Insect lipids as novel food ingredients: Linking molecular structure and quality attributes to food applications and industrial translation

Abstract

Processing of edible insects generates compositionally diverse lipid fractions, but food-ingredient development is constrained by variable quality and limited understanding of how molecular structure determines product performance. Previous reviews have emphasized fatty acid composition, extraction, and direct food use, while offering limited guidance on selecting or modifying oils for specific applications. This review addresses that gap through a structure–property–application framework linking fatty acid, triacylglycerol architecture, minor constituents, and production history with quality, digestion, and food function. Direct incorporation is feasible when native physical and sensory properties match product requirements. Emulsification, oleogelation, fractionation, and enzymatic restructuring can overcome specific functional limitations, but most remain at formulation or prototype scale. Evidence linking insect-lipid structure with digestion is emerging, whereas broader biological effects remain preclinical. Translation requires application-specific specifications, flavor and residual-allergen control, and validation in realistic food matrices through storage studies, consumer testing, and pilot-scale production.

Highlights

• •Insect oils exhibit species-dependent compositions and properties.
• •TAG architecture affects crystallization, digestion, and food performance.
• •Insect lipids show metabolic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory potential.
• •Emulsification, fractionation, oleogelation, and TAG restructuring expand food applications.
• •Standardization and pilot-scale validation are required for wider application.

1. Introduction

Edible lipids supply energy, essential fatty acids (FAs), fat-soluble micronutrients, and sensory attributes such as flavor, mouthfeel, and texture (Tan et al., 2023). Commercial edible lipids are derived primarily from a limited range of plant, animal, and marine sources (Bilal et al., 2020; Tufail et al., 2024), each with distinct nutritional and functional constraints (Riaz et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2021). Unsaturated plant oils often lack the solid-fat functionality needed in bakery fats and spreads (Monto et al., 2023), whereas animal fats generally contain more saturated FAs and cholesterol. Some oilseed oils also require control of undesirable constituents, such as erucic acid and free gossypol (Dabbour et al., 2023; EFSA et al., 2016). Fish oil supplies long-chain n-3 FAs but is oxidation-prone and faces supply constraints, with global output falling by approximately 21% in 2023 (FAO, 2025). These limitations motivate complementary lipid resources with defined nutritional and technological functions.

Currently, edible insects are increasingly processed into protein concentrates and defatted meals (Huang, Zhang, et al., 2025; Mintah et al., 2020; Pan et al., 2022), while their lipid fraction often remains a secondary stream (Cruz et al., 2025; Mintah, He, Dabbour, Agyekum, et al., 2019). Lipid content varies considerably among species and developmental stages (Huang, Mintah, et al., 2024; Wu et al., 2020). Recovering this fraction can generate an additional ingredient while leaving a protein-rich co-product suitable for further valorization. Defatted insect proteins, for example, can be further processed into hydrolysates with antioxidant and functional properties (Yang et al., 2024). The value of insect lipids, however, depends on converting biologically variable extracts into reproducible, food-grade oils with defined functions.

Insect oils differ substantially in composition and potential function. Representative extracted or refined black soldier fly larvae oil (BSFLO) may contain approximately 29–42% lauric acid, mealworm and cricket oils are commonly dominated by oleic and linoleic acids, and selected silkworm pupal oil (SWPO) may contain approximately 35–38% α-linolenic acid (ALA) as the predominant fatty acid (Liu et al., 2015; Mai et al., 2019; Srisuksai et al., 2024; Susirirut et al., 2023). These differences provide distinct bases for oxidation stability, physical state, digestion, and nutritional positioning. Fatty-acid profiles alone, however, do not define oil functionality. Crystallization, melting, interfacial behavior, and lipolysis also depend on intact triacylglycerol (TAG) species, FA positional distribution, polar lipids, sterols, tocopherols, pigments, and other minor constituents. Post-harvest treatment and processing introduce further variation. Killing, drying, storage, mechanical or solvent extraction, supercritical-fluid extraction, degumming, bleaching, and deodorization can alter oil yield, TAG and minor-lipid recovery, oxidation status, color, aroma, and residual protein (Geng et al., 2023; Huang, Zhang, et al., 2025; Sete da Cruz et al., 2022).

Together, molecular composition and processing history determine whether an insect oil possesses the quality and functionality required by a particular food system. Insect oils have been incorporated into bakery products, fried foods, spreads, emulsions, and oleogels, while additional uses have been explored in animal feed, cosmetics, biomedical delivery, and biodiesel production (Cruz et al., 2025). Product performance nevertheless depends on whether the recovered oil meets the physical and sensory requirements of the intended use. Crude or minimally refined oils may retain species- and process-related odors, pigments, polar material, and allergenic proteins, whereas intensive refining can remove tocopherols and other potentially valuable constituents. Batch variability, incomplete TAG and positional data, limited refining specifications, and product-specific regulatory requirements further restrict cross-study comparison and industrial translation. Consequently, successful formulation in one prototype cannot establish general suitability for other foods or commercial-scale production.

Recent reviews have addressed insect-lipid composition and physicochemical properties (Yap et al., 2023), nutritional characteristics and food applications (Pilco-Romero et al., 2023), lipid processing and digestion (Zhai et al., 2024), regulation of fatty-acid profiles (Huang, Zhang, et al., 2025), and the extraction and prospective applications of insect lipids (Cruz et al., 2025). A broader review also considered insect lipids alongside proteins in relation to extraction, functional–nutritional properties, and food use (Ktil et al., 2026). Their principal scopes are compared with that of the present review in Table 1. Despite these advances, integration among intact TAG architecture and positional distribution, processing history, oil quality, digestion, finished-product performance, and industrial translation remains limited. In particular, TAG-level structural evidence, application-specific refining requirements, pilot-scale reproducibility, consumer acceptance, and the regulatory identity of food-grade insect oils remain insufficiently established, thereby limiting their translation into reproducible food ingredients.

Table 1.

Scope comparison of selected recent reviews on edible insects and insect-derived oils

Review	Main scope	FA and minor-lipid composition	TAG architecture and positional distribution	Extraction, refining, and oil quality	Digestion and biological evidence	Finished-food performance	Scale-up, safety, and regulation
Yap et al. (2023)	Multiple insect orders	Core focus	Partial	Core focus on physicochemical properties; refining limited	Not a principal focus	Not a principal focus	Not a principal focus
Zhai et al. (2024)	Silkworm pupae oil	Core focus	Partial	Core focus	Core focus	Partial	Limited
Huang, Zhang, et al. (2025)	Twelve edible insect species	Core focus; emphasis on FA regulation by diet	Not a principal focus	Partial	Partial	Not a principal focus	Not a principal focus
Cruz et al. (2025)	Multiple edible insect oils	Core focus	Partial	Core focus on extraction and characterization	Partial	Partial; prospective uses	Partial
Ktil et al. (2026)	Insect proteins and lipids	Partial	Not a principal focus	Core focus	Partial	Core focus	Partial
Present review	Multiple edible insect oils	Integrated with matrix and processing context	Core focus	Core focus	Critically assessment	Core focus on finished-food validation	Core focus on specifications, safety, regulation, and industrial translation

Note: “Core focus” indicates a principal organizing theme of the review; “Partial” indicates that the topic is discussed but is not integrated throughout the review; “Not a principal focus” does not imply that the topic is entirely absent. The comparison describes review scope rather than methodological quality.

To provide a transparent basis for this synthesis, English-language literature was searched in Web of Science Core Collection, Scopus, and PubMed, focusing on publications from January 2020 to June 2026 and updated on August 21, 2026. Search terms combined edible insects or major species with oil, lipid, or fat and terms related to composition, TAG structure, processing, digestion, biological responses, food applications, safety, regulation, and scale-up. Earlier studies were retained when they provided foundational evidence. Studies directly addressing insect-derived oils or extracted lipid fractions were included, whereas studies limited to non-lipid components or whole-insect materials without separately interpretable lipid data were excluded. For quantitative oil comparisons, flour-derived data were excluded unless an isolated lipid fraction was analyzed. Primary studies were preferentially used for quantitative and mechanistic evidence. Table 1 summarizes recent reviews, whereas the other evidence tables present representative rather than exhaustive selections. Against this background, the present review adopts a structure–property–application framework to examine how lipid composition, TAG architecture, and processing history determine insect-oil quality, functionality, digestion, and food suitability. It further considers appropriate modification strategies, safety, regulation, and scale-up in relation to industrial translation.

2. Lipid composition and molecular architecture of insect oils

2.1. Lipid classes and molecular structural features

Fig. 1 presents a structure-based overview of the principal lipid constituents in insect oils and the physicochemical tendencies associated with functional groups and molecular organization. These relationships, however, are not universal, and should be interpreted in the context of specific constituent concentration, TAG structure, extraction, refining, and food-matrix conditions.

Fig. 1.

Molecular composition, TAG architecture, and structure–property relationships of insect lipids. (a) Representative lipid motifs, including saturated, unsaturated, PUFA, glycerol–ester, phosphocholine, sterol, and tocopherol structures. (b) TAG molecular organization, showing sn-position distribution, TAG classes, carbon number, symmetry, and lipase digestion. (c) Structure-property relationships connecting lipid architecture with oxidation stability, crystallization, melting behavior, solid fat content, interfacial function, digestion, and appearance.

TAGs are the major storage lipids in edible insects and commonly represent approximately 50–80% of total lipids, although the reported proportion varies with species, life stage, tissue, extraction method, and calculation basis (Yap et al., 2023). Palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids occur widely, whereas lauric acid and ALA predominate only in selected species (Huang, Zhang, et al., 2025). Chain length and unsaturation provide an initial indication of lipid behavior, e.g., saturated chains favor close packing, while cis double bonds increase conformational disorder, and polyunsaturated FAs introduce oxidation-sensitive bis-allylic sites (Fig. 1). These relationships cannot, however, predict the physical or digestive behavior of an oil without information on intact TAG species and FA positional distribution (Shin & Lee, 2021).

Polar and unsaponifiable constituents add further variation. Cricket lipidomes contain several phospholipid subclasses, with phosphatidylcholine identified as a major component, and phospholipids have also been quantified in bees, termites, and mopane worms (Olaleye et al., 2023; Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Provijn, et al., 2021). Their amphiphilic character may contribute to interfacial adsorption in minimally refined extracts, although residual proteins can produce a similar effect and degumming removes much of the polar fraction. Tocopherols, tocotrienols, carotenoids, sterols, and squalene may influence oxidation, color, and nutritional value, but their concentrations differ markedly among species and analytical matrices (Fornari et al., 2023; Gumul et al., 2023; Yap et al., 2023). Tocopherol content alone is therefore not a reliable indicator of oxidative stability. Insect oils may contain cholesterol together with campesterol, stigmasterol, and β-sitosterol, reflecting dietary transfer and endogenous metabolism rather than a uniform animal-fat sterol profile (Fornari et al., 2023; Gumul et al., 2023). Reports of phenolics or flavonoids in neutral oil should be interpreted cautiously because these compounds may originate from polar co-extracts, feed residues, or incomplete purification (Zhang et al., 2024). Consequently, compositional data obtained from insect flour or total lipid extracts should not be directly compared with those of isolated food-grade oils unless the analytical matrix and processing history are equivalent.

2.2. Recurring compositional patterns

Table 2 highlights three recurring compositional patterns among the representative insect oils reviewed: lauric-rich oils, oleic–linoleic-rich oils, and ALA-rich oils. These terms are descriptive labels rather than a quantitative classification system. For consistency, lauric-rich and ALA-rich oils refer to samples in which lauric acid and ALA, respectively, are the most abundant individual fatty acids, whereas oleic–linoleic-rich oils are characterized by oleic and linoleic acids jointly forming the predominant unsaturated fatty-acid pattern without clear dominance of lauric acid or ALA. Fixed numerical cut-offs were not applied because the available studies differ in insect species, developmental stage, diet, tissue, extraction method, and reporting basis (Huang, Zhang, et al., 2025; Yap et al., 2023). Accordingly, each label applies to the reported sample rather than to the insect species as a whole. Oils without a clear dominant pattern, or for which compositional data are insufficient, are designated mixed/unassigned. These groupings summarize broad compositional contrasts but do not imply common TAG architecture, physicochemical behavior, or nutritional function.

Table 2.

Selected literature evidence on compositional patterns, analytical matrices, and molecular features of isolated edible insect oils and extracted lipid fractions

Insect source	Descriptive compositional pattern	Analyzed matrix and extraction context	Principal fatty-acid feature	Reported TAG or structural evidence	Tocopherol and sterol contents (mg/kg lipid)	References
Locusta migratoria	Oleic–linoleic-rich pattern with an appreciable palmitic-acid fraction	n-Hexane-extracted oil from freeze-dried insects; laboratory-scale extraction	Oleic acid, 36.82%; palmitic acid, 23.88%; linoleic acid, 22.07%	Palmitodiolein, palmitooleolinolein, and dipalmitoolein were identified, indicating mixed saturated–unsaturated molecular species	Total tocopherols, 232.36, predominantly γ-tocopherol (223.31); total sterols, 12,638.66, predominantly cholesterol (10,593.63), with β-sitosterol (721.48)	Deniz Şirinyıldız and Yorulmaz (2025)
Acheta domesticus	Oleic–linoleic-rich pattern	Hexane-extracted and screw-pressed oils from dried house-cricket powder	Oleic and linoleic acids commonly predominate; the fatty-acid profile was not used to generate the listed minor-lipid values	Intact TAG and stereospecific data remain limited	n.r.	Ngampeerapong et al. (2024)
Tenebrio molitor	Oleic–linoleic-rich pattern	Extracted yellow-mealworm oil subjected to dry fractionation at 2 or 4 °C	Oleic and linoleic acids commonly predominate, with palmitic acid as the main SFA	Dry fractionation separated low- and high-melting TAG populations despite relatively modest changes in bulk fatty-acid composition; comprehensive intact-TAG profiles remain scarce	Total tocopherols (144.3 ± 3.0), γ-tocopherol (123.5 ± 2.7), α-tocopherol (6.3 ± 0.1), β-tocopherol (8.5 ± 0.6), δ-tocopherol (6.1 ± 0.3)	Tzompa-Sosa et al. (2017); Son et al. (2020)
Hermetia illucens	Lauric-rich pattern	Cold-pressed fat from dried larvae obtained by screw pressing; crude fat characterized before refining	Lauric acid, 48% of total fatty acids, myristic acid, 11%; palmitic acid, 16%	Trilaurin (LaLaLa, 27.6%), dilauroyl-myristoyl TAG (LaLaM, 16.0%), and lauroyl-dimyristoyl TAG (LaMM, 15.1%) were reported as major TAGs	Tocopherols + tocotrienols, (64.7); total sterols, 3557; including β-sitosterol (1866), and campesterol (889.7)	Matthäus et al. (2019)
Bombyx mori	ALA-rich pattern	Desilked silkworm pupae oil; isolated oil used as the substrate for subsequent enzymatic lipid restructuring	ALA, 34.73%; oleic acid, 31.16%; palmitic acid, 19.50%; linoleic acid, 7.55%	ALA-rich TAG fractions, including trilinolenin (LnLnLn) and mixed linolenic–linoleic TAGs (LnLnL), have been isolated and examined in digestion and transport models	n.r.	Liu et al. (2015); Yan, Xun, et al. (2023)

Notes: ALA, α-linolenic acid; La, lauric acid; L, linoleic acid; Ln, α-linolenic acid; M, myristic acid; SFA, saturated fatty acid; TAG, triacylglycerol. Concentrations are expressed on a lipid basis as reported in the cited studies. The compositional patterns refer to the analyzed samples and reflect the predominant fatty-acid profiles reported in the source studies. No universal numerical cut-offs are proposed because composition varies with developmental stage, diet, tissue, processing, and analytical basis. The same insect species may therefore produce oils corresponding to different patterns. Samples without a clear pattern or sufficient compositional data should be designated mixed/unassigned. These labels are descriptive and do not constitute a formal classification system or validated functional classes.

2.2.1. Lauric-rich oils

BSFLO is the main representative of this compositional pattern. Lauric acid generally accounts for about 28–62% of total FAs across the studies reviewed, although its concentration varies with diet, developmental stage, and processing conditions (Almeida et al., 2022; Srisuksai et al., 2024). Myristic and palmitic acids provide additional saturated components. This composition is closer to coconut and palm-kernel fats than to long-chain terrestrial animal fats (Spiazzi et al., 2023). Furthermore, its comparatively low abundance of polyunsaturated acyl chains suggests lower intrinsic oxidation susceptibility than ALA-rich insect oils, although actual stability remains dependent on free FAs, pro-oxidants, endogenous antioxidants, and storage conditions (Shin & Lee, 2021).

The high lauric-acid content also indicates a greater tendency to form a solid fraction, but it does not independently determine plasticity or melting behavior. BSFLO contains substantial amounts of trilaurin and mixed lauric–myristic TAGs, whose relative abundance influences molecular packing and phase transitions (Matthäus et al., 2019). Lauric acid should also not be treated as metabolically or physically equivalent to the shorter FAs in conventional medium-chain TAGs. BSFLO is therefore more appropriately regarded as a lauric fat whose suitability for bakery or spread applications requires direct measurements of TAG composition, crystallization, solid-fat content, and sensory behavior.

2.2.2. Oleic–linoleic-rich oils

Yellow mealworm oil (YMO), several cricket oils, and some locust oils are dominated by oleic and linoleic acids, with variable contributions from palmitic acid (Deniz Şirinyıldız & Yorulmaz, 2025; Son et al., 2020; Ugur et al., 2021). The relatively high content of unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) supports a liquid state at ambient temperature, similar to that of many plant oils. Oleic acid is more resistant to oxidation than linoleic acid, whereas linoleic acid contributes essential-fatty-acid value but raises oxidation susceptibility (Islam et al., 2023). Consequently, the oleic-to-linoleic balance of different insect oils is more informative than total unsaturation when interpreting storage or frying performance.

Despite similarity to vegetable oils, the fatty-acid composition does not establish functional equivalence. Crude mealworm and cricket oils may retain phospholipids, free FAs, pigments, sterols, and volatile compounds that alter flavor, interfacial behavior, and refining response (Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Gellynck, & Schouteten, 2021). Meaningful comparisons between insect oils and conventional vegetable oils necessitate comprehensive documentation of extraction and refining histories.

2.2.3. ALA-rich oils

SWPO can exhibit an ALA-rich profile. In representative extracted oils, ALA accounted for 34.73–37.81% of total FAs and was the most abundant individual fatty acid, exceeding oleic acid in the same samples (Liu et al., 2015; Susirirut et al., 2023). Its n-3 profile is more appropriately compared with those of flaxseed, perilla, and other ALA-rich seed oils than with fish oil, because SWPO provides ALA rather than substantial amounts of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids (Islam et al., 2023). For this compositional pattern, oxidation control is an integral part of ingredient design. Low-oxygen extraction, removal of pro-oxidants, antioxidant protection, encapsulation, barrier packaging, and compatibility with the target food matrix all influence product stability and nutritional retention (Pattnaik & Mishra, 2022). Similar formulation constraints have been reported for tree-peony seed oil, another ALA-rich oil limited by oxidative instability and poor aqueous dispersibility (He et al., 2023). Furthermore, nutritional interpretation must clearly distinguish between ALA content and its metabolic conversion efficiency into long-chain n-3 FAs.

2.3. TAG architecture and positional distribution

Fatty-acid analysis identifies the acyl chains present in an oil but does not provide information on the assembly within TAG molecules. Carbon number, acyl-chain combination, and molecular symmetry influence packing, crystallization, melting, and lipolysis. Oils with similar bulk fatty-acid profiles may therefore differ substantially in physical state and digestion.

To date, information on intact TAG composition of insect oils remains limited. BSFLO is rich in trilaurin, dilauroyl-myristoyl and lauroyl-dimyristoyl TAGs providing a molecular basis for a lauric-fat-like thermal behavior (Matthäus et al., 2019). Migratory locust oil contains mixed saturated–unsaturated TAGs such as palmitodiolein, palmitooleolinolein, and dipalmitoolein (Deniz Şirinyıldız & Yorulmaz, 2025). YMO fractionation further shows that physical behavior can change markedly despite only modest changes in total fatty-acid composition, indicating selective partitioning of TAG populations rather than a simple alteration of bulk unsaturation (Tzompa-Sosa et al., 2017). Comparable datasets are unavailable for most insect species, and many studies remain limited to fatty-acid methyl-ester analysis.

Stereospecific distribution introduces an additional structural level (Fig. 1b). Pancreatic lipase preferentially hydrolyzes the sn-1 and sn-3 ester bonds, leaving a 2-monoacylglycerol that retains the FA at sn-2. Positional distribution can therefore affect hydrolysis, micellar incorporation, and the chemical form presented for intestinal absorption (Shin & Lee, 2021). Direct information for native insect oils is scarce. Studies on SWPO have shown that lipase-catalyzed acidolysis can reduce saturated FAs at the sn-1,3 positions, increase unsaturated TAG species, and alter thermal behavior and in vitro fatty-acid release (Wang et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2015). Isolated linolenic-acid-rich TAGs from SWPO also showed different hydrolysis and Caco-2 transport from unfractionated oil (Yan, Laurent, et al., 2023). These findings demonstrate the relevance of TAG architecture but do not establish equivalent effects in formulated foods or humans.

The principal structural limitation is therefore not the lack of further fatty-acid surveys, but the absence of paired analyses performed on the same oil batch. Relating fatty-acid composition and intact TAGs to regioisomer distribution, crystallization, solid-fat content, and digestion would allow the three proposed archetypes to progress from descriptive groupings to experimentally supported structure–function categories.

2.4. Biology and processing jointly determine the final oil phenotype

Species-specific metabolism establishes the main constraints on insect-oil composition. Developmental stage and tissue allocation affect both oil yield and composition. Yield alone remains an incomplete selection criterion, as oils with similar recovery rates may differ in FA profile, TAG distribution, minor constituents, color, odor, and stability (Cruz et al., 2025; Yap et al., 2023).

Diet provides the most accessible pre-harvest control point. Dietary fat, protein, carbohydrate, fiber, moisture, and agro-industrial by-products have been reported to alter lipid deposition and FA composition (Bordiean et al., 2022). For example, rye bran increased the lipid content of T. molitor larvae to about 30%, whereas rapeseed oil cake reduced it to around 15% (Bordiean et al., 2022). Similarly, oilseed residues, cereal brans, brewer's spent grain, and other by-products have also shifted unsaturated-fatty-acid profiles (Morales et al., 2025). Importantly, the final oil does not reproduce the dietary lipid profile directly. Digestion, absorption, selective deposition, de novo synthesis, elongation, and desaturation impose species-specific constraints (Hoc et al., 2020). Increasing dietary polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content can improve the targeted FA profile while simultaneously increasing oxidation susceptibility (Islam et al., 2023). Thus, feed design must be approached as an integrated system, simultaneously evaluating substrate safety, growth performance, oil yield, FA deposition, oxidative stability, sensory attributes, and economic scalability.

Post-harvest operations create a second control layer. Killing, drying, storage, particle-size reduction, solvent polarity, temperature, pressure, extraction time, and refining influence oil yield and the recovery of phospholipids, tocopherols, sterols, carotenoids, and other minor compounds (Antunes et al., 2024; Cruz et al., 2025; Sete da Cruz et al., 2022). Liquefied-gas and mixed-solvent extraction can alter extraction time, minor-compound recovery, and initial oxidation status; however, the advantages of these processes must be assessed under comparable oil purity and storage conditions (Sete da Cruz et al., 2022). Refining can improve color, odor, hydrolytic quality, and contaminant control, while removing compounds that contribute antioxidant or interfacial functions.

Collectively, these factors explain why oils obtained from the same insect species can differ substantially in composition and physicochemical behavior. Species-specific metabolism defines the compositional boundaries, diet modifies lipid deposition within these boundaries, and post-harvest processing determines the composition and condition of the recovered oil. The resulting TAG architecture and recovered-oil composition provide the molecular and processing basis for differences in oxidative stability, thermal behavior, interfacial properties, digestion, and ultimately food-formulation performance. These compositional differences are therefore considered, primarily, in relation to their impact on oil quality and application suitability.

3. Quality attributes of insect oils

The quality of an insect oil is determined by the condition of the raw material and the sequence of post-harvest operations, rather than by species or FA composition alone. Killing, drying, extraction, refining, and storage affect acylglycerol hydrolysis, oxidation, physical state, color, and aroma. Consequently, the substantial variation in quality parameters reported across studies reflects not only biological differences among insect species but also differences in sample preparation and processing history. The values summarized in Table S1 illustrate this combined influence and should be interpreted in relation to the condition and processing history of the analyzed oils.

3.1. Hydrolytic quality

Acid value (AV) and free fatty acid (FFA) content are commonly used to assess acylglycerol hydrolysis (Gharibzahedi & Altintas, 2023). Table S1 shows relatively low AVs for YMO (1.98-2.60 mg KOH/g), SWPO (1.32-1.86 mg KOH/g), and Gryllus bimaculatus (1.10 mg KOH/g) (Hu et al., 2017; Murugu et al., 2024; Son et al., 2020). Higher values were reported for Cryptotympana atrata (19.93 mg KOH/g), Locusta migratoria manilensis (29.95 mg KOH/g), and Protaetia brevitarsis (97.52 mg KOH/g) (Jiang et al., 2025). Such variation likely reflects differences in processing and storage as well as species. The exceptionally high AV of P. brevitarsis indicates substantial hydrolysis in the analyzed sample but should not be considered characteristic of the species.

Lipase control is particularly important because hydrolysis may continue after insect killing. In black soldier fly larvae (BSFL), blanching suppressed post-mortem lipolysis more effectively than freezing followed by storage, demonstrating that the initial treatment can determine the hydrolytic quality of the subsequently extracted oil (Caligiani et al., 2019). FFA accumulation may also modify flavor, promote oxidation, interfere with crystallization, and increase refining losses. AV should therefore be interpreted together with moisture, partial glycerides, storage history, and lipase-inactivation conditions rather than treated as an isolated indicator of oil quality.

3.2. Oxidative quality and storage stability

Oxidation is a principal quality constraint for unsaturated insect oils, but no single analytical index describes its full autooxidation progression. Peroxide value (PV) reflects primary hydroperoxides, whereas p-anisidine value (p-AnV) estimates aldehydic secondary products (Murugu et al., 2024). The total oxidation value (TOTOX), conjugated dienes, and volatile oxidation products provide complementary information (Jiang et al., 2025).

The data compiled in Table S1 illustrate why PV alone is insufficient. Some insect oils exhibit moderate PV but high p-AnV, indicating that hydroperoxides have already decomposed into secondary oxidation products. In contrast, a high PV combined with a comparatively low p-AnV indicates an earlier oxidation stage. For example, Protaetia brevitarsis oil showed a moderate PV of 3.32 meq O₂/kg, but substantially higher p-AnV and TOTOX values of 21.85 and 28.49, respectively, indicating considerable secondary oxidation. By contrast, Teleogryllus mitratus oil had a PV of 20.06 meq O₂/kg, indicating extensive accumulation of primary oxidation products, particularly hydroperoxides (Jiang et al., 2025; Son et al., 2020; Ugur et al., 2021). Such measurements describe the condition of the oil at a specific time; they do not establish shelf life.

Induction-time measurements provide complementary information on resistance to accelerated oxidation. Under identical Rancimat conditions (3 g oil, 98 °C, 20 L/h airflow), yellow mealworm oil showed an induction time of 36.0 ± 0.7 h, compared with 47.6 ± 0.8 h for commercial extra-virgin olive oil (Son et al., 2020). This indicates lower oxidative resistance of the tested mealworm oil under these conditions. However, induction time is strongly dependent on assay conditions and oil processing history; values obtained using different Rancimat or oil-stability-index protocols should therefore not be combined into species-level ranges or interpreted as direct estimates of ambient shelf life.

Fatty-acid composition determines the chemical potential for oxidation but not the observed stability of a finished oil. ALA-rich SWPO is inherently more oxidation-sensitive than lauric-rich BSFLO, while oleic–linoleic-rich mealworm and cricket oils generally occupy an intermediate position. However, tocopherols, carotenoids, phospholipids, FFAs, transition metals, residual water, oxygen exposure, and thermal history can alter this expected order of oxidative stability (Adu-Frimpong et al., 2018; Islam et al., 2023; Yap et al., 2023). Oxidative stability should therefore be evaluated using matched oils, combined primary and secondary indices, volatile analysis, and storage kinetics rather than inferred from unsaturation or tocopherol content alone (Bao et al., 2025).

For food-oriented evaluation, oxidation should be monitored under defined light, temperature, oxygen, and packaging conditions. At minimum, primary and secondary indices should be combined with volatile analysis or sensory assessment. This is particularly important because hexanal and other low-molecular-weight aldehydes may produce rancid or grassy notes before large changes become evident in bulk oxidation indices (Choi et al., 2025). Comparison with conventional oils is meaningful only when extraction, refining, storage, and test conditions are equivalent.

3.3. Thermal behavior and physical functionality

Triacylglycerol composition and thermal history determine whether an insect lipid behaves as a liquid oil or a semi-solid fat under processing and consumption conditions. A single melting point is insufficient for natural oils because multiple TAG populations crystallize and melt over overlapping temperature ranges. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) data should therefore be interpreted with its heating and cooling program and, where solid-fat functionality is required, complemented by solid fat content (SFC), rheology, and crystal-form measurements.

Aqueously extracted oils from yellow mealworm, lesser mealworm, house cricket, and Dubia cockroach showed melting peaks ranging from −30.7 °C to 22.7 °C and remained predominantly liquid at room temperature (Tzompa-Sosa et al., 2019). Their multipeak thermograms indicate the presence of TAG groups with different transition temperatures and provide a basis for fractionation. In YMO, dry fractionation at 2 or 4 °C separated liquid and solid fractions with different crystallization and melting profiles, despite only small changes in total FA composition (Tzompa-Sosa et al., 2017). The result demonstrates that redistribution of TAG molecular species can modify physical behavior without extensive alteration of the bulk FA profile.

BSFLO provides a contrasting example. Cold-pressed BSFLO contained LaLaLa (27.6%), LaLaM (16.0%), and LaMM (15.1%) as major TAG species, where La and M denote lauric and myristic acyl chains, respectively. These TAGs produced two crystallization peaks at 8.98 and 3.57 °C and an endothermic peak at 27.23 °C, yielding a thermal profile similar to those of palm-kernel and coconut fats (Matthäus et al., 2019). Processing nevertheless altered this behavior. Larvae killed by freezing and subsequently freeze-dried and defatted by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) showed a distinct melting profile, with a melting peak at 14.51 °C and an estimated SFC below 10% at 20 °C. By contrast, the other seven combinations of blanching or freezing, oven- or freeze-drying, and mechanical pressing or SFE retained more than 40% solid fat at the same temperature (Hurtado-Ribeira et al., 2023). The nearly fluid state of the freezing–freeze-drying–SFE sample was associated with its higher moisture and FFA contents and lower TAG content, rather than with a marked difference in its overall FA profile. Thus, species identity and FA composition do not provide a sufficient thermal specification.

The preferred physical state depends on use. Lower SFC may facilitate pumping, mixing, and liquid-oil use, whereas higher SFC may improve plasticity, aeration, and shape retention in bakery fats. Neither condition represents universally higher quality. The appropriate thermal specification depends on the intended product.

3.4. Appearance and sensory quality

Color and aroma determine whether an insect oil can be used directly or requires clarification, deodorization, blending, or encapsulation. Reported colors of insect oils range from pale yellow to orange-brown or dark brown because pigments, suspended material, oxidation, and heat-induced reactions vary with processing (Cruz et al., 2023; Jiang et al., 2025; Martínez-Pineda et al., 2024). Fig. S1 illustrates this visual diversity, but appearance should be interpreted in relation to extraction and refining history rather than treated as a fixed species trait.

Volatile composition is more directly related to sensory acceptance. Pyrazines and selected alcohols, like 2-methylbutanol, may contribute roasted, nutty, or fermented notes, whereas oxidation-derived aldehydes and ketones produce grassy, cardboard-like, or rancid odors (Choi et al., 2025; Lee et al., 2022; Martínez-Pineda et al., 2024). Thermal processing may enhance desirable aroma formation in both isolated oils and formulated foods, but excessive heating can also accelerate oxidation and promote the formation of trans FAs, sterol oxidation products, and other undesirable compounds (Liu et al., 2025; Nam et al., 2026; Tan et al., 2022). The sensory relevance of these volatiles therefore depends on both their origin and their compatibility with the intended food matrix.

Drying and deodorization can improve the sensory suitability of insect oils, but the outcome remains process- and product-dependent. Compared with oil obtained from mealworms subjected to hot-air drying at 60 °C for 48 h, freeze-dried YMO showed higher odor acceptability, likely because low-temperature dehydration limited heat-induced oxidation and the formation of undesirable volatiles (Cha et al., 2025). Deodorization further improved product compatibility, allowing YMO to replace vegetable oil in crackers and hummus without reducing overall liking (Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Gellynck, & Schouteten, 2021). However, intensive deodorization or refining may also remove tocopherols, carotenoids, phospholipids, and desirable aroma compounds. Sensory optimization should therefore balance off-odor removal against oxidative stability and the retention of functionally relevant minor constituents.

3.5. Application-oriented quality specifications

No single set of quality criteria can adequately characterize insect oils intended for different food applications. Oils for frying require oxidation measurements under repeated heating, including secondary oxidation products and odor-active volatiles in addition to PV. Semi-solid fats intended for spreads or bakery products require TAG profiling, DSC, SFC, rheological analysis, and polymorphic characterization because these properties govern plasticity, aeration, shape retention, and oral melting. For emulsion-based products, oxidative stability should be evaluated within a defined interfacial system because droplet size, emulsifier composition, and the aqueous phase can alter oxidation kinetics. Oils used as nutritional ingredients require control of FA oxidation and verification that essential FAs and relevant minor constituents are retained during processing and storage. Performance established under one set of conditions cannot therefore be transferred directly to another food system.

Quality evaluation should therefore be selected according to the intended food function, with quality attributes treated as application-specific performance criteria rather than as stand-alone analytical descriptors. These quality and physical attributes provide the practical link between molecular structure and food application, helping determine whether an insect oil can be used directly or requires modification to meet product requirements. Because performance demonstrated under one formulation or processing condition cannot be transferred directly to another food system, such decisions require standardized material characterization across studies and ingredient batches.

4. Digestion and biological effects of insect lipids

Evidence for digestion and biological effects of insect lipids is predominantly preclinical, encompassing in vitro digestion and cellular models, together with in vivo studies in Caenorhabditis elegans, fish, livestock, and rodents. The tested materials include intact and modified oils, enriched fractions, isolated TAGs, and saponified preparations (Table S2). Because the tested material and experimental model determine the scope of inference, findings are interpreted only within the specific preparation and model examined. Studies based on whole insects, insect-meal, or combined protein-lipid interventions are not used to support lipid-specific conclusions unless the contribution of the lipid fraction has been independently evaluated. Fig. 2 distinguish direct model-specific evidence from cross-study integration using solid and dashed lines, respectively.

Fig. 2.

Integrated model-specific biological responses reported for insect-derived lipid materials. (A) Cross-study synthesis of the principal lipid-metabolism-related responses. The lipid material and experimental model are specified beside each major pathway. (B) Cross-study synthesis of reported redox- and inflammation-related responses. The lipid material and experimental model are specified beside each major pathway. (Solid arrows indicate responses directly measured within the indicated model, whereas dashed arrows indicate cross-study integration or proposed connections. The scheme should not be interpreted as a signaling pathway shared by all insect oils. Abbreviations: TAG, triacylglycerol; TG, triglyceride; AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; ACC, acetyl-CoA carboxylase; DAG, diacylglycerol; SREBP-1, sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1; FAS, fatty acid synthase; ROS, reactive oxygen species; MDA, malondialdehyde; SOD, superoxide dismutase; CAT, catalase; GSH-Px, glutathione peroxidase; NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa B).

4.1. Lipid digestion and utilization

Digestion provides a mechanistic link between lipid structure and biological response because TAG composition, positional distribution, physical state, and oil–water interface properties influence pancreatic lipase accessibility and the formation of absorbable lipid products. Direct comparisons with conventional edible oils remain limited, however, and current evidence is concentrated on SWPO (Table S2). Importantly, lipolysis, digestibility, bioaccessibility, epithelial uptake, and systemic availability represent distinct stages of lipid utilization and should be interpreted according to the endpoint actually measured.

In an in vitro pH-stat model, SWPO showed a maximum apparent FFA release of 84.34 ± 1.37%, compared with 49.78 ± 0.52% for ALA-rich linseed oil (Yan et al., 2021). FFA release was estimated from alkali consumption and normalized against a theoretical hydrolysis capacity; this percentage represents a method-defined endpoint rather than the direct proportion of all TAG ester bonds hydrolyzed. This estimate may also be influenced by assumptions regarding mean TAG molecular weight, acyl migration, secondary hydrolysis, enzyme preparation, and emulsion properties. Accordingly, the higher endpoint of SWPO indicates greater apparent lipolysis under the specified conditions but does not establish superior digestibility, bioaccessibility, absorption, or systemic bioavailability.

TAG restructuring provides more direct evidence that molecular architecture affects lipolysis. Enzymatic modification altered the outer-position FA distribution and TAG composition of SWPO and increased FFA release by 22.07% during in vitro digestion (Wang et al., 2021). Isolated trilinolenin from SWPO likewise showed a higher hydrolysis-rate constant than unfractionated oil (0.4101 versus 0.2494 s^-1) and slightly greater apparent uptake in Caco-2 cells (Yan, Xun, et al., 2023). These endpoints reflect different stages of lipid utilization: the hydrolysis-rate constant characterizes lipolysis kinetics, whereas Caco-2 uptake provides an in vitro estimate of epithelial transport rather than direct evidence of intestinal absorption or systemic bioavailability. These findings support a role for TAG identity and positional distribution, although isolated TAGs and structured oils do not reproduce the competitive hydrolysis and matrix interactions of intact food oils.

Interfacial structure provides an additional level of control. Coating lecithin-stabilized SWPO droplets with whey protein isolate improved emulsion stability and increased FFA release during in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion (Yooying et al., 2023), indicating enhanced lipolysis under the tested formulation conditions. Meaningful comparisons among insect and conventional oils therefore require matched droplet size, emulsifier composition, oil loading, and digestion conditions.

Evidence beyond lipolysis remains comparatively limited. Chen et al. (2026) reported lipolysis degrees of 81.7% for native SWPO and 84.9% for its medium- and long-chain TAG derivative after 120 min of simulated intestinal digestion, based on HPLC analysis of lipid-class composition. In separate experiments in Kunming mice, the proportion of ALA in serum fatty acids at 6 h after gavage was higher with SWPO than with the tested plant oils and highest with SWPO-MLCT. These findings link oil modification with changes in vitro lipolysis and the circulating ALA profile. However, serum fatty acid proportions do not directly quantify absorption or bioavailability, and the unequal ALA doses administered with SWPO and SWPO-MLCT further limit that comparison. Future studies should combine standardized digestion assays with measurements of micellar incorporation, intestinal transport, and dose-normalized systemic exposure to clarify how TAG structure and formulation influence successive stages of lipid utilization.

4.2. Current evidence for biological effects

Animal studies have reported changes in lipid metabolism after dietary inclusion of insect oils, although responses depend on the oil, comparator, and experimental model. In obese Zucker rats, Hermetia illucens larvae fat (HF) reduced hepatic triglycerides and Oil Red O-positive lipid accumulation relative to palm oil (Fig. S2A) (Marschall et al., 2024). In juvenile mirror carp, diets containing BSFLO or a blend of BSFLO, SWPO, and YMO reduced intraperitoneal adipocyte size compared with diets containing SWPO or YMO alone (Fig. S2B) (Xu et al., 2020). Other fish studies linked BSFLO substitution for soybean or fish oil with lower lipid deposition and changes in the expression of fatty acid synthase (FAS), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPAR-α), and carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1A (CPT1A) (Gou et al., 2023). These expression patterns suggest altered lipid synthesis and oxidation but do not establish changes in metabolic flux. The effects of these oils also cannot be assigned to individual FAs without separating their contributions from those of other constituents.

Cell-based studies provide more focused evidence for specific lipid preparations. A PUFA-rich SWPO fraction reduced intracellular cholesterol and altered cholesterol-regulatory endpoints in steatotic L02 hepatocytes relative to ALA alone (Luo et al., 2020). This finding concerns the enriched fraction and does not establish an equivalent effect of intact SWPO. Muga pupae oil reduced lipid accumulation, increased AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) phosphorylation, and decreased nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) phosphorylation in palmitate-treated CC1 hepatocytes, linking lipid and inflammatory responses within the same cellular model (Figs. S2C and S3B) (Dhakal et al., 2025). In the in vivo whole-organism model C. elegans, SWPO reduced triglyceride accumulation and Oil Red O staining, with evidence implicating insulin-like signaling and nhr-80 (Fig. S2D) (Zhao et al., 2022). Together, these studies identify responses to distinct preparations without demonstrating a shared mechanism across insect oils.

Antioxidant and inflammatory findings likewise vary with the experimental system. In an animal model of acidified ethanol-induced gastric injury, SWPO reduced mucosal damage, increased antioxidant-enzyme activities, and lowered inflammatory cytokine levels and NF-κB-related endpoints (Fig. S3A) (Long et al., 2018). Studies in high-cholesterol-fed rats and C. elegans also reported changes in antioxidant-enzyme activities or oxidative-stress markers after SWPO exposure (Zhao et al., 2022; Zou et al., 2017). These biological responses should be distinguished from antioxidant capacity measured in cell-free chemical assays. A chemically different preparation, saponified BSFLO (MBSFL), suppressed Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2)-stimulated cytokine production, reduced NF-κB p65 nuclear translocation, and altered PPAR-related responses in macrophages (Fig. S3C) (Dhakal et al., 2025). Its activity under cellular exposure conditions cannot be directly extrapolated to orally consumed intact BSFLO. A fatty-acid preparation derived from Eupolyphaga sinensis exuviae inhibited α-glucosidase activity and slowed starch hydrolysis in vitro (Huang, Liu, et al., 2025). These findings are specific to the tested preparation and assay conditions and do not establish effects on postprandial glycemia.

Evidence for gut microbiota modulation comes from in vivo feeding studies. HF altered cecal microbial diversity and composition alongside lower hepatic triglycerides in obese Zucker rats (Marschall et al., 2024). BSFLO also altered selected bacterial genera in pigeons, whereas HF and mealworm fats increased cecal volatile FAs and changed microbial composition in rabbits (Dabbou et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2022). These observations suggest diet- and host-dependent microbial responses, but their contribution to the metabolic effects remains unresolved. Establishing that contribution requires functional measurements and interventions that directly test microbial causality.

Fig. 2 summarizes the lipid-metabolism (A) and antioxidant- and inflammation-related (B) evidence, with solid lines indicating directly measured responses and dashed lines indicating proposed or cross-study links. The available cellular and in vivo studies support biological responses to the specific oils, enriched fractions, or chemically modified preparations tested. Findings from these materials cannot be transferred directly to intact edible insect oils as a category. Table S2 details the tested materials, models, and permitted inferences. Human studies using characterized food-grade oils, appropriate comparator fats, and defined food matrices are needed to establish nutritional relevance.

5. Structure-guided food applications and formulation strategies of insect lipids

The suitability of insect lipids for food applications depends on matching their composition and physical properties to product requirements. TAG architecture, polar lipids, antioxidants, pigments, and volatile compounds further affect crystallization, interfacial behavior, oxidative stability, and flavor (Cruz et al., 2025; Yap et al., 2023). Application strategy should reflect the native functionality of the oil, with direct incorporation used where appropriate and targeted modification applied when functional limitations remain (Fig. 3). The level of application evidence, however, differs markedly among these pathways: direct incorporation has the strongest product-level evidence, oleogelation has reached food prototypes, and most emulsification, fractionation, and enzymatic restructuring studies remain at the formulation or in vitro stage (Cruz et al., 2025; Martínez-Pineda et al., 2024). Table 3 summarizes these studies using a qualitative three-level evidence scale: E1, formulation- or in vitro-level evidence; E2, finished-food prototype evidence based on instrumental, storage, or trained/semi-trained sensory evaluation without direct consumer testing; and E3, finished-food evidence that includes direct consumer evaluation. These levels indicate relative evidence maturity rather than commercial readiness, and E3 does not imply validated shelf life, pilot-scale production, or batch reproducibility.

Fig. 3.

Structure-guided application and valorization pathways for edible insect lipids. (A) Direct incorporation and fat replacement in foods. (B) Emulsions and lipid delivery systems. (C) Physical structuring through oleogelation and fractionation. (D) Enzymatic TAG restructuring. (E) Complementary applications in cosmetics, biomedicine, animal feed, and biodiesel production.

Table 3.

Food applications and formulation strategies reported of representative insect lipids.

Application route	Insect lipid source	Food system or intended use	Processing/formulation and application level	Main findings	Evidence status and main limitation	Application evidence level	Reference
Direct incorporation	Hermetia illucens	Cakes, cookies, and waffles; butter replacement	Crude fat replaced 0%, 25%, or 50% of butter	A 25% replacement-maintained liking across the three products; waffles retained consumer acceptance at 50%. Higher replacement increased rancid aroma and off-flavor perception.	Finished-food and consumer evidence (n = 344); storage stability and refined-fat performance were not examined.	E3—Food-level validation	(Delicato et al., 2020)
	Protaetia brevitarsis and Gryllus bimaculatus	Bone broth; lipid enrichment and meat-like flavor modification	Roasting pretreatment followed by ultrasound-assisted oil extraction and incorporation into broth	Insect oils increased oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acids and modified meat-like volatile and sensory profiles	Finished-food prototype; storage stability, broader consumer testing, and multi-batch reproducibility were not established	E2—Food-level validation	(Nam et al., 2026)
	Ruspolia differens and Schistocerca gregaria	Cookies; replacement of conventional recipe oil	Cookies contained 300 mL insect oil per 1300 g flour	R. differens-oil cookies reached 95% overall acceptance, but aroma and taste limited acceptance of insect-oil cookies.	Finished-food evidence with 103 semi-trained assessors; no refined-oil control or storage study.	E2—Food-level validation	(Cheseto et al., 2020)
	Tenebrio molitor	Crackers and hummus; vegetable-oil replacement	Crude or deodorized oil replaced 50% or 100% of the vegetable oil	Deodorized oil maintained overall liking and visual acceptance. It softened crackers and produced a more spreadable, less sticky hummus, whereas crude oil caused stronger flavor differences.	Finished-food and consumer evidence (n = 253); oxidative stability during storage was not reported.	E3—Food-level validation	(Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Gellynck, & Schouteten, 2021)
	T. molitor	Potato chips; deep-frying medium	Crude or deodorized oil was used alone or in 50:50 blends with vegetable oil	Chips fried in the 50:50 vegetable/deodorized-mealworm-oil blend were most frequently preferred (33%) and had the lowest aftertaste and off-flavor scores. Chip color was not materially altered.	Finished-food and consumer evidence (n = 90); repeated-use frying stability requires further study.	E3—Food-level validation	(Tzompa-Sosa et al., 2022)
	T. molitor	Fried doughnuts; frying medium	Crude, deodorized, and vegetable-oil blends were compared	Doughnuts fried in 100% deodorized mealworm oil or its vegetable-oil blends received the strongest liking; volatiles associated with crude oil remained detectable.	Finished-food evidence from central-location and home-use tests; long-term frying performance was not assessed.	E3—Food-level validation	(Tzompa-Sosa et al., 2023)
Emulsification and delivery	H. illucens	Nanoemulsion intended for aqueous delivery	High-energy homogenization and ultrasonication; droplet size varied with surfactant concentration and oil loading	BSF oil formed nanoscale dispersions with physical stability under the tested formulation conditions.	Colloidal model only; food-grade formulation, oxidation, digestion, and sensory performance were not established.	E1—Formulation/in vitro	(Chou et al., 2020)
	H. illucens	O/W microemulsion intended for aqueous systems	Low-energy emulsification using HCO-40 as the selected surfactant	Minimum droplet sizes of 20–25 nm were obtained, with stability during storage, centrifugation, and thermal testing.	Colloidal model only; the surfactant system and oil load require validation in finished foods.	E1—Formulation/in vitro	(Huang, Song, et al., 2024)
	Bombyx mori	O/W microemulsion for aqueous foods	4% composite oil phase, 16% surfactant phase, and 80% water	Droplet sizes were 16.25–44 nm, and total antioxidant capacity was 7.7-fold higher than that of bulk oil. The formulation also masked the peculiar odor.	Delivery-system evidence; antioxidant assays do not demonstrate shelf life or biological efficacy in a finished food.	E1—Formulation/in vitro	(Yan et al., 2022)
	B. mori	Two-layer emulsion for controlled digestion	Lecithin-stabilized droplets were coated with whey protein isolate	The protein-coated interface increased free-fatty-acid release during simulated intestinal digestion.	In vitro digestion model; human bioavailability and sensory performance were not evaluated.	E1—Formulation/in vitro	(Yooying et al., 2023)
	B. mori	Mayonnaise	Mayonnaise contained 10 mL bulk oil or 10 g microencapsulated-oil powder; refrigerated storage was monitored for 21 d	Peroxide value, viscosity, color, and composition were monitored against sunflower-oil mayonnaise, demonstrating formulation feasibility.	Finished-food prototype; short storage period and no sensory or consumer evaluation.	E2—Food prototype	(Patil et al., 2023)
Oleogelation	T. molitor	Cookies; shortening replacement	Mealworm oil (90 g) was structured with 10 g candelilla, carnauba, or beeswax	Carnauba-wax oleogel produced cookie spread and snapping force close to those of the shortening control, whereas gelator type altered hardness and melting behavior.	Finished-food prototype with instrumental measurements; sensory acceptance and storage stability were not reported.	E2—Food prototype	(Kim & Oh, 2022)
	T. molitor	Candidate solid-fat ingredient	Beeswax or beeswax:glycerol monostearate (3:1) was used at 5% or 10%	Glycerol monostearate increased oil binding, viscoelasticity, melting temperature, and network strength; the 10% mixed-gelator system was strongest.	Oleogel model only; no finished-food, sensory, or shelf-life validation.	E1—Formulation/in vitro	(Jeong & Oh, 2024)
Enzymatic restructuring	B. mori	Structured lipid proposed for nutritional formulations	Solvent-free acidolysis with 7% Lipozyme RM IM, a TAG:oleic-acid molar ratio of 1:5, and 60 °C	Palmitic plus stearic acids at the sn-1,3 positions decreased from 41.04% to 20.11%, while unsaturated fatty acids increased from 61.12% to 77.88%.	Ingredient-design evidence; no finished-food performance, sensory evaluation, or human study.	E1—Formulation/in vitro	(X.-Y. Zhao et al., 2015)
	B. mori	Modified lipid intended as a nutritional ingredient	Microfluidic reactor with hydrogel-immobilized lipase	sn-1,3 palmitic acid decreased by 49.61%; OOO and OPO increased by 49.48% and 107.67%, respectively; in vitro fatty-acid release increased by 22.07%.	Reactor and in vitro digestion evidence; product-scale processing and finished-food validation remain absent.	E1—Formulation/in vitro	(Wang et al., 2021)
TAG fractionation and digestion	B. mori	ALA-rich TAG fractions intended for lipid delivery	Preparative separation of LnLnLn and LnLnL followed by pH-stat digestion and Caco-2 assays	LnLnLn and LnLnL showed faster hydrolysis or absorption than unfractionated silkworm pupal oil under the tested models.	Mechanistic digestion evidence; isolated TAG behavior cannot be extrapolated directly to a formulated food or human bioavailability.	E1—Formulation/in vitro	(Yan et al., 2023)

Abbreviations: ALA, α-linolenic acid; BSF, black soldier fly; HCO-40, polyoxyethylene hydrogenated castor oil 40; LnLnL, triacylglycerol containing two α-linolenic-acid residues and one linoleic-acid residue; LnLnLn, trilinolenin; OOO, triolein; OPO, 1,3-dioleoyl-2-palmitoylglycerol; O/W, oil-in-water; TAG, triacylglycerol. Evidence levels: E1, ingredient, formulation, or model-system feasibility without finished-food evaluation; E2, finished-food prototype assessed primarily by instrumental measurements or trained/semi-trained sensory panels; E3, finished-food evidence including at least one broader validation element, such as consumer testing, storage evaluation, food-relevant processing validation, pilot-scale production, or between-batch reproducibility. E3 represents the highest relative evidence level in the available literature and does not imply commercial readiness.

5.1. Direct incorporation into foods

Direct substitution has been most successful when the physical state of the insect lipid matches the function of the conventional fat. BSFLO is relatively rich in saturated FAs, particularly lauric acid, and can therefore contribute more structure than highly unsaturated mealworm or silkworm oils (Delicato et al., 2020; Yap et al., 2023). BSFLO has been tested as a butter substitute in cakes, cookies, and waffles. In a consumer study involving 344 participants, replacing 25% of butter with BSFLO did not alter overall liking of cakes, cookies, or waffles; replacement reached 50% in waffles without reducing acceptance (Delicato et al., 2020). Oils from the African bush cricket, Ruspolia differens, and desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria, have also replaced conventional oil in cookies. Cookies containing R. differens-oil reached 95% acceptance, although aroma and taste remained limiting attributes (Cheseto et al., 2020).

YMO has replaced liquid vegetable oil in crackers and hummus. In a 253-consumer study, deodorized mealworm oil replaced 50% or 100% of the vegetable oil without reducing overall liking or visual acceptance (Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Gellynck, & Schouteten, 2021). It softened crackers and produced a more spreadable, less sticky hummus, whereas crude oil caused stronger flavor differences (Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Gellynck, & Schouteten, 2021).

More recently, roasted insect oils obtained by ultrasound-assisted extraction were incorporated into bone broth as a savory liquid-food application. Their addition increased oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acids, producing a fatty acid profile closer to that of beef, while also modifying meat-like volatile profiles and sensory characteristics within the broth matrix (Nam et al., 2026). This study extends direct incorporation beyond bakery and fried products and demonstrates that flavor compatibility can be achieved through coordinated selection of oil source, pretreatment, and food matrix. However, storage stability, broader consumer acceptance, and batch-to-batch reproducibility remain to be established.

YMO has also been evaluated as a deep-frying medium. Among 90 consumers, potato chips fried in a 50:50 blend of vegetable and deodorized mealworm oils were preferred most frequently (33%) and had the lowest aftertaste and off-flavor scores (Tzompa-Sosa et al., 2022). The undeodorized YMO blend was least preferred, while deodorized oil produced chips comparable to those fried in vegetable oil and did not materially alter color (Tzompa-Sosa et al., 2022). Doughnuts fried in 100% deodorized YMO or its vegetable-oil blends likewise received the highest liking scores, whereas volatiles associated with undeodorized YMO remained detectable (Tzompa-Sosa et al., 2023). These applications identify insect oil as a butter substitute, liquid-oil replacement, or frying medium, with deodorization controlling sensory acceptance (Delicato et al., 2020; Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Gellynck and Schouteten, 2022, Tzompa-Sosa, Provijn, Gellynck and Schouteten, 2023; Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Gellynck, & Schouteten, 2021).

Consumer acceptance is therefore a formulation constraint, not a consequence of technical feasibility alone. Across bakery products, hummus, potato chips, and doughnuts, acceptance was highest when insect oil was deodorized, blended with vegetable oil, or incorporated at a level that limited off-flavor (Delicato et al., 2020; Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Gellynck and Schouteten, 2022, Tzompa-Sosa, Provijn, Gellynck and Schouteten, 2023; Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Gellynck, & Schouteten, 2021). However, these strategies were evaluated in a limited range of products and consumer populations and should not be assumed to be equally effective across different cultures or markets. Existing studies mainly measured sensory liking after product tasting, while geographical and cultural differences, purchase intention, repeated consumption, price tolerance, and the effect of disclosing the insect origin remain insufficiently examined.

5.2. Emulsions and lipid delivery systems

Emulsification can disperse insect oils in aqueous foods and create carriers for their tocopherols, carotenoids, sterols, and UFAs. Its value lies in controlling droplet size, physical stability, oxidation, and lipid digestion (Chou et al., 2020; Huang, Mintah, et al., 2024). Insect phospholipids may contribute to interfacial adsorption, but current evidence does not support their use as replacements for commercial lecithin (Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Provijn, et al., 2021; Yap et al., 2023).

BSFLO has been dispersed into nanoemulsions and microemulsions for aqueous delivery. High-energy homogenization and ultrasonication produced stable nanoscale droplets whose size depended on surfactant concentration and oil loading (Chou et al., 2020). A low-energy formulation produced 20–25 nm droplets and remained stable during storage, centrifugation, and heating for 60 days (S. Huang et al., 2024). Both studies demonstrate colloidal feasibility of BSFLO, but their surfactant systems and oil loads require adaptation before use in foods (Chou et al., 2020; Huang et al., 2024).

SWPO emulsions have been evaluated for both stability and digestion. A microemulsion containing 4% composite oil phase (SWPO: isoamyl acetate, 1:2), 16% surfactant phase, and 80% water produced 16.25–44 nm droplets and increased measured total antioxidant capacity 7.7-fold relative to bulk oil (Yan et al., 2022). In a two-layer emulsion, whey protein isolate deposited around lecithin-stabilized droplets and increased free-fatty-acid release from SWPO during simulated intestinal digestion (Yooying et al., 2023). The latter result links interfacial design with in vitro lipolysis, although enhanced FFA release does not establish greater intestinal absorption or systemic bioavailability (Yooying et al., 2023). Food-grade polysaccharide-based particles can stabilize Pickering emulsions in food systems (Ren et al., 2024, Ren et al., 2025). Whether this strategy can be effectively transferred to insect-oil delivery systems remains to be established.

Information in finished-food applications remains limited. Patil et al. (2023) incorporated 10 mL of SWPO or 10 g microencapsulated oil powder into mayonnaise and monitored peroxide value, viscosity, color, and composition during 21 days of refrigerated storage. Both formulations retained the emulsion format, but the short storage period and absence of consumer testing limit conclusions about commercial performance. Current evidence therefore supports emulsions mainly as experimental carriers for aqueous dispersion, oxidation protection, odor reduction, and controlled lipid release (Patil et al., 2023; Yan et al., 2022; Yooying et al., 2023).

5.3. Physical structuring by oleogelation and fractionation

Oleogelation provides a route for converting liquid insect oil into a semi-solid fat while retaining its UFA profile. YMO structured with candelilla, carnauba, or beeswax formed networks with different hardness, viscoelasticity, and melting behavior. Carnauba-wax oleogel produced cookie spread and texture closest to those of the shortening control, whereas candelilla- and beeswax-based cookies were softer (Kim & Oh, 2022). The study demonstrates that gelator selection should be based on product texture and melting requirements rather than maximum gel strength.

Mixed gelators provide additional control over network structure. Combining beeswax with glycerol monostearate increased oil binding, viscoelasticity, melting temperature, and SFC in YMO oleogels, with the strongest network obtained at the higher mixed-gelator concentration (Jeong & Oh, 2024). These measurements define ingredient functionality, but the study did not test the oleogels in a finished food. The concentration of wax or monoglyceride also remains important because excessive structuring may impair spreadability and oral melting.

Emulsion-templated structuring has recently extended YMO oleogels to high-oil food prototypes. An optimized formulation containing 70% YMO, 20% gelling phase, and 10% water achieved an oil-holding capacity of 99.58% and a hardness of 1.51 N. It showed an oxidation induction time of 41.42 min and an induction temperature of 182.97 °C under the specified accelerated test and was subsequently incorporated into cookies and chocolate spread (Pruvost et al., 2026). These values characterize the optimized formulation but do not predict ambient shelf life. Instrumental measurements in two food models support product feasibility, while sensory equivalence and storage performance against commercial shortenings remain to be established.

Dry fractionation offers a simpler means of modifying physical state. Crystallization at 2 or 4 °C separated YMO into liquid and higher-melting fractions with different thermal profiles and colors, despite limited changes in total FA composition (Tzompa-Sosa, Fogliano, Sosa and Fogliano, 2017, Tzompa-Sosa, Provijn, Gellynck and Schouteten, 2023). Fractionation therefore exploits differences among intact TAG species rather than changing the underlying acyl-chain pool. However, evidence is currently limited to laboratory fractionation, and the yield, reproducibility, oxidative stability, and food performance of each fraction require validation.

5.4. Enzymatic restructuring and TAG-dependent lipid utilization

Enzymatic restructuring modifies the fatty-acid position and intact TAG composition of insect oils. Solvent-free acidolysis of SWPO reduced palmitic and stearic acids at the sn-1 and sn-3 positions from 41.04% to 20.11% and increased UFAs from 61.12% to 77.88% through incorporation of oleic acid (X.-Y. Zhao et al., 2015). A microfluidic reactor containing immobilized lipase reduced sn-1,3 palmitic acid by 49.61% within the optimized reaction system and increased triolein- and 1,3-dioleoyl-2-palmitoylglycerol-type TAGs by 49.48% and 107.67%, respectively (Wang et al., 2021). The modified oil released 22.07% more FAs during in vitro digestion, linking positional restructuring with lipolytic behavior.

Isolated TAG fractions provide complementary mechanistic evidence. Trilinolenin and related α-linolenic-acid-rich TAGs separated from SWPO showed different hydrolysis kinetics and Caco-2 transport behavior from the unfractionated oil under the tested models (Yan, Laurent, et al., 2023). These findings support the premise that TAG identity and FA position influence lipolysis and epithelial transport, but isolated TAGs do not reproduce the interfacial environment or compositional complexity of a finished food. Ultrasound-assisted immobilized lipases provide another route to positional lipid redesign, although their transfer to insect oils requires validation of catalyst selectivity, product purity, and scale-up performance (Ni et al., 2025; Xia et al., 2025). Enzyme origin, substrate accessibility, and activity regulation should therefore be reported when lipase-based redesign is compared across oils (Zan et al., 2025).

Enzymatic redesign currently remains an ingredient-development strategy rather than a demonstrated food application. Translation requires control of acyl migration, residual FFAs, enzyme removal, product purity, oxidative stability, and batch reproducibility. The modified lipid must then be evaluated in a food matrix because changes that improve in vitro lipolysis may also alter crystallization, flavor release, and storage stability.

5.5. Complementary valorization routes

Beyond human food applications, insect lipids have also been investigated in topical and biomedical formulations, animal feed, and biodiesel production. BSFL-derived lipids have been explored in nanoemulsions and lipid-based delivery systems (Almeida et al., 2024; Jessica et al., 2025), while SWPO has been examined for moisturization in excised pig skin (Susirirut et al., 2023); however, clinical efficacy and sensitization risk remain insufficiently characterized. In animal feeding, BSFLO has partially or completely replaced conventional dietary oils in poultry, while BSFL, cricket, and SWPO have also been evaluated in rumen-fermentation models (Chen et al., 2022; Hervás et al., 2022; Heuel et al., 2021). Lower-grade insect lipid fractions have additionally been converted into biodiesel, although economic and environmental feasibility remains dependent on feedstock quality, processing requirements, energy demand, and life-cycle performance (Guo et al., 2024; Jung et al., 2022; Siow et al., 2024). These routes may support whole-biomass valorization but do not provide direct evidence of food functionality or application readiness.

Overall, among food applications, direct incorporation currently provides the strongest product-level evidence, whereas oleogelation, emulsification, and enzymatic restructuring are supported mainly by prototypes, formulation studies, or in vitro models. Further work should prioritize matched conventional-fat controls, realistic processing and storage conditions, sensory evaluation, and pilot-scale reproducibility. Such evidence is required to determine whether structure-guided modification produces an ingredient that performs consistently in the intended product rather than only under analytical or model conditions.

6. Barriers to food application and industrial translation of insect oils

Insect oils have been incorporated into several food prototypes, but successful formulation does not establish commercial readiness. Translation requires reproducible composition, product-compatible flavor, control of residual allergenic proteins, a defined regulatory identity, and performance under pilot-scale processing and storage. Table 4 links the evidence for these barriers with the corresponding development requirements.

Table 4.

Application barriers, supporting evidence, and evaluation requirements for insect oils

Application barrier	Representative examples	Implication for application	Required evaluation or control	References
Batch variability	BSFLO contains approximately 28–62% lauric acid; mealworm lipid content varied from about 15% to 30% with diet.	Composition, functionality, and oil yield vary among batches.	Define use-specific ranges; report species, life stage, substrate, extraction, and refining.	Almeida et al. (2022); Bordiean et al. (2022); Srisuksai et al. (2024)
Limited structural data	Many studies report fatty acids without intact TAGs, solid-fat content, or crystal form.	Melting, plasticity, and food texture cannot be predicted reliably.	Measure TAGs, DSC transitions, solid-fat content, crystals, and rheology.	Cruz et al. (2025); Yap et al. (2023)
Flavor and refining	BSFL fat was accepted at 25% butter replacement; deodorized YMO replaced 50–100% of vegetable oil in selected foods.	Acceptable inclusion depends on matrix and refining.	Optimize inclusion, deodorization, and blending; monitor volatiles, minor lipids, and sensory stability.	Delicato et al. (2020); Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Gellynck, and Schouteten (2021); Tzompa-Sosa et al. (2022); Tzompa-Sosa, Provijn, Gellynck and Schouteten (2023)
Informed consumer acceptance	Liking is commonly measured, but purchase, price, repeat use, and origin disclosure are rarely tested.	Blind liking may not predict purchasing behavior.	Compare blind and informed tests and measure willingness to purchase.	Delicato et al. (2020); Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Gellynck, and Schouteten (2021); Tzompa-Sosa et al. (2022)
Residual allergens	Minimally refined oils cannot be assumed to be protein-free.	Residual proteins affect safety and labeling.	Measure residual protein and immunoglobulin E binding in the final product.	EFSA (2015); EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) (2021)
Regulatory identity	Authorization of whole or defatted insects does not automatically cover extracted oils.	Purified oils require product-specific approval.	Provide oil specifications, process, stability, exposure, allergen, and labeling data.	EFSA (2026); European Commission (2017),(2025)
Scale-up and validation	Evidence remains concentrated in a few foods and model emulsion or oleogel systems.	Laboratory performance does not establish commercial reproducibility.	Conduct pilot trials, batch comparisons, shelf-life tests, and conventional-fat benchmarking.	Cruz et al. (2025); Kim and Oh (2022)
Chemical contaminants and refining by-products	Substrate-derived contaminants and MOSH/MOAH may enter the oil, while intensive deodorization may remove minor lipids or generate thermal contaminants.	Food-grade safety depends on contaminant partitioning and refining severity.	Test the substrate, crude and refined oils for relevant contaminants, residual solvents, trans fatty acids, sterol oxidation products, 3-MCPD esters, and glycidyl esters; optimize deodorization conditions.	EFSA (2015); EFSA CONTAM Panel (2016, 2023)

Note: BSFL, black soldier fly larvae; TAG, triacylglycerol; DSC, differential scanning calorimetry; YMO, yellow mealworms oil.

6.1. Standardizing composition and functionality

Current reporting practices do not yet support reliable comparison or application-based selection of insect oils. Many studies provide extraction yield and FA composition but omit intact TAG profiles, lipid classes, refining history, crystal form, volatile compounds, residual non-lipid components, or measurements of functional performance (Cruz et al., 2025; Yap et al., 2023). Consequently, differences arising from biological variability cannot always be distinguished from those introduced by processing or analytical conditions.

Future standardization should combine a core set of material descriptors with application-specific functional measurements. Core information should include insect species, life stage, rearing substrate, pretreatment, extraction method, refining status, storage conditions, fatty-acid profile, lipid classes, and basic hydrolytic and oxidative indices. Additional measurements should then be selected according to intended use, including thermal and crystallization behavior for semi-solid fats, interfacial properties for emulsions, oxidative stability during heating or storage, sensory performance, or nutrient retention.

A further priority is the development of harmonized analytical protocols and application-relevant acceptance ranges rather than treating values obtained from individual samples as fixed species characteristics. Such standardization would improve cross-study comparability and support reproducible specifications for food-grade insect oils.

6.2. Flavor control and consumer acceptance

Crude insect oils often retain volatile compounds derived from the insect biomass, substrate, heating, and lipid degradation. Their sensory effects depend on the food matrix and inclusion level. BSFL fat replaced 25% of butter in cakes, cookies, and waffles without reducing consumer liking, whereas higher replacement levels increased rancid aroma and off-flavor perception; waffles were the only product that maintained acceptance at 50% replacement (Delicato et al., 2020). This result shows that a replacement level acceptable in one food cannot be transferred directly to another.

Studies of YMO demonstrate the value of deodorization and blending. Deodorized oil replaced 50% or 100% of vegetable oil in crackers and hummus without reducing overall liking, while crude oil produced stronger flavor differences (Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Gellynck, & Schouteten, 2021). Among potato chips, a 50:50 blend of vegetable oil and deodorized mealworm oil was most frequently preferred and received lower aftertaste and off-flavor scores than treatments containing crude oil (Tzompa-Sosa et al., 2022). Deodorized mealworm oil and its blends also performed better than crude oil in fried dough products (Tzompa-Sosa et al., 2023). Deodorization, blending, and matrix selection are therefore useful formulation options, although their effectiveness depends on the oil, food matrix, and target consumer population. Deodorization can improve sensory acceptance by removing volatile off-odor compounds, but its time–temperature–vacuum conditions must be balabced against the loss of endogenous antioxidants and the possible formation of trans fatty acids, sterol oxidation products, 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) esters, and glycidyl esters.

Consumer studies mainly assess sensory liking, while purchase intention, willingness to pay, and responses to insect-origin labeling remain poorly understood. Blind liking should therefore be distinguished from informed acceptance.

6.3. Product-specific safety, contaminant control, and regulatory status

Residual allergenic proteins remain a specific concern for minimally refined insect oils. Tropomyosin, arginine kinase, and other insect proteins can cross-react with crustacean and house-dust-mite allergens, while feed-derived allergens may also persist in insect-derived foods (EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) et al., 2021; Lv et al., 2026). Cold-pressed or partially refined oils should therefore not be presumed protein-free. Residual protein content, immunoglobulin E binding, and the effects of individual refining steps should be evaluated in the final oil.

Chemical safety should be evaluated across the substrate–insect–oil processing chain. Heavy metals, pesticide residues, mycotoxins, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls, and other contaminants may enter insect biomass from rearing substrates, while their partitioning into the extracted oil depends on compound properties and processing conditions (EFSA, 2015). Lipophilic contaminants may preferentially partition into lipid-rich fractions, whereas the fate of metals during oil separation remains poorly characterized. Measurements in the substrate or whole insect therefore cannot substitute for analysis of the final oil. Mineral oil hydrocarbons may also originate from raw materials, lubricants, processing aids, or food-contact materials (EFSA CONTAM Panel, Schrenk et al., 2023), while solvent-extracted oils require control of residual extraction solvents. Mass-balance studies covering the substrate, insect biomass, oil, and defatted fraction would help clarify contaminant transfer and removal.

Refining provides both quality benefits and potential chemical risks. Degumming, neutralization, bleaching, and deodorization can improve hydrolytic quality, color, odor, and contaminant control, but severe thermal treatment may also remove tocopherols and other minor constituents and promote fatty-acid isomerization, sterol oxidation, and formation of heat-induced contaminants. In conventional edible oils, 3-MCPD esters and glycidyl esters can form during high-temperature refining and deodorization (EFSA CONTAM Panel, 2016). Direct evidence in insect oils remains limited; these compounds should therefore be treated as potential process-validation targets rather than established characteristics. Refining conditions should balance sensory improvement with oxidative stability, minor-lipid retention, and control of trans fatty acids, sterol oxidation products, and relevant process contaminants.

Regulatory status is product- and jurisdiction-specific and should not be inferred solely from the status of the source insect. In the European Union, authorization of whole, powdered, or partially defatted insects does not automatically cover separately extracted oils. For example, dried defatted powder and refined fat from BSFL have been treated as separate novel-food applications, illustrating the product-specific nature of authorization (EFSA, 2026; European Commission, 2025). In the United States, the regulatory status of an insect-derived oil depends on its identity, specifications, intended use, and an appropriate basis under applicable food-additive or generally recognized as safe provisions (FDA, 2024). Similarly, in China, the Administrative Measures for the Safety Review of New Food Raw Materials distinguish animals from components isolated from animals; therefore, an extracted insect lipid without an established history of consumption may require separate safety assessment. Across jurisdictions, the regulatory status of separately extracted insect oils should therefore be established on the basis of their specific identity, manufacturing process, composition, safety specifications, and intended use rather than inferred from that of the source insect.

6.4. Process integration and product validation

Extraction should be assessed through the combined value of the oil and the remaining biomass rather than oil yield alone. Mechanical pressing, supercritical carbon dioxide extraction, alternative solvents, ultrasound-assisted extraction, and enzyme-assisted extraction differ in throughput, energy demand, solvent recovery, refining burden, and recovery of minor lipids (Cruz et al., 2025; Fornari et al., 2023; Srisuksai et al., 2024). The same operations can alter protein solubility, emulsifying properties, peptide distribution, and antioxidant activity in the defatted fraction (Mintah, He, Dabbour, Golly, et al., 2019; Pan et al., 2023; Xu et al., 2023, Xu et al., 2025). Process selection must therefore balance food-grade oil quality with the functionality and market value of the protein-rich co-product.

Quantitative evidence for industrial translation remains scarce and route-specific. A recent pilot-scale study processed up to 5.5 kg of Tenebrio molitor using supercritical CO₂ extraction and achieved 84% defatting, compared with more than 90% at bench scale. The process showed an environmental factor of 0.19, a process mass productivity of 84.21%, and an EcoScale score of 83.10. Life-cycle assessment indicated lower impacts than those of palm and soybean oil production in selected categories, including stratospheric ozone depletion, marine and freshwater eutrophication, and land use (Salgado-Ramos et al., 2026). However, this single-route assessment cannot support general comparisons among insect-oil technologies. Harmonized techno-economic and life-cycle studies incorporating energy use, CO₂ or solvent recovery, refining, co-product allocation, capital and operating costs, and batch variability therefore remain a major research need.

Beyond extraction, scale-up also requires validation under realistic manufacturing conditions. Finished-food and consumer studies are available for selected bakery products, crackers, hummus, potato chips, and fried dough (Delicato et al., 2020; Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Gellynck and Schouteten, 2022, Tzompa-Sosa, Provijn, Gellynck and Schouteten, 2023; Tzompa-Sosa, Dewettinck, Gellynck, & Schouteten, 2021). Although many emulsion, oleogel, and enzymatic restructuring studies remain at the formulation or in vitro stage, recent work has begun to extend lipid-structuring approaches toward more advanced oleogel systems and food-relevant applications (Kim & Oh, 2022; Ren et al., 2026). However, repeated frying, sensory shelf life, pilot-scale processing, and between-batch reproducibility remain poorly documented for insect-oil-based products. Future validation should compare insect oil with conventional fats under matched processing and storage conditions. Relevant endpoints include process yield, refining losses, product texture, oxidative and sensory stability, consumer response, and performance across multiple ingredient batches.

Industrial translation will therefore depend on matching a reproducible lipid fraction to a defined product function. Application-specific specifications, sensory and allergen control, product-level regulatory assessment, and pilot-scale validation provide a more useful development framework than classification by insect species alone. This approach also supports integrated valorization by directing food-grade oils to human foods while assigning other compositionally suitable fractions to feed, cosmetic, oleochemical, or fuel applications under the quality requirements of each market.

7. Conclusions and future perspectives

Overall, the available evidence supports the development of insect lipids as food ingredients, although their suitability is application-specific. Their performance depends not only on species or fatty acid composition, but also on TAG architecture, minor constituents, processing history, and the resulting physicochemical properties. When the native oil properties match product requirements, direct incorporation is the most mature pathway; where limitations exist in solid-fat behavior, dispersibility, oxidative or sensory stability, or TAG structure, targeted modification may be required. Current evidence is strongest for direct incorporation and selected food prototypes, whereas most emulsification, fractionation, and enzymatic restructuring studies remain at the formulation or in vitro stage. Evidence for the reported metabolic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and microbiota-related effects of insect lipids is predominantly preclinical and should be interpreted as material- and model-specific.

The principal research need is therefore to clarify how oil composition and functional properties translate into performance in specific food applications using well-characterized, food-grade oils. Future research should integrate molecular structure, physicochemical properties, digestion, and product performance within the same oil batches, use appropriate conventional-fat comparators, and validate promising oils or modification strategies under realistic processing and storage conditions, sensory evaluation, and pilot-scale production. Safety assessment should include residual proteins, contaminants, and refining-related risks, while human studies should use chemically defined oils and realistic intake conditions.

Industrial translation will additionally require application-specific specifications, batch reproducibility, regulatory clarity, and quantitative techno-economic and life-cycle evaluation. Integration of lipid recovery with protein, chitin, and other co-product streams may improve resource efficiency, although environmental and economic advantages require direct assessment. The future of insect lipids lies in matching well-characterized oils with specific food requirements and applying modification only where it provides a demonstrable technological or nutritional advantage.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Yuanyuan Huang: Writing – original draft, Validation, Investigation, Conceptualization. David D. Kitts: Writing – review & editing, Investigation. Mokhtar Dabbour: Writing – review & editing. Xiumin Chen: Writing – review & editing. Benjamin Kumah Mintah: Writing – review & editing. Chunhua Dai: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Methodology. Ronghai He: Writing – review & editing, Supervision.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.