A green square-wave voltammetric method for albendazole determination at a glassy carbon electrode: first use of ethanol as an environmentally friendly solvent

Abstract

A simple, sensitive square-wave voltammetric method was developed for the determination of albendazole at an unmodified glassy carbon electrode, employing ethanol for the first time as a green co-solvent in the electroanalytical assay of this compound. Optimum conditions were established as Britton–Robinson buffer (pH 2.0) containing 20% (v/v) ethanol. The oxidation of albendazole was found to be a diffusion-controlled, proton-coupled electron transfer process, based on scan rate studies. Under optimized conditions, the peak current increased linearly with albendazole concentration over the range 0.06–20 µM, with a detection limit of 21.3 nM. The method was validated according to ICH Q2(R2) guidelines and successfully applied to the determination of albendazole in a commercial tablet formulation, giving satisfactory recovery, precision, and accuracy. The developed method demonstrated good selectivity with a tolerance limit of ±2.52% in the presence of potential interfering agents commonly found in human body fluids and pharmaceutical formulations. The suitability of the developed method for green and white analytical chemistry approaches was evaluated using various tools. This study is the first to report the qualitative and quantitative determination of albendazole within an environmentally friendly analytical framework, using potentially non-toxic solvents and energy and reducing waste generation.

Introduction

Albendazole (ALB) is a broad-spectrum benzimidazole anthelmintic widely prescribed for treating intestinal nematode, cestode, and specific tissue helminth infections in humans. It is also being investigated for repurposed antitumor applications [1]. Structurally related benzimidazole derivatives continue to be developed through synthetic and structure-activity relationship studies aimed at improving pharmacological efficacy and overcoming parasite resistance [2]. Besides its use in humans, ALB is among the most widely used anthelmintics in veterinary applications to control gastrointestinal and respiratory helminths in livestock and companion animals. However, the fact that substandard formulations remain a documented problem in veterinary markets highlights the need for reliable analytical methods for quality control [3]. Given its widespread therapeutic use in both clinical and veterinary fields, developing sensitive, selective, and practical methods for the determination of ALB in pharmaceutical formulations, as well as biological and environmental samples, remains an active area of analytical research.

Among instrumental methods, electroanalytical techniques -including voltammetry, amperometry, and potentiometry- have gained increasing interest in pharmaceutical analysis due to their rapid response, low cost, portability, and compatibility with small sample volumes [4]. The use of nanomaterial-based electrode modifiers has further improved the sensitivity and selectivity of voltammetric analyses for a wide range of drug classes, while maintaining the inherent simplicity of the technique compared to chromatographic separation. In particular, voltammetry stands out as a rapid, simple, and cost-effective tool capable of resolving multiple electroactive drugs without the need for extensive sample pretreatment [5–7]. Reflecting this trend, an increasing number of voltammetric methods have recently been evaluated within green, white, and blue analytical chemistry frameworks, positioning sustainability as a fundamental criterion in modern method development alongside analytical performance [8].

Several analytical approaches have been reported for the quantification of ALB. These include reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) methods developed for plasma pharmacokinetic studies, residue analysis in edible tissues, and pharmaceutical quality control, along with the near-infrared spectroscopic quantification of its solid-state polymorphic form [9–15]. Chromatographic analyses are routinely used to determine ALB [16–19]. These methods are quite costly, involving extensive sample preparation, energy consumption, and often the use of hazardous solvents. In contrast, electroanalytical methods such as voltammetry, amperometry, and potentiometry are attracting analysts because they offer rapid analysis, small sample processing, and integration into compact sensor platforms. In addition, various electroanalytical approaches have been reported for ALB quantification [20–26]. Notably, hydrochloric acid (HCl) has been employed as the solvent in most of these studies [20–22], whereas methanol alone was used in several others [23, 24], a combination of methanol and acetonitrile was reported in one study [25], and carbinol solution was used in only one case [26]. Against this background, the use of ethanol as a greener solvent for ALB determination in the present study, to the best of our knowledge for the first time, represents one of the most distinctive and original aspects of this work. It is important to develop these methods in accordance with sustainability requirements. Green analytical chemistry (GAC) and its extension, White Analytical Chemistry (WAC), offer a broad perspective. Voltametric techniques can also be called GAC- and WAC-based analytical methods because they are simpler and more environmentally friendly than chromatographic methods, require small sample sizes, and can be used with portable devices [27].

The environmental impact, sustainability, and greener profile of the developed procedure were systematically assessed using the Analytical Greenness Metric (AGREE), Green Analytical Procedure Index (GAPI), Analytical Green Star Area for Sample Preparation (AGSA-Prep), the Whiteness Evaluation for Chemical Analysis (WECA) and Blue applicability grade index (BAGI) tools [28–33]. Although these studies show that ALB is highly suitable for both chromatographic and voltammetric quantification, most reported electroanalytical protocols rely on custom nanomaterial-modified electrodes. Furthermore, none of the existing methods used ethanol as an organic solvent, and these studies were not evaluated according to green and white analytical chemistry metrics. In this study, a simple and sustainable voltammetric method was developed for the determination of ALB, employing ethanol as a green solvent, and validated as a stability-indicating procedure in accordance with ICH guidelines. The greenness, whiteness, and practicality of the developed method were further evaluated using the AGREE, GAPI, AGSA-Prep, WECA, and BAGI metrics.

Experimental

Reagents and solutions

ALB was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA) and its dosage form (Andazol^® film tablets containing 200 mg of ALB) was purchased from a local pharmacy in Türkiye. Ethanol (HPLC grade) was purchased from Isolab (Eschau, Germany). Britton-Robinson buffer (BRB, 0.04 M), phosphate buffer (PB, 0.1 M), and acetate buffer (AcB, 0.1 M) were used as supporting electrolytes. All chemicals were of analytical reagent grade and were used as received without further purification. For the selectivity study, anhydrous sodium sulfate (Na₂SO₄, Isolab), sodium nitrate (NaNO₃, Kimyalab), calcium chloride dihydrate (CaCl₂.2H₂O, Tekkim), potassium chloride (KCl, Tekkim), L-ascorbic acid (Sigma-Aldrich), and dopamine (Sigma-Aldrich) were purchased and used as received. Ultrapure water (18.2 MΩ cm) was used throughout for the preparation and dilution of all solutions. A stock solution of ALB (1 × 10^− 3 M) was prepared in ethanol and stored in the dark at refrigerated temperature until use. Working solutions were prepared by appropriate dilution of the stock solution with the selected supporting electrolyte prior to each measurement.

Apparatus

Voltammetric measurements were performed using an Autolab IMP potentiostat/galvanostat (Metrohm Autolab B.V., Utrecht, The Netherlands) controlled by NOVA 2.1.8 software. A conventional three-electrode cell was employed, consisting of an unmodified glassy carbon electrode (GCE, BASi, 3 mm diameter) as the working electrode, an Ag/AgCl electrode (BASi, 3.0 M NaCl) as the reference electrode, and a platinum wire (BASi) as the counter electrode. Prior to each measurement, the surface of the GCE was polished with 0.3 μm alumina slurry and rinsed thoroughly with distilled water to ensure a reproducible surface. pH measurements were performed using a Mettler Toledo (Zurich, Switzerland) pH meter equipped with a combined Ag/AgCl glass electrode (Mettler Toledo InLab 413).

Preparation of standard and tablet solutions

For voltammetric experiments, an ALB stock solution (1 × 10^− 3 M) was prepared in ethanol and stored in the dark at refrigerated temperature until use. A quantity of the tablet powder equivalent to a 1 × 10^− 3 M ALB concentration was transferred into a 10 mL volumetric flask and made up to volume with ethanol. The resulting solution was filtered through filter paper, and the filtrate was used for further analysis. The required working concentrations were obtained by appropriate dilution with the selected supporting electrolyte prior to measurement.

Voltammetric procedure

The electrochemical behavior of ALB was investigated by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and square-wave voltammetry (SWV) within the potential range of 0.0–1.5 V. CV measurements were performed at a scan rate of 0.1 V/s with a potential step of 0.00244 V. SWV measurements were carried out using a pulse amplitude of 0.035 V, a frequency of 10 Hz, and a potential step of 0.005 V.

Greenness evaluation of the method

The alignment of the proposed method with GAC and WAC principles was systematically assessed using the GAPI [28], AGREE [29], BAGI [30], AGSA [31], AGSA-Prep [32], and WECA [33] assessment tools.

Results and discussion

Effect of ethanol content on the electrochemical response of ALB

The influence of the ethanol content on the voltammetric response of ALB was examined at a fixed pH (BRB, pH 4.0) prior to the pH study. The highest CV peak current was obtained at 10% (v/v) ethanol, whereas the maximum SWV response was reached at 20% (v/v) ethanol. Since SWV was selected for the quantitative work, all subsequent measurements were carried out at a fixed ethanol content of 20% (v/v) (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

Effect of ethanol content (% v/v) on the CV and SWV peak currents of ALB in BRB (pH 4.0)

Effect of pH and scan rate

The effect of the supporting electrolyte and pH on the oxidation of ALB was investigated in PB (pH 6, 7, 8), BRB (pH 2–8), and AcB (pH 3.5, 4.5, 5.5). As shown in Fig. 2, ALB exhibited two oxidation peaks. The first oxidation peak, however, was found to be poorly defined for quantitative purposes, as it displayed a distinct shoulder/wave on its left (less positive) side, which compromised its symmetry and made accurate baseline definition and peak-current measurement unreliable. In contrast, the second oxidation peak appeared as a well-resolved and symmetric signal. For this reason, the second oxidation peak was selected as the analytical signal, and all subsequent experiments and quantitative calculations were carried out on the basis of this peak. Among the tested media, the highest and most symmetric second oxidation peak was obtained in BRB at pH 2.0; therefore, BRB at pH 2.0 was selected for all subsequent experiments (Fig. 2). The superior response observed at pH 2.0 is consistent with the extensive protonation of the benzimidazole nitrogen of ALB under strongly acidic conditions, which increases the proportion of the electroactive cationic species available at the electrode surface and favors its adsorption onto the glassy carbon surface [16]. The oxidation peak potential (E_p) shifted to less positive values and the peak current decreased with increasing pH (Fig. 3), indicating that protons participate in the electrode reaction. The E_p varied linearly with pH, as expressed by Eq. (1) for CV and Eq. (2) for SWV:

Fig. 2.

A Cyclic and B square-wave voltammograms of ALB at different pH values PB, BRB and AcB solutions

Fig. 3.

pH dependence of I_p and E_p of ALB for CV (A) and SWV (B) in PB, BRB and AcB solutions

1

2

The slopes (−61.04 and −65.43 mV pH^− 1) indicate that equal numbers of protons and electrons are involved in the oxidation of ALB. Such close agreement with the theoretical Nernstian value of −59 mV/pH at 25 °C is widely regarded as diagnostic of a proton-coupled electron transfer process in which the number of protons equals the number of electrons transferred [34].

The effect of the scan rate on the response of ALB was studied over the range 10–300 mV s^− 1. The peak current varied linearly both with the scan rate and with the square root of the scan rate.

The better linearity obtained for the I_p vs. v^1/2 plot indicates that the oxidation of ALB at the glassy carbon electrode is a diffusion-controlled process. This behavior is characteristic of freely diffusing electroactive species reaching the electrode surface primarily through mass transport rather than through pre-concentration by adsorption, consistent with the general diagnostic criteria for diffusion-controlled electrode processes [35]. No separate figure is presented for the scan-rate study; the corresponding regression data are given in Eqs. (3) and (4).

3

4

The number of electrons involved in the electro-oxidation of ALB was evaluated from the voltammogram recorded at a scan rate of 100 mV/s. For such an irreversible process, the separation between the E_p and the half-peak potential (E_p/2) is related to the transfer coefficient (α) and the number of transferred electrons (n) through the Bard–Faulkner relationship (Eq. 5):

5

Assuming a transfer coefficient of α ≈ 0.5, which is typical for this type of irreversible oxidation, the number of electrons was estimated for each peak. For the first oxidation peak, (E_p − E_p/2) was found to be 47 mV, yielding αn = 1.01 and therefore n = 2.03 ≈ 2. For the second oxidation peak, (E_p − E_p/2) was 40 mV, giving αn = 1.19 and hence n = 2.39 ≈ 2.

These results indicate that each oxidation step corresponds to the transfer of approximately two electrons, so that a total of four electrons are exchanged during the overall electrochemical oxidation of ALB. Furthermore, the slope of the E_p versus pH plot revealed that an equal number of protons and electrons participate in the electrode reaction. Accordingly, each of the two oxidation processes can be described as a two-electron/two-proton step, and the overall oxidation proceeds via the transfer of four electrons and four protons, consistent with previously reported study [26]. Based on these observations, an oxidation mechanism of ALB is proposed in Scheme 1.

Scheme 1.

Possible oxidation mechanism of ALB

Method validation

Under the optimized conditions (BRB, pH 2.0; 20% (v/v) ethanol; SWV), the method was validated. The SWV peak current increased linearly with ALB concentration over the range 0.06–20 µM (Fig. 4). The analytical and regression parameters are summarized in Table 1. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were 21.3 nM and 64.6 nM, respectively, and the intra- and inter-day RSD values confirmed the precision of the method.

Fig. 4.

A SWV voltammograms of ALB at increasing concentrations and B the corresponding calibration plot (BRB, pH 2.0; 20% (v/v) ethanol)

Table 1.

Calibration curve and corresponding regression data obtained for the quantitative determination of ALB by SWV

Parameter	SWV
Peak potential (mV)	1130
Linear dynamic range (µM)	0.06–20
Slope (µA µM− 1)	0.8269
Intercept (µA)	–0.0179
Correlation coefficient (r)	0.9987
LOD (nM)	21.3
LOQ (nM)	64.6
Intra-day RSD % of peak potential*	0.40
Inter-day RSD % of peak potential*	0.59
Intra-day RSD % of peak current*	0.97
Inter-day RSD % of peak current*	1.36

* Number of experiments = 5

The accuracy of the proposed method was statistically compared with that of a previously reported spectrofluorometric method for ALB determination in tablet formulations [36]. The comparison was performed based on percentage recovery values using Student’s t-test for accuracy and the F-test for precision at a 95% confidence level (Table 2). The results showed good agreement between the two methods. No significant differences were observed in the accuracy or precision of the recovery results obtained using the proposed and comparison methods. Accordingly, these findings confirm that the proposed green SWV method is in good agreement with the reference method and is suitable for the routine quality control determination of ALB.

Table 2.

Recovery data determined for the analysis of ALB in the commercial tablet formulation using the proposed SWV method and the reference method

Parameter	SWV*	Reference Method** [36]
Labeled claim (mg)	200	–
Amount found (mg)*	203.61	–
RSD%	0.61	–
Bias%	1.81	–
Added concentration	2.000 µM	0.873 µg/l
Found concentration*	1.944 µM	0.861 µg/l
Average recovered%	99.06	98.70
RSD% of recovery	1.44	2.28
Bias%	–0.94	–1.36
t-test***	0.76
F-test***	0.40

* Number of experiments = 5, ** Number of experiments = 6, *** t_critic: 2.78 and F_critic: 6.39, α = 0.05.

These results demonstrate that the proposed SWV method fulfills the linearity, sensitivity, precision, and accuracy requirements set out in the ICH Q2 (R2) guideline, with recovery and bias values well within the generally accepted ±2% range for pharmaceutical assays. The low LOD and LOQ values, combined with satisfactory intra- and inter-day repeatability, confirm that the method is suitable for the routine quality-control determination of ALB in tablet formulations.

Interference study

Selectivity of the proposed method was evaluated by measuring 4 µM ALB in the presence of common interfering substances, including inorganic ions (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, SO₄²⁻, Cl⁻, and NO₃⁻) at 100-fold higher concentrations (1:100 ratio) and ascorbic acid and dopamine at 10-fold higher concentrations (1:10 ratio). No significant interference was observed; the change in ALB peak current was less than ±2.52% (Table 3). Additionally, well-defined oxidation peaks were observed by SWV at +347 mV for ascorbic acid, + 448 mV for dopamine, and +1179 mV for ALB, demonstrating clear peak separation among the analyte and interfering species. The distinct peak potentials of ALB and the investigated interferents indicate a favorable selectivity profile for the proposed method. These results provide preliminary evidence of the method’s potential applicability for the determination of ALB in the presence of common interfering substances typically found in biological matrices and pharmaceutical formulations.

Table 3.

Effects of interferents on the voltammetric response of 4 µM ALB

Interferents	Signal change%
NO3⁻	–2.52
K+	–1.86
Ca2+	–0.65
SO42⁻	–0.45
Na+	–0.63
Cl⁻	–1.86
Dopamin	+ 0.54
Ascorbic acid	–2.02

Comparison with reported methods

As summarized in Table 4, none of the other reported methods simultaneously offers both a wider linear range and a lower LOD than the proposed method. Only the method reported in reference [26] achieved a lower LOD, yet this value remains comparable to that obtained in the present work and, importantly, was reached using a working electrode that required a laborious and time-consuming modification process involving additional chemical reagents. Likewise, wider linear ranges were reported in reference [20], but these were accompanied by considerably higher LOD values. Most notably, ethanol, a greener and less toxic solvent, was employed for the first time in this work for the electrochemical determination of ALB; the broad linear range and low LOD achieved here are, in our view, also attributable to the enhanced solubility of ALB in this solvent. Overall, the superiority of the developed method lies in the combination of three features that are not simultaneously offered by any previously reported electrochemical method for ALB: a competitive LOD and wide linear range obtained at an unmodified electrode, avoiding laborious nanomaterial modification; the use of ethanol as a green solvent in place of the strongly acidic or toxic media used previously; and quantitative validation of its greenness and practicality through multiple metrics. This makes the method a simple, low-cost, and environmentally friendly alternative well suited for the routine determination of ALB.

Table 4.

Comparison of the proposed method with reported electrochemical methods for the determination of ALB

Electrode	Technique	Electrolyte/solvent	Linear range	LOD	Sample	Ref.
Bare GCE	LSV DPV SWV	1 M HCl	50–20000 µM 10–20000 µM 100–20000 µM	30 µM 4 µM 62 µM	Tablet	[20]
Cathodically pretreated BDDE	DPV	1 M HCl +0.05 M H2SO4	0.0797–8.36 µM	0.06 µM	Tablet	[21]
Au electrode (reduction)	CV/LC-MS	Acetonitrile/methanol (1:1) + 0.05 M TBAB	Mechanistic study	—	—	[25]
BDD thin film electrode	FIA/amperometry	0.1 M PB pH 2.5 + 20% methanol	12.44–565.33 µM	3.77 µM	Tablet	[23]
CPE	DPV	0.04 M BRB pH 4.01 + methanol	0.0998–0.699 µM	0.057 µM	Tablet, urine	[24]
CTAB@g-C3N4/CPE	SWV	PB pH 3.0 + carbinol solution	0.2–10 µM	0.01 µM	Tablet, urine, plasma, water	[26]
Pt–Pd/GCE	DPV	1 mM HCl + BRB pH 2.0	3.12–22.6 µM	0.08 µM	Tablet, milk, chicken	[22]
Bare GCE	SWV	0.04 M BRB pH 2.0 + 20% ethanol	0.06–20 µM	0.0213 µM	Tablet	Present Study

LSVlinear sweep voltammetry,BDDEboron-doped diamond electrode,TBABtetra-butylammonium bromide,FIAflow-injection analysis,CPEcarbon paste electrode,CTAB@g-C₃N₄/CPEacetyl trimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)-immobilized nitrogen rich g-C₃N₄nanosheet modified CPE, Pt–Pd/GCE platinum-palladium nanoparticles modified GCE

Methodological approaches to measuring greenness

The accuracy and environmental impact of the developed method were analysed using various complementary metrics. Compliance with the 12 green principles was measured using AGREE, GAPI, AGSA and AGSA-prep tools [28–32]. AGREE is a numerical and color-coded evaluation tool that scores each of the 12 principles of the GAC. The AGREE tool is represented in a pictogram arranged clockwise, ranging from dark green to dark red, including yellow. The closer the score on the pictogram is to 1, the better the sustainability is represented. The evaluation of the methods developed with the three solvers used in the study is given in Fig. 5A. In the pictogram, the performance of the method in each evaluation criterion is reflected by color in the segment where the number corresponding to each criterion is located.

Fig. 5.

Comprehensive greenness, sustainability, and reliability assessment of the developed method: A AGREE B GAPI C AGSA D AGSA-prep E BAGI F WECA

The GAPI tool, which symbolizes the holistic environmental impact of analytical procedures, represents each step of the methodology through specific color-coded pictograms. This assessment operates on a three-tiered scale consisting of green, yellow, and red, representing low, medium, and high environmental impact. Configured from five key areas, this visual symbol represents different segments of the analytical workflow, and when the relevant sustainability criteria are met, the relevant areas turn green, certifying the ecological suitability of the method. When the environmental profile of the method developed in this study is examined, it is observed that the GAPI diagram contains 6 green and 5 yellow areas, and no red area (Fig. 5B). This resulting pictogram qualitatively confirms that the proposed method has a low environmental burden and high sustainability potential in operational processes [28].

AGSA is an easily accessible tool used to assess the greenness of developed methods. It quantitatively demonstrates sustainability and environmental impact structured around the 12 principles of GAC. A pictogram displays the assessment from dark green (highest) to dark red (lowest). The method developed in the EtOH showed a high degree of greenness with an AGSA result of 88.89 [31] (Fig. 5C). The AGSA-prep metric is a comprehensive, systematic, and operationally optimized assessment tool that can quantitatively determine the environmental sustainability of sample preparation protocols. Using criteria such as solvents used, waste generation and management, sample preparation and time, energy consumption, equipment use, and analyzer safety, this tool evaluates sample preparation in the method and achieved a score of 87 out of 100. Scores of 75 or higher are considered ‘Excellent Green’ [32] (Fig. 5D).

BAGI is a tool developed to evaluate the applicability of the developed analytical methods in terms of analysis type, preparation, reagent/material selection, etc. In accordance with the “blue” principle of WAC, it is used as a complement to green evaluation tools. Figure 5E shows the BAGI pictogram to evaluate the suitability of the developed method for GAC and WAC. According to the color gradient of the pictogram, dark blue indicates high agreement, blue indicates medium agreement, light blue indicates low agreement, and white indicates inconsistency. This tool, which received the highest score (80) in the pictogram, is consistent with other green metric results. Since analytical methods scoring above 60 in this evaluation tool are considered practical, the method developed in this study is practical in terms of applicability [30].

WECA is a tool that visualizes the criteria by normalizing them on an area basis using three-color circles, with the RGB 12 model presenting the criteria individually using individual bars. It is an easily accessible web-based application designed to generate a holistic quantitative score reflecting the quality of the developed method. The methodological framework is based on the RGB (Red-Green-Blue) additive color model, where each primary color represents a core column of the method evaluation. The WECA model demonstrates the environmental and practical performance of the method using a holistic percentage score based on the concept of ‘whiteness’. The evaluation showed the superiority of the proposed sensor and yielded an overall whiteness score of 92 (Fig. 5F) [33].

Conclusions

In this study, a simple, sensitive, and sustainable SWV method was developed for the determination of ALB at an unmodified glassy carbon electrode, using ethanol for the first time as a green co-solvent in the electroanalytical assay of this compound.

Optimization studies established BRB (pH 2.0) containing 20% (v/v) ethanol as the optimum medium, and the pH-dependence of the oxidation E_p, together with the diffusion-controlled nature of the electrode process confirmed by scan rate studies, supported a proton-coupled electron transfer mechanism.

The method was validated in accordance with ICH Q2(R2) guidelines, providing a linear response over the range 0.06–20 µM with a low detection limit (21.3 nM) and satisfactory precision and accuracy. Application to a commercial tablet formulation and recovery studies confirmed the reliability of the method for routine quality-control analysis. Moreover, the developed method demonstrated remarkable selectivity with a signal change of less than ±2.52%.

Compared with previously reported electrochemical methods for ALB, most of which rely on strongly acidic media, toxic organic solvents, or nanomaterial-modified electrodes, the proposed approach achieves a competitive or superior detection limit while using a simple bare electrode and an environmentally friendly solvent system.

GAC and WAC principles offer a sustainable, efficient, and reliable approach to electrochemical analysis. Environmental assessments using AGREE, AGSA, and AGSA-prep resulted in scores of 0.81 out of 1, 88.89 and 87 out of 100, respectively. BAGI and WECA tools aim to elevate the sustainable analysis standard to the highest level by using high whiteness-scoring and reliable solvents that yield excellent results. From an environmental perspective, the use of the developed green/white analytical method helps reduce the use of hazardous waste and promotes sustainable analytical practices.

Abbreviations

ALB

Albendazole

SWV

Square-wave voltammetry

CV

Cyclic voltammetry

GCE

Glassy carbon electrode

BRB

Britton-Robinson buffer

PB

Phosphate buffer

AcB

Acetate buffer

GAC

Green Analytical Chemistry

WAC

White Analytical Chemistry

LOD

Limit of detection

LOQ

Limit of quantification

RSD

Relative standard deviation

AGREE

Analytical Greenness Metric

GAPI

Green Analytical Procedure Index

AGSA

Analytical Green Star Area

AGSA-Prep

Analytical Green Star Area for Sample Preparation

WECA

Whiteness Evaluation for Chemical Analysis

BAGI

Blue Applicability Grade Index

RP-HPLC

Reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography

LC-MS/MS

Liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry

ICH

International Council for Harmonisation

Author contributions

ÜS, ST, ZÜ and EÇD conceived and designed the study. ÜS, ST and ZÜ performed the experiments and acquired the data. ÜS, ST, ZÜ and EÇD analysed and interpreted the data. ÜS and ZÜ drafted the manuscript. EÇD supervised the study and critically revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) under project no 1919B012545680 and by Suleyman Demirel University Scientific Research Projects Unit under project no TLP-2025-10120.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable. 

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.