Feeding dried cauliflower waste as a valorization method in the circular bio-economy model for broilers: effects on the performance, carcass traits and economics

Abstract

The present study was conducted to evaluate cauliflower waste meal (CWM) as an alternative feed resource for broiler production. For the experiment, 240 day-old, straight-run broiler chicks were randomly distributed into six groups, with five replicates per group, as follows: T1—control diet (without CWM), while groups T2, T3, T4, T5, and T6 were fed diets containing CWM at 50, 75, 100, 125, and 150 g/kg, respectively. The chicks were reared under intensive conditions in experimental cages according to standard management protocols for six weeks. The results revealed that body weight gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), feed conversion ratio (FCR), and nutrient digestibility of birds fed diets containing different levels of CWM were comparable among all groups. However, the digestibility of dry matter (DM), ether extract (EE), and crude fibre (CF) was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the CWM-fed groups. The overall mortality rate was 3.75%. Haematological parameters, blood biochemical profiles, and carcass characteristics of the experimental groups were comparable. However, serum total cholesterol levels were significantly lower in the T6 group. Gizzard weight was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in CWM-fed birds. The chemical composition, pH, extract release volume (ERV), water-holding capacity (WHC), and overall acceptability of meat were not affected by CWM feeding. The total phenolic content was significantly increased and TBARS values of meat from birds in the T3, T4, T5, and T6 groups were significantly lowered. The cost of feed decreased linearly with increasing levels of CWM inclusion and was lowest in birds fed 125 and 150 g/kg CWM. Therefore, it is concluded that CWM can be included in broiler diets at upto 150 g/kg and may provide an effective approach for converting vegetable waste into a valuable feed resource.

Introduction

Nowadays, vegetable waste has become a key problem in vegetable markets due to the lack of proper disposal methods. When this waste is improperly managed, waste decomposes and causes environmental pollution, producing foul and obnoxious odors and creating various health hazards for humans (Bansod et al., 2026). Due to the rising population and changing nutritional preferences, vegetable production has been steadily increasing in recent decades, reaching 884 million MT, and 30% of these total vegetables is going waste (FAO, 2020). The inedible portion of cauliflower is almost 43% (De Laurentiis et al., 2018). Agro-industry generates enormous amounts of bio-waste, which requires appropriate techniques of valorization in the circular bio-economy model for their sustainable applications to lessen the environmental consequences of waste disposal (Abubakr et al., 2014; Dahiya et al., 2018).

Cauliflower is one of the most widely cultivated and preferred vegetable throughout the world. The cultivation period of cauliflower is from September to March. It is one of the most popular winter vegetables with a waste index of approximately 45%. The curd is known an edible portion which accounts for 45- 50% of the vegetable while the remaining leafy part is discarded as waste (Pankar and Bornare, 2018). This vegetable waste is available in enormous quantities and is often discarded. Its decomposition ultimately causes environmental pollution. It has been reported that cauliflower waste contains substantial quantities of various bioactive compounds, proteins, minerals, and vitamins (Mahesh et al., 2026). Besides nutrients, the presence of health-promoting bioactive substances such as vitamins, carotenoids, phenols, flavonoids, and minerals contributes to maintaining good health (Aires, 2011). Along with this, the CWM is also a rich source of essential amino acids and would offer enough of these nutrients for poultry and animal diets (Podsędek, 2007). It has also been reported that Brassica species possess antioxidant properties attributable to the presence of polyphenols and flavonoids (Livingston .et al., 1972).

In recent years, there has been growing interest in using CWM as a protein alternative for dietary inclusion for broiler chickens and which enhance the meat quality. Many studies have shown that CWM can increase the protein and mineral content of meat (Deng et al., 2013) as well as enhance the overall flavour and juiciness of the meat (Onunkwo and George, 2015). Additionally, CWM may also have shown a positive impact on the health with maintenance of cicular bioeconomy along with welfare of broiler chickens, as it is a natural source of antioxidants and phyto-chemicals (Bansod et al., 2026). However, our research aims to fully understand the effects of CWM on performance, blood biochemical status, carcass and meat quality of broiler chickens.

Therefore, the present study was planned for management of cauliflower waste and evaluate the effect of an alternative feed for lowering the feed cost, for production performance and fortification of meat.

Materials and methods

Ethics declarations

The study was carried out in compliance with the applicable regulatory framework by the “Committee for the Purpose of Control and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA) 2012,” as laid down under the “Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1960″ of the Indian Penal Code. The experimental protocols employed in this investigation received explicit approval from the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee (IAEC) of ICAR-IVRI, Bareilly, 243122, India. The approval number was IEAC-467/GO/S/05 and CPCSEA: 24/09/2023.

Procedure followed for CWM preparation

Cauliflower leaves used for the preparation of cauliflower waste meal (CWM) were collected from the nearby Delapeer vegetable market in Bareilly, India. After collection, cauliflower leaves were thoroughly washed and chopped using a chaff cutter. The clean and chopped leaves were then sun-dried on a tarpaulin under the prevailing environmental conditions in Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, during April 2023. During this period, the ambient temperature was approximately 38.9°C, and the relative humidity was approximately 44%. The dried leaves were subsequently milled using an attrition mill to obtain a particle size of 2 mm and stored in airtight containers to prevent fungal infestation. During pulverisation, appropriate precautions such as speed of grinding because high speed cause the degradation and loss of phytonutrients. The procedure followed for the preparation of cauliflower waste meal was standardised in the Unconventional Feed Laboratory, Animal Nutrition Division, ICAR-IVRI, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Proximate analysis and chemical composition of cauliflower waste meal

Proximate analysis was carried out according to the the method given by AOAC (1990). Crude Protein (CP) was estimated by the Kjeldahl method by taking a pooled sample, ether extract using soxhlet ether extraction apparatus, and crude fibre was analyzed by acid (2.04 N H2SO4) digestion followed by alkali (2.5 N NaOH) digestion, determined by subtracting the weight after ashing from the oven-dry weight. The total ash (TA) was determined by ashing the samples in a muffle furnace at 550°C after decarbonisation. In case of minerals analysis, total phosphorus (TP) was estimated by the colorimetric method using phospho -molybdo-vanadate reagent (AOAC, 2000) and calcium as per the methods of Talapatra et al. (1940). Glucosinolates (Abaza et al., 1968) and the total phenolic content were estimated (Makkar et al., 1993), respectively. Gross energy (kcal/kg) was estimated by using Gallenkamp adiabatic bomb calorimeter. The metabolisable energy (ME) was calculated by multiplying the gross energy value by a factor of 0.82 (NRC, 2007).

$$\text{ME}\left(\text{kcal}/\text{kg}\right)=\text{GE}*0.82$$ (1)

Energy: Protein ratio is calculated as follows:

$$\mathrm{E}:\mathrm{P}\text{ratio}=\text{The}\text{metabolisable}\text{energy}\left(\text{ME}\right)\left(\text{kcal}/\text{kg}\right)/\text{CP}(\%)$$ (2)

Experimental design, management and diets

The present study was conducted at the Experimental Broiler Farm of ICAR-Central Avian Research Institute, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India, for 42 days. A total of 240 day-old CARI BRO VISHAL straight-run chicks were distributed into six groups in a completely randomised design, with 40 birds in each group. Each group had five replicates, with eight birds per replicate. The birds were fed diets containing increasing levels of cauliflower waste meal (CWM) at 50, 75, 100, 125, and 150 g/kg from the first day of the trial in the respective treatment groups.

The ingredients and nutrient composition of the experimental diets for prestarter, starter and finisher phase are given in the Table-1.1, 1.2 and 1.3, respectively.The BIS (2007) feeding standards were followed to fulfil the nutrient requirements of experimental straight run broilers. According to the BIS standards, the birds were fed three types of diets during the 42-day trial: pre-starter (0–7 days), starter (8–21 days), and finisher (22–42 days). The T1 group was fed the control diet, whereas the T2, T3, T4, T5, and T6 groups were fed CWM-included diets by partially replacing maize and soybean meal in the control diet at levels of 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, and 15%, respectively. The diets of all experimental groups were formulated to be isocaloric and isonitrogenous to provide equal amounts of energy and protein across groups. The straight run chicks of different experimental groups were reared in cages with a wire mesh bottom. Electrically heated battery brooders were used for brooding the chicks. A 23-h lighting programme was followed. The experimental birds were fed every morning at the same time, with measured amounts of feed according to the respective feeding phases. Ad libitum water was made available throughout the day. All birds were reared under uniform and standard management practices.

Table 1.1.

Ingredient and chemical composition of the pre-starter (0-7 days) diet on dry matter basis containing different levels of CWM.

Broiler pre-starter (0-7 days)
Ingredients (%)	T1	T2	T3	T4	T5	T6
Maize	55.21	54.38	53.16	51.87	50.51	49.2
SBM	39.5	36.05	34.77	33.49	32.22	30.94
CWM	0	5	7.5	10	12.5	15
Soybean Oil	1.3	1.43	1.51	1.58	1.68	1.8
Limestone	0.9	1.12	1.05	0.98	0.9	0.9
DCP	1.7	0.45	0.48	0.51	0.54	0.57
Methionine	0.17	0.1	0.11	0.12	0.13	0.14
Lysine HCL	0	0.3	0.33	0.33	0.4	0.45
NaCl	0.3	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5
Mineral mix*	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15
Vitamin premix**	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15
Coccidiostat	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
Toxin binder	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
Total	100	100	100	100	100	100
Analysed (%DM)
CP	23.2	23	23.2	22.8	23.1	22.9
CF	2.61	3.18	3.32	3.5	3.67	4.24
EE	3.56	3.58	3.68	3.86	3.95	4.13
TA	4.93	5.03	5.10	5.21	5.19	5.41
AIA	0.28	0.39	0.29	0.45	0.68	0.76
Ca	1.02	1.06	1.11	1.09	1.13	1.16
p	0.71	0.67	0.68	0.72	0.75	0.76
Calculated
ME (kcal/kg)	3017.88	3011.75	3014.75	3023.7	3032.65	3033
E:P ratio	131.2	130.4	131	130.8	131.16	131.8
AP%	0.45	0.45	0.45	0.45	0.45	0.45
Lys%	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.3	1.3
Met%	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5

CWM cauliflower waste meal; SBM soybean meal; DCP digestible crude protein; CP crude protein; CF crude fibre; EE ether extract; AIA acid insoluble ash; AP available phosphorus; Lys lysine; Met methionine; DCP Dicalcium Phosphate; Coccidiostat Amprolium (Amprolium antagonizes thiamine. Although feed levels of 125–250 ppm are cited, its primary practical use is often water treatment during clinical outbreaks, rather than relying on it as the principal continuous feed coccidiostat); Toxin Binder CARI-Toxomin (Composition: Gallic acid, Ascorbic acid, Phenolic compounds, Curcumin and Enzymes, Dose: 1.5 kg/tonne feed). E: P Energy Protein ratio; ME Metabolisable Energy.

*Mineral mix supplied mg/kg diet: Mg 300, Mn 55, I 0.4, Fe 56, Zn 30, Cu 4.2. (Per kg of complete feed).

**Vitamin premix supplied per kg diet: Vit. A 8250 IU, Vit. D₃ 2400 IU, Vit. E 15 mg,Vit. K 1 mg, Vit. B₁ 6 mg, Vit. B₁₂ 8 mg, Niacin 12 mg, Pyridoxin 1.6 mg, Choline chloride 500 mg. (Per kg of complete feed).

Table 1.2.

Ingredient and chemical composition of the starter (8-21 days) diet on dry matter basis containing different levels of CWM.

Broiler starter (8-21 days)
Ingredients (%)	T1	T2	T3	T4	T5	T6
Maize	56.8	55.26	54.32	53.07	51.83	50.56
SBM	37.3	33.85	32.57	31.3	30.02	28.75
CWM	0	5	7.5	10	12.5	15
Soybean Oil	2.4	2.62	2.71	2.77	2.83	2.89
Limestone	1.25	1.11	1.04	0.96	0.89	0.82
DCP	0.42	0.48	0.51	0.54	0.57	0.6
Methionine	0.03	0.2	0.11	0.13	0.13	0.15
Lysine HCL	0.1	0.1	0.25	0.3	0.36	0.42
NaCl	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5
Min mix	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15
Vit mix	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15
Coccidiostat	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
Toxin binder	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
Total	100	100	100	100	100	100
Analysed (%DM)
CP	22.3	22.1	21.9	22.2	21.8	21.8
CF	3.8	4.00	4.13	4.45	4.84	4.88
EE	3.7	3.76	3.84	3.92	4.00	4.33
TA	4.98	5.21	5.34	5.46	5.51	5.57
AIA	0.78	0.78	0.71	0.73	0.92	1.04
Ca	1.12	1.09	1.10	1.06	1.13	1.15
P	0.72	0.75	0.73	0.69	0.71	0.74
Calculated
ME (kcal/kg)	3106.4	3107.65	3100.64	3099	3104.21	3106.7
E:P ratio	140.8	140.36	140.4	140.6	140.5	140.8
Av P%	0.45	0.45	0.45	0.45	0.45	0.45
Lys%	1.2	1.19	1.2	1.19	1.19	1.19
Met%	0.5	0.49	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5

CWM cauliflower waste meal; SBM soybean meal; DCP digestible crude protein; CP crude protein; CF crude fibre; EE ether extract; AIA acid insoluble ash; AP available phosphorus; Lys lysine; Met methionine; DCP Dicalcium Phosphate; Coccidiostat Amprolium (Amprolium antagonizes thiamine. Although feed levels of 125–250 ppm are cited, its primary practical use is often water treatment during clinical outbreaks, rather than relying on it as the principal continuous feed coccidiostat); Toxin Binder CARI-Toxomin (Composition: Gallic acid, Ascorbic acid, Phenolic compounds, Curcumin and Enzymes, Dose: 1.5 kg/tonne feed). E: P Energy Protein ratio; ME Metabolisable Energy.

*Mineral mix supplied mg/kg diet: Mg 300, Mn 55, I 0.4, Fe 56, Zn 30, Cu 4.2. (Per kg of complete feed).

**Vitamin premix supplied per kg diet: Vit. A 8250 IU, Vit. D₃ 2400 IU, Vit. E 15 mg,Vit. K 1 mg, Vit. B₁ 6 mg, Vit. B₁₂ 8 mg, Niacin 12 mg, Pyridoxin 1.6 mg, Choline chloride 500 mg. (Per kg of complete feed).

Table 1.3.

Ingredient and chemical composition of the finisher (22-42 days) diet on dry matter basis containing different levels of CWM.

Broiler finisher (22-42 days)
Ingredients (%)	T1	T2	T3	T4	T5	T6
Maize	61.24	58.42	57.41	56.39	54.76	53.69
SBM	32	29.46	28.19	26.92	25.65	24.38
CWM	0	5	7.5	10	12.5	15
Soybean Oil	3.2	3.51	3.6	3.67	3.74	3.82
Limestone	1.1	1.1	1.1	1	1.1	1
DCP	0.6	0.6	0.6	0.6	0.6	0.62
Methionine	0.06	0.12	0.1	0.11	0.11	0.13
Lysine HCL	0.1	0.4	0.3	0.38	0.38	0.38
NaCl	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5	0.5
Min mix	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15
Vit mix	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15	0.15
Coccidiostat	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
Toxin binder	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.1
Total	100	100	100	100	100	100
Analysed (%DM)
CP	20.3	20.1	20.4	20.2	20	19.8
CF	3.7	4	4.1	4.1	4.2	4.4
EE	3.9	4.1	4.2	4.6	4.6	4.8
TA	5.06	5.31	5.47	5.61	5.63	5.70
AIA	0.58	0.78	0.82	1.15	1.24	1.35
Ca	1.06	1.05	1.08	1.04	1.11	1.13
P	0.73	0.69	0.71	0.74	0.75	0.72
Calculated
ME (kcal/kg)	3198.8	3194.7	3195.7	3199.2	3201.4	3198.15
E:P ratio	160.2	159.7	160.5	160.12	160.1	160.3
Av P%	0.45	0.45	0.45	0.45	0.45	0.45
Lys%	1.08	1.08	1.06	1	1	1
Met%	0.45	0.45	0.45	0.45	0.45	0.45

CWM cauliflower waste meal; SBM soybean meal; DCP digestible crude protein; CP crude protein; CF crude fibre; EE ether extract; AIA acid insoluble ash; AP available phosphorus; Lys lysine; Met methionine; DCP Dicalcium Phosphate; Coccidiostat Amprolium (Amprolium antagonizes thiamine. Although feed levels of 125–250 ppm are cited, its primary practical use is often water treatment during clinical outbreaks, rather than relying on it as the principal continuous feed coccidiostat); Toxin Binder CARI-Toxomin (Composition: Gallic acid, Ascorbic acid, Phenolic compounds, Curcumin and Enzymes, Dose: 1.5 kg/tonne feed). E: P Energy Protein ratio; ME Metabolisable Energy.

*Mineral mix supplied mg/kg diet: Mg 300, Mn 55, I 0.4, Fe 56, Zn 30, Cu 4.2. (Per kg of complete feed).

**Vitamin premix supplied per kg diet: Vit. A 8250 IU, Vit. D₃ 2400 IU, Vit. E 15 mg,Vit. K 1 mg, Vit. B₁ 6 mg, Vit. B₁₂ 8 mg, Niacin 12 mg, Pyridoxin 1.6 mg, Choline chloride 500 mg. (Per kg of complete feed).

Zoo-technical performance

The body weights of the experimental birds were recorded on a weekly basis using an electronic weighing balance to determine the weekly and phase-wise body weight gain. To calculate feed intake (FI), the feed residue was recorded the following day before offering fresh feed, and weekly and phase-wise feed intake was calculated as follows:

$$\text{FI}=\text{Feed}\text{offered}-\text{Feed}\text{residue}$$ (3)

The following equation was used to calculate the weekly and phase-wise feed conversion ratio (FCR):

$$FCR=\frac{Totalfeedintake\left(g\right)}{\text{Final}\text{body}\text{weight}-\text{inal}\text{body}\text{weight}\text{ght}\left(\mathrm{g}\right)}$$ (4)

The mortality of the experimental birds was recorded daily through careful monitoring.

A metabolism trial consisting of a 2-day adaptation period and a 4-day collection period was conducted from the 36th to the 42nd day of the experimental period, as per the method suggested by Bourdillon et al. (1990). This ensured that gut fill was fully stabilized and that the birds adapted completely to the environment before data and sample collection commenced. For the metabolism trial, five birds with similar average body weights from the respective replicates were selected and kept in metabolic cages. During the metabolism trial, the quantities of feed provided and the remaining feed residues were recorded. The total faeces voided were collected twice daily over a 24-hour period, placed in self-sealing polyethylene sachets, and weighed collectively. Dry matter (DM) was determined by retaining a subsample equivalent to one-tenth of the total excreta collected each day and drying it at 80°C for 18 hours in a hot-air oven. Proximate analysis of the feed and excreta samples was carried out as per the method suggested by AOAC (1990). At 6 weeks of age, birds were randomly selected from each replicate pen to ensure a representative sample matching the overall pen average body weight. To prevent crowding stress and accommodate the large size of 6-week-old broilers, 5 birds per replicate were housed together in spacious individual metabolism cages (700 to 900 cm² of floor space per bird), ensuring optimal comfort, unrestricted access to feed and water, and compliance with animal welfare standards. Feed intake and excreta output were recorded collectively for the group of birds representing that replicate.Nutrient digestibility coefficients were calculated on a replicate basis using the total feed consumed and total excreta voided by the birds in that cage over the collection period, ensuring that the replicate remains the true experimental unit.

Haematology and serum assay

Estimation of haemoglobin (Hb) content in the blood was performed using the acid haematin method (Sahli, 1909). Packed cell volume (PCV) was estimated using the microhaematocrit method (Epstein, 1916). Red blood cells (RBCs) in the blood samples were counted manually using normal saline as the diluting fluid and a haemocytometer. White blood cells (WBCs) were enumerated manually using a 1% ammonium oxalate solution, as per the method suggested by Jaime-Samour (2016).

To evaluate the effect of feeding CWM on the biochemical profile of serum, blood samples were collected on the 42nd day from ten birds per treatment into serum vacutainers. The separated serum was transferred into 2-mL Eppendorf tubes and stored in separate aliquots at −20°C until analysis. The estimation of parameters such as total protein by the biuret method, alkaline phosphatase by the pNPP kinetic method (Coralyzer 100 System Pack, Cat. No. 1105020090 — 90 mL), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) (Coral Catalog No. GOT 010) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (Coral Catalog No. GPT 011) by Reitman and Frankel’s method (Reitman and Frankel, 1957), creatinine by the alkaline picrate method (Bonsnes and Taussky, 1945, Coral catalog Catalog No 11010600xx), and cholesterol by the PAP method was carried out using colorimetric kits from Coral Diagnostics®. Uric acid was estimated using a modified phosphotungstate endpoint assay with the COGENT® uric acid test kit (Catalog No. 82MB100-66(N) 25917 (O)).

Analysis of carcass characteristics

To assess the effect of feeding CWM on carcass characteristics, at the end of the 42-day experimental period, ten birds from each dietary group (two birds per replicate) were randomly selected and sacrificed after 17 hours of fasting, with unrestricted access to drinking water. The giblets (gizzard, heart, and liver) were collected and weighed separately and expressed as a percentage of live weight. The yields of the cut-up parts, including the breast, thigh, drumstick, back, neck, and wings, were measured individually and expressed as percentages of eviscerated weight.

Analysis of meat quality

Sensory evaluation of meat

A committee consisting of eight expert panellists was constituted for the sensory evaluation of fresh meat samples. A weighed quantity of meat from individual birds belonging to different treatment groups was placed in petri dishes. Each sample was assigned a number without revealing its specific treatment group. Based on a 5-point hedonic scale, the panellists assigned scores for attributes including general appearance, colour, odour, and overall acceptability, with a score of 5 representing very good meat and a score of 1 representing poor/unacceptable meat.

Physicochemical quality

To evaluate the effect of feeding CWM on meat quality, fresh meat samples were analysed for meat pH using a Waterproof Double Junction Digital pH Testr® 30 (Oakton, USA). Extract release volume (ERV) was estimated using the method suggested by Pearson (1968). Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were estimated by the extraction method of Ohkawa et al. (1979). Water-holding capacity (WHC) was estimated using the filter paper press method (Grau and Hamm, 1953) and calculated using the following formula:

$$\text{Water}-\text{holding}\text{capacity}(\%)=\left[\left(\text{Weight}\text{of}\text{meat}\text{sample}-\text{Weight}\text{of}\text{pressed}\text{meat}\text{sample}\right)/\text{Weight}\text{of}\text{meat}\text{sample}\right]\times 100$$ (6)

Nutritional quality

Representative samples of fresh meat from the breast muscles were collected and analysed for their chemical composition. Dry matter, crude protein, fat, and total ash were determined as per the method given by AOAC (1990). The total phenolic content of the meat was estimated using the Folin–Ciocalteu method (Singleton and Rossi, 1965).

Cost economics

The economics of broiler production was calculated at the end of the experimental study. The cost of concentrate feed was calculated based on the prices of individual feed ingredients and feed additives used in the preparation of the concentrate mixture. Accordingly, the feed cost for the pre-starter, starter, and finisher phase feeds consumed per kilogram of live weight gain and dressed yield was calculated.

Statistical analysis

The experimental data were analysed using the SPSS computer package (IBM SPSS Statistics version 26.0, SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA), adopting the standard statistical procedures described by Snedecor and Cochran (2004). The parameters were analysed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) through the General Linear Model, followed by Tukey’s post-hoc test. A significance level of P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant unless otherwise stated.

Results

Chemical composition of cauliflower waste meal

Table 2 depicts the result pertaining to the proximate and chemical composition of cauliflower waste meal on dry matter basis which consist of CP, CF, EE, TA, NFE, Ca, P, glucosinolates, total phenolic content, gross energy and metabolisable energy. It have been showed that CWM contain about 22.3% CP and rich in TPC (7.68%).

Table 2.

Chemical composition (%) of the CWM (DM basis).

Particulars	%
CP	22.3
EE	6.93
CF	9.47
NFE	49.76
TA	11.54
AIA	1.37
Ca	0.61
P	0.28
TPC	7.68
Glucosinolates	0.042
Gross Energy (kcal/kg)	2560
Metabolisable energy (kcal/kg)	2099

CP crude protein; EE ether extract; CF crude fibre; NFE nitrogen free extract; TA total ash; AIA acid insoluble ash; Ca calcium; P phosphorus; TPC total phenolic content.

Zootechnical performance

Table 3 presents the zootechnical performance of broilers supplemented with different dietary regimens, assessed on a weekly basis and over the overall experimental period (0–6 weeks). Statistical analysis revealed that feed intake, body weight gain, and feed conversion ratio did not differ significantly among the dietary treatment groups on a weekly basis.

Table 3.

Effect of feeding CWM on the performance of broiler chickens.

Treatment	Body weight gain (g/bird)			Feed intake (g/bird)			Feed conversion ratio			Mortality (%)
	0-3 weeks	4-6 weeks	0-6 weeks	0-3 weeks	4-6 weeks	0-6 weeks	0-3 weeks	4-6 weeks	0-6 weeks
T1	406.3	901	1307.3	686.9	2083.6	2770.5	1.69	2.31	2.12	10
T2	440.1	919.5	1359.5	733.8	2188.9	2922.7	1.67	2.39	2.15	2.5
T3	460.9	887.4	1348.2	774.3	2168.1	2942.4	1.68	2.45	2.18	2.5
T4	439.4	902.5	1341.8	731.6	2154.6	2886.2	1.67	2.4	2.16	0
T5	429.9	893.1	1322.9	738.8	2147.4	2886.1	1.72	2.42	2.19	2.5
T6	426.5	895.9	1322.4	728.4	2216.4	2944.8	1.71	2.48	2.23	5
SEM	5.531	11.857	12.699	8.559	22.28	28.291	0.009	0.029	0.017	-
P-value	0.098	0.986	0.880	0.812	0.674	0.524	0.484	0.693	0.590	-

T1 Control diet; T2 (50 mg/kg CWM); T3 (75 mg/kg CWM); T4 (100 mg/kg CWM); T5 (125 mg/kg CWM); T6 (150 mg/kg CWM);.

The findings for intake (g/bird/d) and digestibility (%) of DM, OM, CP, EE, CF, NFE, and TA are presented in the Table 4. Statistical analysis revealed that significantly (P < 0.05) higher digestibility values for EE and CF were observed in birds from the T6 group. Regarding the intake of DM, OM, CP, NFE and TA, no significant differences were observed among the experimental groups of birds fed CWM, with similar values recorded across all groups.

Table 4.

Effect of feeding CWM on the nutrient intake (g/b/d) and digestibility (%) of broiler chickens.

Treatment	DM		OM		CP		EE		CF		NFE		TA
	Intake	Dig	Intake	Dig	Intake	Dig	Intake	Dig	Intake	Dig	Intake	Dig	Intake	Dig
T1	108.4	63.82a	98.9	66.58a	24.1	78.56	5.64a	77.96a	3.93a	27.46a	65.04	68.52	7.5	35.19
T2	109.75	64.39a	98.18	68.61ab	26.12	78.36	6.58ab	77.24a	3.97a	32.90ab	64.53	63.04	7.57	36.45
T3	104.56	63.79a	96.5	69.87b	21.74	76.72	6.27ab	80.04ab	4.03a	32.62ab	64.51	66.66	8.05	37.11
T4	105.95	67.7ab	97.92	70.08b	24.38	75.04	6.36ab	80.30ab	4.17ab	33.16ab	62.72	66.36	7.95	35.45
T5	106.26	66.53ab	97.32	69.26b	23.26	76.38	6.24ab	82.28b	4.58ab	32.93ab	62.7	64.08	8.23	35.42
T6	103.98	69.80b	96	73.90c	26	78.08	7.44b	82.00b	4.83b	38.84b	61.16	65.26	8.19	37.38
SEM	2.142	0.529	2.001	0.565	0.598	0.499	0.165	0.694	0.105	1.091	1.296	1.274	0.211	0.495
P-value	0.977	0.006	0.926	<0.001	0.073	0.277	0.041	0.019	0.018	0.010	0.829	0.098	0.204	0.727

T1 Control diet; T2 (50 mg/kg CWM); T3 (75 mg/kg CWM); T4 (100 mg/kg CWM); T5 (125 mg/kg CWM); T6 (150 mg/kg CWM); DM dry matter; OM organic matter; CP crude protein; EE ether extract; CF crude fibre; NFE nitrogen free extract; TA total ash; Dig digestibility.

^abcMean with superscript in a column differ significantly (P < 0.05).

Furthermore, the significantly higher (P < 0.05) DM digestibility (%) was observed in T4 group and followed by T5 & T6 groups of birds. Similarly, the pattern of organic matter digestibility (%) was also significantly (P < 0.05) highest in the T6 (38.84%) group of birds. The CP digestibility (%) of the experimental group of birds fed CWM was comparable with the control group. The ether extract digestibility (%) was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the T6 group of birds. The highest crude fibre digestibility (%) was found in T5 followed by T6 group of birds. There were no notable variation in TA digestibility (%) between the treatment groups.

It is evident that dietary inclusion of CWM had no adverse effect on the nitrogen intake (g/b/d), excreted (g/b/d), retained (g/b/d) and retention (%) of the experimental group of birds (Table 5). All the experimental birds were in positive nitrogen balance.

Table 5.

Effect of feeding CWM on the nutrient balance of broiler chickens.

		Gram/bird/day				Calcium			Phosphorus
Treatment	Nitrogen intake	Nitrogen voided	Nitrogen retained	Nitrogen retention (%)	Intake (g/b/d)	Voided (g/b/d)	Retention (%)	Intake (g/b/d)	Voided (g/b/d)	Retention (%)
T1	3.86	0.83	3.03	78.56	1.149	0.754	34.4	0.79	0.456	42.2
T2	4.18	0.9	3.27	78.36	1.152	0.758	34.28	0.756	0.426	43.62
T3	3.48	0.81	2.67	76.72	1.129	0.717	36.46	0.742	0.399	46.2
T4	3.9	0.97	2.93	75.04	1.101	0.705	35.9	0.786	0.427	45.46
T5	3.72	0.88	2.84	76.38	1.179	0.747	36.82	0.794	0.467	41.36
T6	4.16	0.91	3.25	78.08	1.201	0.776	35.14	0.748	0.411	45.18
SEM	0.178	0.067	0.142	0.499	0.024	0.017	0.697	0.016	0.009	0.593
P-value	0.073	0.121	0.206	0.277	0.900	0.868	0.881	0.897	0.27	0.098

T1 Control diet; T2 (50 mg/kg CWM); T3 (75 mg/kg CWM); T4 (100 mg/kg CWM); T5 (125 mg/kg CWM); T6 (150 mg/kg CWM);.

Similarly, the average Ca and P intake (g/b/d), outgo (g/b/d), and retention (%) of the experimental group of birds fed different levels of CWM had demonstrated the similar results (Table 5). All the experimental birds were in positive Ca and P balance.

Haematology and serum assay

The effect of various dietary treatment on haematological and biochemical serum profiling in broiler chicken on 42nd day of study were portrayed in the Table 6. The results of the Hb, PCV, WBC, and RBC estimate remained consistent among all treatment groups. In terms of plasma lipid profile (mg/dl), significantly (P < 0.001) lowered cholesterol values were recorded in the T6 group, while serum albumin, globulin, albumin-globulin ratio, total protein, creatinine, alkaline phosphatase, aspartate amino-transferase, alanine amino-transferase, uric acid, calcium, and phosphorus level have been showed no significant (P > 0.05) alterations among all the treatment groups.

Table 6.

Effect of feeding CWM on the haemato-biochemical profile of broiler chickens.

Treatment	Hb (g/dl)	PCV (%)	WBC /µl	RBC *10^6/µl	TP (g/dl)	Cholesterol (mg/dl)	ALP (U/L)	ALT (U/ml)	AST (U/ml)	Creatinine (mg%)	Uric acid (mg/dl)
T1	8.50	25.5	9500	2.72	5.16	178.85a	287.79	47.95	195.11	0.64	1.35
T2	9.80	29.4	8600	2.39	5.94	175.18a	350.45	60.84	172.84	0.52	1.69
T3	9.20	27.6	8000	2.43	5.87	177.65a	386.94	66.20	184.04	0.44	1.75
T4	9.27	27.8	8166.7	2.60	6.00	152.55ab	313.1	66.17	180.31	0.76	1.53
T5	10.40	31.2	8333.3	2.57	5.88	149.02ab	333.76	54.40	185.11	0.69	1.64
T6	9.83	29.5	8300	2.48	5.43	139.41b	391.99	52.62	166.04	0.46	1.76
SEM	0.187	0.56	295.653	0.061	0.136	4.897	20.645	2.388	4.254	0.041	0.134
P-value	0.158	0.158	0.086	0.862	0.546	0.043	0.169	0.454	0.648	0.961	0.130

T1 Control diet; T2 (50 mg/kg CWM); T3 (75 mg/kg CWM); T4 (100 mg/kg CWM); T5 (125 mg/kg CWM); T6 (150 mg/kg CWM);.

Hb haemoglobin; PCV packed cell volume; WBC white blood cell; RBC red blood cell; TP total protein; ALP alkaline phosphatase; AST aspartate aminotransferase; ALT-Alanine aminotransferase.

^abcMean with superscript in a column differ significantly (P < 0.05).

Carcass characteristics and relative organ weight

The results of the carcass characteristics and organ weight study were presented in the Table 7. The pre-starvation live weight (g), pre-slaughter live weight (g), shrinkage loss (%), blood loss (%), feather loss (%), dressed yield (%), and eviscerated yield (%) of the experimental group of birds fed CWM was comparable.

Table 7.

Effect of CWM on the carcass characteristics and organ weight (% live weight) in broiler chickens.

Treatment	Prestarvation live wt. (g)	Pre slaughter live wt. (g)	Live weight (%)
			Shrinkage loss	Blood loss	Feather loss	Dressed yield	Eviscerated yield	Giblet	Heart	Liver	Gizzard
T1	1450.92	1389	4.23	2.52	6.77	71.83	63.88	5.79	0.59	2.63	2.57a
T2	1505.17	1429.33	5.02	2.13	7.78	68.21	62.09	6.12	0.51	2.69	2.92b
T3	1548.67	1475.17	4.73	1.88	6.59	70.89	64.84	6.06	0.53	2.63	2.9b
T4	1378.83	1302.67	5.47	1.80	6.61	69.66	63.32	6.34	0.56	2.71	3.06b
T5	1388.33	1320.58	4.90	1.70	6.23	68.12	62.16	5.96	0.55	2.52	2.9b
T6	1494.83	1417.5	5.17	1.95	6.17	72.51	66.04	6.48	0.54	3.05	2.9b
SEM	26.828	25.422	0.219	0.148	0.198	0.819	0.763	0.121	0.023	0.091	0.089
P value	0.395	0.351	0.711	0.685	0.210	0.542	0.668	0.757	0.176	0.417	0.006

T1 Control diet; T2 (50 mg/kg CWM); T3 (75 mg/kg CWM); T4 (100 mg/kg CWM); T5 (125 mg/kg CWM); T6 (150 mg/kg CWM);.

^abcMean with superscript in column differ significantly (P < 0.05).

In terms of the relative weights of the heart, liver, and giblet of the experimental group of birds fed CWM were comparable with the control group (Table 7). However, the relative weight of the gizzard was significantly (P < 0.05) higher among the experimental group of birds fed CWM when compared with the control group. The cut off parts such as breast, thigh, back, wing, and drumstick (%) were comparable with the control (Table 8).

Table 8.

Effect of feeding CWM on the cut-up parts (% of live weight) in broiler chickens.

Treatment	Live weight (%)
	Breast	Thigh	Back	Wing	Drumstick
T1	22.97	16.34	29.34	12.61	14.99
T2	24.22	15.82	27.62	12.97	14.72
T3	23.7	16.58	28.28	13.56	15.97
T4	25.25	15.29	28.6	12.34	15.8
T5	25.64	16.13	27.3	12.34	15.65
T6	25.58	18.32	25.35	12.31	15.26
SEM	0.378	0.443	0.511	0.233	0.196
P-value	0.094	0.496	0.308	0.608	0.412

T1 Control diet; T2 (50 mg/kg CWM); T3 (75 mg/kg CWM); T4 (100 mg/kg CWM); T5 (125 mg/kg CWM); T6 (150 mg/kg CWM).

Meat quality analysis

The general appearance, colour, odour, and overall acceptability of fresh chicken meat of the experimental group of birds fed CWM were comparable with control (Table 9).

Table 9.

Effect of feeding CWM on the sensory attributes of meat.

Treatment	General appearance	Colour	Odour	Overall acceptability
T1	4.0	4.0	4.2	4.1
T2	3.9	4.1	4.0	3.8
T3	3.9	4.2	4.0	3.9
T4	4.3	4.2	3.9	3.8
T5	4.5	4.2	4.0	3.7
T6	4.0	4.2	4.2	4.0
SEM	0.080	0.116	0.040	0.052
P-value	0.467	0.998	0.169	0.212

T1 Control diet; T2 (50 mg/kg CWM); T3 (75 mg/kg CWM); T4 (100 mg/kg CWM); T5 (125 mg/kg CWM); T6 (150 mg/kg CWM); CWM cauliflower waste meal.

Regarding the physico-chemical quality, the meat pH, extract release volume (ERV) and water holding capacity (WHC) were not affected by inclusion of CWM in broilers diet (Table 10). However, the TBARS (mg MDA/kg meat) of the breast meat was significantly (P < 0.05) lowered in the T6 group of birds.

Table 10.

Effect of feeding CWM on the meat composition and physico-chemical quality of meat.

Treatment	Percentage (%)								pH	ERV ml/10min	TBARS (mg MDA/kg meat)
	DM	CP	EE		TA		TPC	WHC
T1	30.58	24	17.3	3.35		1.69a		2.16	5.61	16.31	0.1373a
T2	29.79	23.42	13.1	3.56		1.95ab		2.03	5.6	16.15	0.0863ab
T3	28.77	23.05	11.5	3.65		2.14b		2.17	5.64	15.91	0.0923ab
T4	28.8	24.15	15.3	3.61		2.11b		2.37	5.59	15.55	0.0900ab
T5	31.25	23.15	18.3	3.29		2.22b		2.24	5.6	15.21	0.0973ab
T6	28.72	22.68	13.3	3.54		2.23b		2.33	5.57	15.12	0.0670b
SEM	0.357	0.313	1.06	0.081		0.046		0.058	0.024	2.269	0.006
P-value	0.383	0.578	0.06	0.744		<0.001		0.508	0.989	0.997	0.010

T1 Control diet; T2 (50 mg/kg CWM); T3 (75 mg/kg CWM); T4 (100 mg/kg CWM); T5 (125 mg/kg CWM); T6 (150 mg/kg CWM); CWM cauliflower waste meal; DM dry matter; CP crude protein; EE ether extract; TA total ash; TPC total phenolic content; WHC water holding capacity; ERV extract release volume; TBARS thiobarbituric acid reactive substance; MDA malondialdehyde.

^abcMean with superscript in a column differ significantly (P < 0.05).

The results pertaining to the nutrient composition of meat was presented in the Table 10. The DM (%), CP (%), EE (%), and TA (%) of meat of the experimental group of birds fed CWM were comparable with the control group. The total phenolic content (TPC) of meat was significantly (P < 0.05) higher in T3 group followed by T4, T5 and T6 group of birds.

Cost Economics

The feed cost and cost economics of broiler meat production are presented in Table 11. The feed cost per kilogram of live weight and dressed weight was significantly (P < 0.05) lower in the T5 group, followed by the T6 group, compared with the control group. This indicates improved economic efficiency and profitability in the T5 and T6 groups of birds.

Table 11.

Cost economics of feeding different levels of CWM included experimental diet (Rs. /Kg) in broiler chickens.

Treatment	Rs. /Kg			Rs. /Kg live weight	Rs. /Kg dressed weight
	Pre-starter	Starter	Finisher
T1	32.6	32.5	30.9	64.47c	86.18c
T2	31.6	31.6	30	61.99bc	84.69bc
T3	31.2	30.9	29.3	62.36bc	85.27bc
T4	30.7	30.3	28.9	59.26ab	83.20ab
T5	30.3	29.4	28.6	59.29ab	80.12a
T6	29.9	29	27.9	58.38a	78.52a
SEM	-	-	-	0.517	0.825
P- value	-	-	-	0.006	0.026

T1 Control diet; T2 (50 mg/kg CWM); T3 (75 mg/kg CWM); T4 (100 mg/kg CWM); T5 (125 mg/kg CWM); T6 (150 mg/kg CWM);.

^abcMean with superscript in column differ significantly (P < 0.05).

Discussion

Chemical composition of cauliflower waste meal

The results of the present study showed that the proximate and chemical composition of CWM was sometimes comparable and sometimes different from previous findings. These variations may arise from methodological differences in CWM processing, such as pre-treatment protocols, pulverization procedures, dehydration techniques, and storage management. The DM content of cauliflower leaves (13.6%) was similar to some reported values (Wadhwa et al., 2006) but higher than other studies (Bakshi, et al., 2016). The CP content of CWM (22.3%) was close to certain values (Sharma and Prasad, 2018; Raza et al., 2019), lower than some findings (Mahgoub et al., 2018; Gupta and Wagle, 1988) and higher than other studies results (Wani, 2012). The EE content (6.93%) was higher than earlier reported values (Wadhwa et al., 2006; Mahgoub et al., 2018; Mogra et al., 2012). The CF content (9.47%) was comparable to some values (Mahgoub et al., 2018) but lower than others (Mogra et al., 2012; Baloch et al., 2015). The NFE content (49.76%) was consistent with previous findings (Wani, 2012; Mogra et al., 2012). The TA content (11.54%) aligned with some reports (Ahmed and Ali, 2013; Mahgoub et al., 2018) but was lower than others (Gupta and Wagle, 1988). Again, AIA content (1.37%) was higher than some earlier reports (Gupta and Wagle, 1988), which may be due to the different collection and drying methods. The Ca content (0.61%) and P content (0.28%) were comparable to some values (Mustafa and Baurhoo, 2017) and higher than other finding of study (Baloch et al., 2015). These differences highlight how preparation methods can influence the nutritional composition of CWM.

Zoo technical performance

To the best of our knowledge, very little information is available regarding effect of feeding cauliflower waste meal on broilers. There was comparable feed intake in broilers fed vegetable waste (spinach, cauliflower, and potato) at a 25% level (Gadzirayi et al., 2012). There were no significant differences in feed intake and body weight gain of broilers fed leafy material Moringa oleifera leaf meal upto 25% level (Kakengi et al., 2007). Similarly, reported no significant difference in feed intake, body weight gain, and FCR of broilers fed vegetable waste containing dried potato waste upto 25% level of basal diet (Kpanja et al., 2020). In contrast, there was a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in FI, BWG and FCR of broilers fed vegetable waste containing alfalfa, spinach, and cauliflower at 25% level (Raza et al., 2019). The inclusion of dried leaves of sweet potato at the level of 20-25% DM resulted in significantly (P<0.05) lower daily DMI, BWG, and FCR as compared to chicks fed the control diet (Tamir and Tsega, 2010). Reduced mortality in broilers fed polyphenol-rich green tea extract (Jelveh et al., 2018). Similarly, a lower mortality in broiler chickens fed grape seeds rich in polyphenols (Abu Hafsa and Ibrahim, 2018). There was no significant difference in mortality of laying hens fed canola seeds (Brassica napus) when compared with the control group (Najib and Al-Khateeb, 2004). Similarly, no significant difference was observed in the mortality of indigenous senegal chicken fed leafy material Moringa olefera leaf meal upto 24% level (Ayssiwede et al., 2011)

From the results of the present study it’s evident that the performance of straight run broiler birds was not affected due to inclusion of CWM in diet as compared to the other groups of birds and, in some cases, even better. This could be due to the various reasons. These results were consistent with the outcomes of the study which stated that the DM intake was unaffected whereas the apparent total tract digestibility of DM was enhanced in broilers fed a diet green canola (Brassica napus) biodiesel press cake (Thacker and Petri, 2009). Further, no significant difference in the DM digestibility of broilers fed vegetable waste upto 25% of basal diet (Raza et al., 2019).

Observations regarding comparable CP digestibility are in agreement with the results of the research trial which reported that there was no significant difference in digestibility of CP in broilers fed Gliricidia leaf meal upto 15% level (Ige, et al., 2006). Enhanced EE digestibility in broilers fed a diet containing sunflower cake upto 20% (Kalmendal et al., 2011). The nutrient utilization was improved in broilers fed sweet potato root meal upto 5% of basal diet (Jiwuba et al., 2016). There was a significant (P < 0.01) enhancement in nutrient digestibility of broilers fed the mixed vegetable waste-based pellets (cabbage, cauliflower leaves, broccoli leaves, lettuce, white and green mustard) upto 15%, when compared with the broilers fed a control diet. However, there was a decrease in digestibility when vegetable waste was included at 20% level in diet of birds (Fitasari and Mushollaeni, 2020). In current study, improvement in the digestibility of CF, EE and OM due to CWM feeding in straight run broilers might be due to the presence of dietary fibre which improved gizzard function and development and ultimately increased the digestive secretions such enzyme, bile acids and HCL. It boosted the gastroduodenal refluxes that enable the contact between nutrients and digestive enzymes. About 2-3% insoluble fibre is beneficial for the maintenance gut health. All these effects headed to the improvements in nutrient digestibility and growth performance (Fitasari and Mushollaeni, 2020).

The findings of present study were consistent with the results of earlier research which reported no significant difference in the nitrogen balance of broilers fed chestnut leaves extract rich in polyphenols at 0.20% (Schiavone et al., 2008). The level of nitrogen retention recorded in the current experiment was in agreement with the apparent nitrogen retention values (Römer et al., 1999). Further, similar apparent nitrogen retention in growing rabbits fed Brassica juncea upto 245g/kg of diet (Tripathi et al., 2003). In contrast to our reports, improved nitrogen retention in the pigs fed sunflower leaf meal at a 10% level, when compared with the control group (Fasuyi and Ibitayo, 2011).

The level of calcium retention recorded in the current experiment was in agreement with the apparent calcium retention (Delezie et al., 2012). In contrast to our findings, significantly lower calcium and phosphorous retention in broilers fed Tephrosia bracteolate leaf meal at a 7.5% level when compared with the control group (Akande, et al., 2007). All the experimental birds were in positive phosphorus balance. There was no significant difference in phosphorus retention between the control and different treatment group of broilers fed sugar beet meal, neem leaf meal, linseed meal, and coriander seed meal at 2.5% level (Kumari et al., 2015).

The comparable positive balance of Ca and P among the treatment groups may be attributed to the similar chemical composition of the diets and comparable nutrient digestibility across all groups of straight-run broiler birds.

Haematology and serum biochemistry

The Hb, PCV, WBC, and RBC indices in the current investigation were comparable with the control group. These results are consistent with the findings of previous study which reported no significant difference in the haematological findings of broilers fed dried cabbage upto 12% of basal diet (Adesina and Toye, 2014). The feeding of lupin and rapeseed meals did not affect the haematological parameters of the broilers (Bielecka et al., 2006). Further, no significant difference in blood indices of broiler chickens fed with diet of inclusion Anacardium occidentale leaf powder upto 4g/kg diet (Adeyemi et al., 2021). There was no significant difference in the haematological indices of birds fed a diet containing ginger and garlic at 0.25% level than birds fed the control diet (Onu, 2010). The haematology was unaffected due to the feeding of canola meal (Brassica napus) upto 17.5% in Japanese quails (Mnisi and Mlambo, 2018). However, in contrast to our reports, this study also reported that WBC and RBC values were significantly higher in botanical leaf meal supplemented groups when compared with the control group of birds (Khan et al., 2022).

The serum albumin, globulin, albumin-globulin ratio, total protein, creatinine, alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, uric acid, calcium, and phosphorus of the experimental group of birds were not affected by CWM feeding in group of birds. These results were showed similarity with the findings of research work which found that there was no significant difference in the concentration of serum AST and ALT enzymes, protein, and albumin in broilers fed black seed and peppermint, which are rich in polyphenols (Toghyani et al., 2010). Further, no significant differences in serum biochemistry of birds fed a diet containing ginger and garlic at 0.25% level than birds fed the control diet (Onu, 2010).Similar findings were also reported by studies who reported no significant difference in blood biochemistry of broilers fed vegetable waste (Raza et al., 2019).

This result is consistent with the findings of study who reported a reduced total serum cholesterol in broilers and layers supplemented with cabbage by upto 12% (Adesina and Toye, 2014). Similarly, a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in total serum cholesterol in rats fed Brassica juncea leaf meal (Lee et al., 2018). Further, significantly (P < 0.05) lower serum total cholesterol in ostrich chicks fed vegetable waste (spinach, wild leek, fenugreek, and basil) upto 30% when compared to the control group (Tasirnafas et al., 2015). The haematological and biochemical profiles remained unaffected due to CWM feeding might be due to comparable digestion and metabolism of nutrient. Morever, the lowered serum cholesterol levels observed in straight run broilers fed cauliflower waste meal may be attributed partly to the dietary fibre and bioactive phytochemicals present in cauliflower. Dietary fibre might be reduce the intestinal cholesterol absorption and increase faecal excretion of bile acids which promots the utilization of hepatic cholesterol for bile acid synthesis and contributes to lower serum cholesterol levels (Brown et al., 1999; Gunness and Gidley, 2010).It might be helpful to reduce the risk of heart-related diseases by lowering lipidaemia in broilers. The PPARα activation regulates a mechanism for decreasing tissue lipid content by stimulation of β-oxidation and which prevent lipid accumulation (Costet et al., 1998).^.

Carcass characteristics and relative organ weight

Slaughter performance is an important indicator of broiler production efficiency, and improved slaughter performance is generally associated with greater economic profits (Dieumou et al., 2009). The results of present study were comparable with the findings of earlier study which stated no significant difference in carcass traits of the broiler chickens fed diets supplemented with Anacardium occidentale leaf powder upto 4g/kg when compared with the control group (Adeyemi et al., 2021). In further support of these findings, the carcass traits were not influenced by the supplementation of ginger and garlic in broiler chickens (Onu, 2010). Again, the inclusion of dried leaves of sweet potato upto 100 g/kg DM did not affect the eviscerated carcass weight (Tamir and Tsega, 2010). Similarly, no significant difference was observed in carcass characteristics of broilers fed dried potato waste upto 25% level of basal diet (Kpanja et al., 2020).

The relative weight of the gizzard was significantly (P < 0.05) higher among the experimental group of birds fed CWM when compared with the control group. The increase in gizzard size may be attributed to a slightly higher amount of crude fibre in CWM-fed groups. This result is consistent with the study which reported that the 29-week-old leghorn pullets fed with insoluble fibre from vegetables for 14 weeks had a higher relative weight of gizzard (Hetland et al., 2003).

These findings showed similarity with the results of the study which reported that feeding of cauliflower leaf meal at 20 and 30% of concentrate did not influence carcass characteristics of goats (Bansod et al., 2024)^a. In contrast to our findings, broilers fed vegetable waste containing spinach, potato, and cauliflower at 25% had a larger weight of cut-up pieces than the control group (Raza et al., 2019). Further, the groups that were given grape seeds containing polyphenols at 10 and 20 g/kg produced more cut-up portions (Abu Hafsa and Ibrahim, 2018). The weights of drumstick with thigh and breast meat were not affected by the inclusion of dried leaves of sweet potato upto 150 g/kg DM (Tamir and Tsega, 2010).

The chemical composition of meat recorded in the current experiment were similar with the findings of study which reported that feeding grape seeds high in polyphenols at 10 and 20 gram/kg diet did not significantly affect the chemical composition of meat including DM%, CP%, EE%, and TA% (Abu Hafsa and Ibrahim, 2018). In further support of these results, the rabbits fed 30% cauliflower leaf powder (CLP) had similar nutrient composition of meat when compared with the control group (Perna et al., 2019) A comparable chemical composition of meat to the control group among the broiler chickens fed diets supplemented with Anacardium occidentale leaf powder upto 4g/kg (Adeyemi et al., 2021). The mineral content of meat was significantly lower in broilers fed vegetable waste containing alfalfa, spinach, and cauliflower (Raza et al., 2019). The higher level of TPC of meat of straight run broiler birds fed CWM in the current analysis may be due to the CWM rich in polyphenol. The result of present investigation was consistent with study which noted the significantly (P < 0.05) higher TPC of meat of rabbits fed cauliflower leaf powder at 30% than the control group (Perna et al., 2019). The phenolic compounds when provided through the diet they deposit in muscles impeding oxidative stress (Boots et al., 2011). Further, the higher phenolic content in feed will help to improve the phenolic content in pork (Flis et al., 2010). Similarly, significantly higher TPC content in meat of 20% and 30% CLM supplemented groups of rabbits (Bansod et al., 2024)^b .

The pH of rabbit meat fed cauliflower leaf powder (CLP) at 30% level did not differ significantly when compared with the control group (Perna et al., 2019). A comparable pH and WHC of meat of the broiler chickens fed diets supplemented with Anacardium occidentale leaf powder upto 4g/kg of diet (Adeyemi et al., 2021). A lower TBARS values in breast meat patties derived from broilers fed grape seed, grape skin, and pomace rich in polyphenols (Nardoia, 2018). The TBARS value of the meat of rabbit in the CLP-fed group was lower than meat of the control group (Perna et al., 2019). The rabbits supplemented with oregano essential oil had a lower TBARS value in the meat than the control group (Botsoglou, 2004). Likewise, lowered TBARS levels in meat of broiler chickens fed diets supplemented with Anacardium occidentale leaf powder upto 4g/kg (Adeyemi et al., 2021). Similarly, the lipid oxidation status of meat was significantly (P < 0.05) improved in broilers fed vegetable waste containing alfalfa, spinach, and cauliflower leaf (Raza et al., 2019). These findings are consistent with previous studies demonstrating the antioxidant potential of tea polyphenols in enhancing the oxidative stability and shelf life of meat products (Chen et al., 2024)

In case of sensory attributes, meat analysis recorded in the current experiment were consistent with findings of the previous study and reported that there was no significant difference in sensory attributes of meat of broiler chicken fed either 6.5 or 10% dehydrated cauliflower leaf meal in the diet (Livingston et al., 1972). Similar findings were reported no significant difference in organoleptic properties of fresh broiler chicken meat fed Moringa olefera and neem leaf meal when compared with the control group (Aiyedun, 2020).

Cost economics

The cost of feed per kilogram of live weight (Rs.) and the dressed weight was significantly (P < 0.05) lower in the T5 & T6 group of birds as compared to the control group. These findings were supported by studies of many other researchers who replaced conventional feed ingredients with other unconventional feed resources. The rapeseed meal inclusion in broilers diet at a 28% level significantly (P < 0.05) reduced the feed cost when compared with the control diet (Tadelle et al., 2003). Further, the net revenue for goat production reduced along with the feed cost when the wheat bran was partially replaced with the cauliflower leaf meal (CLM) in goat’s diets and saving of Rs 28.07 in CLM fed group (Bansod et al., 2025).

Conclusion

It is therefore concluded that CWM can be included in the straight run broiler chicken diets upto 15% level as it has no untoward effect on feed intake, ADG, FCR, haemato-biochemical profile, carcass traits, and cut-up parts as compared to the control concentrate. Moreover, the feeding of the CWM in concentrate mixture significantly improved the digestibility (%) of DM, EE & CF, and reduced production cost while maintaining health and productive performance of broiler production.

It is further inferred that the inclusion of cauliflower waste in broiler production would be useful and effective way for management of waste from vegetable.

Disclosures

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Author Contributions

Mahesh Theerthesh: He made substantial contributions to the analysis and interpretation of the data and to the overall conduct of the study. He prepared the initial manuscript draft and contributed to its critical revision for important intellectual content. He reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to be personally and publicly accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions concerning the accuracy or integrity of the research are appropriately investigated and resolved. Ashvini Pundalik Bansod: She made substantial contributions to the conception and design of the study, as well as to the organization and curation of the data. She critically reviewed and revised the manuscript for important intellectual content. She reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to be personally and publicly accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions concerning the accuracy or integrity of the research are appropriately investigated and resolved. Subodh Kumar Saha: He made substantial contributions to the conception and design of the study, development of the methodology, and acquisition and organization of the study data. He critically reviewed the manuscript for important intellectual content. He reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to be personally and publicly accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions concerning the accuracy or integrity of the research are appropriately investigated and resolved. Avishek Biswas: He made substantial contributions to the investigation and acquisition of resources required for the study and contributed to validation of the research findings. He critically reviewed the manuscript for important intellectual content. He reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to be personally and publicly accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions concerning the accuracy or integrity of the research are appropriately investigated and resolved. Gautham Kolluri: He made substantial contributions through provision of resources and support for the study and through supervision of the research. He critically reviewed the manuscript for important intellectual content. He reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to be personally and publicly accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions concerning the accuracy or integrity of the research are appropriately investigated and resolved. Rajeshwar Khandare: He made substantial contributions to the investigation and acquisition of resources and contributed to validation of the research findings. He also provided supervision during the conduct of the study. He critically reviewed the manuscript for important intellectual content. He reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to be personally and publicly accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions concerning the accuracy or integrity of the research are appropriately investigated and resolved. Trishna Das: She made substantial contributions to the investigation and analysis of the study data and contributed to validation of the research findings. She provided supervision during the conduct of the study and critically reviewed the manuscript for important intellectual content. She reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to be personally and publicly accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions concerning the accuracy or integrity of the research are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Biographies

Mahesh Theerthesh: He made substantial contributions to the analysis and interpretation of the data and to the overall conduct of the study. He prepared the initial manuscript draft and contributed to its critical revision for important intellectual content. He reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to be personally and publicly accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions concerning the accuracy or integrity of the research are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Ashvini Pundalik Bansod: She made substantial contributions to the conception and design of the study, as well as to the organization and curation of the data. She critically reviewed and revised the manuscript for important intellectual content. She reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to be personally and publicly accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions concerning the accuracy or integrity of the research are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Subodh Kumar Saha: He made substantial contributions to the conception and design of the study, development of the methodology, and acquisition and organization of the study data. He critically reviewed the manuscript for important intellectual content. He reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to be personally and publicly accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions concerning the accuracy or integrity of the research are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Avishek Biswas: He made substantial contributions to the investigation and acquisition of resources required for the study and contributed to validation of the research findings. He critically reviewed the manuscript for important intellectual content. He reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to be personally and publicly accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions concerning the accuracy or integrity of the research are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Gautham Kolluri: He made substantial contributions through provision of resources and support for the study and through supervision of the research. He critically reviewed the manuscript for important intellectual content. He reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to be personally and publicly accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions concerning the accuracy or integrity of the research are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Rajeshwar Khandare: He made substantial contributions to the investigation and acquisition of resources and contributed to validation of the research findings. He also provided supervision during the conduct of the study. He critically reviewed the manuscript for important intellectual content. He reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to be personally and publicly accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions concerning the accuracy or integrity of the research are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Trishna Das: She made substantial contributions to the investigation and analysis of the study data and contributed to validation of the research findings. She provided supervision during the conduct of the study and critically reviewed the manuscript for important intellectual content. She reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript and agrees to be personally and publicly accountable for all aspects of the work, including ensuring that questions concerning the accuracy or integrity of the research are appropriately investigated and resolved.