego-involving climate (α = 0.92) and task-involving climate (α = 0.94); competence (α = 0.93), autonomy (α = 0.90), and relatedness (α = 0.83); emotional/physical exhaustion (α = 0.86), reduced sense of accomplishment (α = 0.73), and sport devaluation (α = 0.83); sleep quality index (α = 0.81), with all values above the threshold of 0.70 [63]. According to these results, the internal consistency of each subscale was deemed adequate.

Table 2.

Descriptive statistics, reliability estimates, and bivariate correlations

Variables	M/SD	α	Correlations
			1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
TC	4.31/ 0.70	0.94	-
EC	3.08/ 0.99	0.92	− 0.13*	-
COM	5.34/ 1.33	0.93	0.40**	− 0.21**	-
AUT	5.10/ 1.20	0.90	0.44**	− 0.30**	0.78**	-
REL	5.61/ 1.21	0.83	0.45**	− 0.16**	0.53**	0.63**	-
EPE	2.08/ 0.90	0.86	− 0.27**	0.17**	− 0.08	− 0.15**	− 0.10*	-
RSPA	2.60/ 0.67	0.73	− 0.17**	0.09	− 0.23**	− 0.23**	− 0.17**	0.35**	-
SDL	2.29/ 0.98	0.83	− 0.26**	0.18**	− 0.22**	− 0.29**	− 0.25**	0.54**	0.41**	-
SDB	6.05/ 1.91	0.81	− 0.32**	0.17**	− 0.29**	− 0.37**	− 0.29**	0.27**	0.31**	0.34**	-

TC task-involving climate, EC ego-involving climate, COM competence, AUT autonomy, REL relatedness, EPE emotional and physical exhaustion, RSPA reduced sense of personal accomplishment, SDL sport devaluation, SDB sleep disturbance

*p < 0.05, **p < 0.01

In addition, Harman’s single-factor test was conducted to examine the potential influence of common method bias. All measurement items from the four questionnaires were entered into an unrotated exploratory factor analysis. The results showed that the first unrotated factor explained 30.19% of the total variance, which was below the recommended threshold of 40% [69]. Therefore, common method bias was unlikely to have substantially influenced the observed relationships among the study variables.

Descriptive statistics

Several findings can be identified from the means and standard deviations (see Table 2). Firstly, on average, the motivational climate measures revealed a higher mean for task-involving climate (M = 4.31, SD = 0.70) compared to a lower mean for ego-involving climate (M = 3.08, SD = 0.99). Secondly, participants demonstrated high levels across all three dimensions of basic psychological needs, with relatedness (M = 5.61, SD = 1.21), competence (M = 5.34, SD = 1.33), and autonomy (M = 5.10, SD = 1.20). Thirdly, participants reported lower scores on two dimensions of burnout syndrome: sport devaluation (M = 2.29, SD = 0.98) and emotional/physical exhaustion (M = 2.08, SD = 0.90), while the reduced sense of personal accomplishment (M = 2.60, SD = 0.67) had the highest score among them; Finally, the mean PSQI score (M = 6.05, SD = 1.91) exceeded the clinical cutoff of 5, indicating that, on average, participants experienced mild sleep disturbance.

In addition, Table 2 also shows statistically significant correlations among motivational climates, basic psychological needs, burnout, and sleep disturbance. Specifically, task-involving climate and three aspects of basic psychological needs were negatively associated with sleep disturbance, while ego-involving climate and three dimensions of burnout were positively related to sleep disturbance. Among cross-domain associations, the strongest association was observed between task-involving climate and relatedness (r = 0.45), while the relationship between emotional/physical exhaustion and competence (r = −0.08) was weakest.

Structural equation modelling

Prior to testing the structural model, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to evaluate the measurement properties of the latent constructs: basic psychological needs (comprising competence, autonomy, and relatedness) and burnout (comprising emotional/physical exhaustion, reduced sense of personal accomplishment, and sport devaluation). All standardized factor loadings exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.50 (range = 0.70 to 0.95). Composite reliability (CR) values ranged from 0.83 to 0.89, exceeding the acceptable criterion of 0.70 for all constructs. Average variance extracted (AVE) values ranged from 0.61 to 0.72, meeting or exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.50.

Aligned with the formulated hypotheses, the model comprises three manifest variables: ego-involving climate, task-involving climate, and sleep disturbance, and two latent variables: basic psychological needs and burnout. The proposed model demonstrated an acceptable fit to the data (see Fig. 1): (χ2 = 72, df = 25, p < 0.001, GFI = 0.95, CFI = 0.93, TLI = 0.92, RMSEA = 0.07, 90% CI = 0.04 to 0.09). In the structural model, Bootstrapping with 5000 iterations was conducted to assess the stability of the parameter estimates. The results, presented in Table 3, indicate the high stability of the parameters.

Fig. 1.

Standardized path coefficients from the SDT structural model. Note: TC = task-involving climate; EC = ego-involving climate; BPNS = basic psychological needs satisfaction; COM = competence, AUT = autonomy, REL = relatedness; EPE = emotional/physical exhaustion, RSPA = reduced sense of personal accomplishment, SDL = sport devaluation; SDB = sleep disturbance

Table 3.

Standardized coefficients from the proposed model and the bootstrap analysis

Path	Standardized Coefficient (SE)	Bias-corrected 95% CI	P value
TC → BPNS	0.46 (0.05)	0.36 to 0.55	<0.001
EC → BPNS	−0.24 (0.05)	−0.34 to −0.14	<0.001
BPNS → BURNOUT	−0.42 (0.07)	−0.57 to −0.29	<0.001
BURNOUT → SDB	0.49 (0.06)	0.36 to 0.60	<0.001

Note: TC task-involving climate, EC ego-involving climate, BPNS basic psychological needs satisfaction, SDB sleep disturbance

Evidently, the findings of this study clearly supported the proposed hypotheses: (a) A moderate-to-large positive association (β = 0.46) was shown between task-involving climate and basic psychological needs, while a small-to-moderate negative association (β = −0.24) was observed between ego-involving climate and basic psychological needs; (b) A moderate-to-large negative association (β = −0.42) was identified between basic psychological needs and burnout; (c) A moderate-to-large positive association (β = 0.49) was shown between burnout and sleep disturbance.

Assessment of mediation

The statistical results for indirect effects are shown in Table 4. The findings supported the proposed mediating mechanisms linking motivational climate to sleep disturbances. Specifically, basic psychological need satisfaction and burnout each exerted significant mediating effects, and a significant serial mediation pathway was also observed. These results suggest that motivational climate may influence athletes’ sleep disturbances indirectly through the sequential process of need satisfaction and burnout.

Table 4.

Standardized indirect effects from the hypothesized model

	Indirect Effect	Bootstrap standard error	Bootstrap 95% CI
TC→BPNS→BURNOUT →SDB	−0.09	0.03	−0.15 to −0.05
EC→BPNS→BURNOUT →SDB	0.05	0.02	0.02 to 0.09

TC task-involving climate, EC ego-involving climate, BPNS basic psychological needs satisfaction, SDB sleep disturbance

Discussion

The main purpose of this research, which extends previous sleep problem research, was to assess a model hypothesizing based on the SDT and AGT. This study confirms the associations assumed in the model, and the findings support the proposed structural model in which sleep disturbance is integrated into the motivational model. Overall, the athletes reported relatively high perceptions of a task-involving climate and basic psychological need satisfaction, accompanied by mild levels of sleep disturbance. The present research focuses on winter sports athletes and examines the associations among motivational climate, basic psychological needs, burnout, and sleep disturbance, thereby extending previous motivational research to the domain of sleep health. The findings may inform interventions aimed at promoting athletes’ psychological well-being, reducing burnout, and improving sleep quality, all of which are important for maintaining optimal functioning and performance.

Motivational climate and basic psychological needs

Our findings provide substantial support for the proposed model. Specifically, we observed that winter sports athletes’ perceptions of a task-involving climate are positively associated with the satisfaction of their basic psychological needs, including autonomy, competence, and relatedness. This finding provides further support for the integration of AGT and SDT by demonstrating that motivational climates function as important social-contextual antecedents of need satisfaction. Consistent with SDT, environments emphasizing learning, effort, and personal improvement appear to facilitate adaptive motivational functioning through the fulfillment of basic psychological needs [70–72].

A task-involving climate, as defined in Achievement Goal Theory [10, 73], is characterized by coaching practices that emphasize personal improvement, effort, and mastery of tasks. Coaches who cultivate such an environment not only focus on skill development but also prioritize building supportive and positive relationships with their athletes. This approach cultivates a sense of purpose, strengthens self-belief, and values athlete autonomy, all of which are crucial for satisfying basic psychological needs. By addressing these needs, athletes are more likely to experience heightened well-being and sustained motivation.

In contrast, our results indicate that an ego-involving climate is negatively related to the satisfaction of basic psychological needs. This finding is consistent with prior research that have highlighted the detrimental effects of ego- involving environments on athlete well-being [74]. An ego-involving climate typically emphasizes outperforming others, individual achievements, and recognition based on comparison. Such a climate often undermines the importance of building healthy relationships, cultivating positive self-mindset, and emphasizing individual autonomy, leading to diminished need satisfaction.

Athletes engaged in an ego-involving climate, characterized by prevalent intra-team competition and comparisons, may experience a reduced sense of belonging and team cohesion. The environment’s focus on recognizing only the most skilled athletes can undermine the psychological needs of others, leading to increased feelings of inadequacy and decreased motivation [75].

Notably, our findings differ from those of García-González et al., who reported no significant relationship between basic need satisfaction and an ego-involving climate [76]. This discrepancy may be attributed to various moderating factors, such as perceived ability or the specific context of the participants in different studies. It is plausible that the negative impact of an ego-involving climate on basic psychological needs is more pronounced in certain groups or under specific conditions, highlighting the complexity of these dynamics.

The results of this part emphasize the role of motivational climates as potential protective factors in shaping athletes’ psychological well-being. Although motivational climate and basic psychological needs appear to be important correlates of burnout and sleep disturbance, these outcomes are also influenced by multiple other factors (e.g., training load, injury, academic stress, and environmental demands), which should be considered in future research.

Coaches and practitioners should aim to create task-involving environments that promote personal growth, cooperation, and supportive relationships. Such climates are conducive to fulfilling athletes’ basic psychological needs, thereby enhancing their satisfaction and reducing the risk of burnout. Conversely, efforts should be made to minimize ego-involving behaviors within teams, such as overly competitive approaches, external validation-seeking, and excessive comparison. By shifting the focus from individual accolades to collective improvement and support, coaches can foster a more inclusive and motivating environment for all athletes.

Basic psychological needs and burnout

The findings of this section offered vital support for the suggested model, which revealed a significant relationship between basic psychological needs and the experience of burnout, as indicated by the moderate negative correlation between these variables. These findings highlight the role of basic psychological needs in relation to athlete burnout.

According to the SDT, individuals have basic psychological needs for relatedness, competence, and autonomy. Athletes are more likely to feel resilience, well-being, and intrinsic motivation when these demands are satisfied [77], which can act as protective factors against burnout. The findings reinforce the view that basic psychological needs are important in shaping levels of individuals’ burnout. It suggests that when winter athletes perceive that their basic psychological needs are being fulfilled, they are less likely to experience burnout and thus be active and engaged in their sport. This finding is consistent with previous research in the areas of public health, education, and sports that there is a negative correlation between the fulfilment of basic psychological needs and burnout [78, 79].

The implications of these findings are manifold. First, they highlight the necessity of ensuring the fulfillment of basic psychological needs as a strategy for reducing burnout among winter sports athletes. This has profound practical implications for sports psychologists and coaches who aim to support athletes’ mental health and performance. For instance, coaches can enhance athletes’ sense of autonomy by involving them in decision-making, planning training sessions, and setting goals for their development paths (autonomy). Autonomy-supportive environments foster a sense of ownership and personal relevance, which are crucial for sustained motivation.

Furthermore, designing training programs that are appropriately challenging and aligned with athletes’ skill levels can enhance their sense of competence (competence). Providing progressive challenges that match athletes’ abilities not only fosters a sense of achievement but also contributes to their overall confidence and mastery in their sport. Additionally, implementing mentorship programs where experienced athletes support newcomers can enhance the sense of relatedness. Such programs offer valuable social support, fostering a sense of community and belonging within the team (relatedness).

The outcomes of this part underscore the significance of addressing athletes’ basic psychological needs to mitigate burnout. By integrating these findings into practice, practitioners and coaches can develop interventions and cultivate environments that nurture athletes’ basic psychological needs. This approach not only reduces burnout and improves performance but also promotes long-term athletic development and personal growth. Ensuring that athletes feel autonomous, competent, and connected can lead to more resilient and motivated individuals who are less susceptible to burnout.

Burnout and sleep disturbance

The findings of this study support the proposed model by demonstrating a significant association between burnout and sleep disturbance among winter sports athletes.

Although athlete burnout has been widely studied across various contexts, its impact on sleep health, particularly among winter sports athletes, has been less explored. Our findings align with existing literature, indicating that burnout is associated with sleep disturbances, including experiencing restorative sleep disturbance, maintaining sleep, and difficulties in falling asleep [51, 80]. More importantly, the present findings extend previous AGT and SDT research by suggesting that the consequences of motivational processes may influence recovery-related indicators such as sleep. Within the proposed model, burnout appears to function as a proximal psychological mechanism linking motivational experiences to sleep health.

In addition, the relationship between burnout and sleep disturbance may be particularly relevant in winter sports due to the unique physiological and environmental demands of these disciplines. Winter athletes are frequently exposed to cold temperatures, prolonged outdoor training, seasonal reductions in daylight exposure, and intensive travel schedules during the competitive season. These factors may increase physiological stress, disrupt circadian rhythms, and impair recovery processes. Furthermore, winter sports often require sustained attentional control and high levels of technical precision under challenging environmental conditions, which can amplify cognitive and emotional fatigue. When combined with burnout-related exhaustion and psychological strain, these demands may contribute to difficulties initiating and maintaining sleep, thereby increasing the likelihood of sleep disturbances. Consequently, burnout may represent an important psychological pathway through which the distinctive demands of winter sports influence athletes’ sleep health.

The positive correlation between burnout and sleep disturbance suggests that interventions to reduce burnout may also be relevant for improving sleep quality. For example, implementing strategies for managing stress, such as cognitive-behavioral strategies and mindfulness-based interventions, can help athletes manage their psychological demands, thereby mitigating burnout and its adverse effects on sleep [81]. Additionally, optimizing sleep hygiene practices is crucial for mitigating the impact of burnout on sleep disturbance. Coaches and sports psychologists can educate athletes about reducing exposure to electronic devices before sleep, optimizing the sleep environment, and promoting consistent sleep routines. Fostering healthy sleep habits can equip athletes to better handle their demands, ultimately reducing the risk of burnout [82].

Integrating burnout prevention strategies with sleep optimization protocols can create a holistic approach to athlete well-being. For instance, periodized training programs that balance intense training phases with adequate rest and recovery periods can help maintain athletes’ physical and mental health. Additionally, providing resources such as sleep education workshops and individualized sleep assessments can empower athletes to prioritize their sleep and recognize the signs of burnout early.

Researchers should continue to explore the intricate mechanisms linking these variables and develop targeted interventions to promote athletes’ overall well-being. By prioritizing both psychological and sleep health, we can enhance athletes’ performance, resilience, and long-term development, ultimately fostering a more sustainable and healthy sporting environment.

Practical implications

The study’s findings have significant applications for coaches and sport psychologists in winter sports. By elucidating the pathways from motivational climates to sleep disturbance via basic psychological needs and burnout. The positive relationship between task-involving climates and basic psychological needs suggests that fostering an environment where athletes focus on personal improvement, effort, and mastery can enhance their psychological well-being. Conversely, the negative impact of ego-involving climates on basic psychological needs highlights the risks associated with emphasizing normative comparisons and outperforming others. Reducing the emphasis on ego-involvement can prevent the undermining of athletes’ psychological needs, thereby promoting a healthier and more supportive sports environment.

The negative associations between basic psychological needs and burnout emphasize the protective function of need satisfaction in mitigating burnout. Ensuring that athletes’ basic psychological needs for relatedness, competence, and autonomy are fulfilled can serve as a buffer against the development of burnout. Coaches and support staff should prioritize interventions that enhance these needs to sustain athletes’ engagement and well-being. Importantly, given the identified pathway from motivational climates to burnout and sleep disturbance, integrating burnout prevention strategies into athletic training programs is crucial. Regular monitoring of athletes’ psychological states, implementing stress management techniques, and providing access to mental health resources can help prevent burnout. Coaches and sport psychologists should be trained to recognize early signs of burnout and intervene promptly to ensure that athletes are protected from sleep disturbance.

Given the unique characteristics of winter sports, interventions should also consider environmental and seasonal factors that may affect athletes’ recovery and sleep. Monitoring training loads during periods of intensive competition, optimizing recovery strategies in cold environments, and providing education regarding sleep hygiene and circadian regulation may be particularly beneficial for winter sports athletes. Such approaches may help reduce burnout symptoms and support healthy sleep patterns throughout the competitive season.

Moreover, the contribution of the present research to the comprehension of motivational factors and mental health is noteworthy. Given the limited research connecting sleep disorders to motivation in winter sports athletes, the results contribute to the existing literature by emphasizing the interplay among motivational climates, basic psychological needs, burnout, and sleep disturbance, providing a more holistic model for understanding athlete performance and well-being. These findings can be used by scholars and professionals to improve existing models and create new hypotheses that examine the intricacies of motivational factors and how they affect the mental health of athletes.

Limitations

This study has several limitations. Firstly, while the focus was on winter sports athletes, the sample size of top-level athletes was inadequate. Future research should aim to replicate these findings with larger samples of pure elite/national team athletes to confirm the generalizability of the motivational model. Furthermore, given that comparative analyses across the five specific sport disciplines were not undertaken in the current study due to imbalanced sub-group sample sizes, future research with larger, more balanced samples is warranted to assess the generalizability of our findings across specific event types (e.g., endurance vs. technical disciplines).

Secondly, the cross-sectional design was employed to limit the ability to explore temporal prioritization and does not examine the causal association among motivational factors, burnout, and sleep disturbance. Given that mediation effects may vary over time, a longitudinal approach could be adopted to overcome this limitation.

Thirdly, Sleep disturbance was assessed using the PSQI, which reflects subjective sleep quality. Future studies are encouraged to combine validated questionnaires with objective sleep assessments, such as actigraphy or polysomnography, to obtain more comprehensive evidence.

Finally, all variables were measured using self-report questionnaires administered at a single time point, which raises concerns regarding common method bias. Such a mono-method design may have inflated the observed associations among constructs. Future research should apply procedural and statistical remedies (e.g., multi-source data, temporal separation, or marker-variable techniques) and consider incorporating broader assessments (e.g., need frustration or external informants) to reduce common method bias.

Conclusions

This study systematically examined the relationships among motivational climates, basic psychological needs, burnout, and sleep disturbance in Chinese winter sports athletes within an integrated motivational framework. By focusing on a specific sporting context and applying a structural model grounded in SDT and AGT, the present findings extend existing literature by highlighting how motivational processes may be relevant not only for psychological functioning but also for recovery-related outcomes such as sleep.

Importantly, the results suggest that adaptive motivational environments characterized by task involvement and satisfaction of basic psychological needs may serve as protective factors for athlete well-being, whereas ego-involving climates may contribute to maladaptive psychological states through burnout. These findings underscore the value of fostering supportive motivational climates in sport settings to promote both psychological health and recovery.

Future research should further examine these relationships using longitudinal or experimental designs and consider additional contextual and individual factors that may influence burnout and sleep, in order to develop more targeted and effective interventions for athlete well-being.

Abbreviations

SDT

Self-determination theory

AGT

Achievement goal theory

SEM

Structural equation modeling

PMCSQ-II

Perceived motivational climate in sport questionnaire-II

BNSSS

Basic need satisfaction in sport scale

ABQ

Athlete burnout questionnaire

PSQI

Pittsburgh sleep quality index

TC

Task-involving climate

EC

Ego-involving climate

BPNS

Basic psychological needs satisfaction

COM

Competence

AUT

Autonomy

REL

Relatedness

EPE

Emotional and physical exhaustion

RSPA

Reduced sense of personal accomplishment

SDL

Sport devaluation

SDB

Sleep disturbance

Authors’ contributions

X Wu: conceptualization, methodology, data curation, formal analysis, and writing-original draft. J Chen: resources, validation, and writing-review. R Li: editing, project administration, and supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Not applicable.

Data availability

Due to confidentiality agreements with participating institutions, public sharing of the dataset is restricted. Researchers with legitimate academic purposes may contact the corresponding author to discuss potential access to aggregated data, subject to approval from the participating institutions and applicable ethical requirements.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

This research was conducted in accordance with the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki and was reviewed and approved by the University of Malaya Research Ethics Committee (UMREC; reference number: UM. TNC2/UMREC_1316). Written informed consent was obtained from participants.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.